1960s
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'''The 1960s''' [[list of decades|decade]] refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969.The term also refers to an era more often called '''The Sixties''', denoting the complex of inter-related cultural and political trends which occurred roughly during the years 1956–1974 in the west, particularly [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]], and [[Germany|West Germany]]. Social and political upheaval was not limited to these countries, but included such nations as [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], and others. In the United States, The Sixties as they are known in popular culture today lasted from about 1963 to 1973. The term is used descriptively by historians, journalists, and other objective academics; nostalgically by those who participated in the counter-culture and social revolution; and pejoratively by those who perceive the era as one of irresponsible excess and flamboyance. The decade was also labeled the [[Swinging London|Swinging Sixties]] because of the libertine attitudes that emerged during this decade. Rampant drug use has become inextricably associated with the counter-culture of the era, as [[Jefferson Airplane]] co-founder [[Paul Kantner]] mentions: "If you can remember anything about the sixties, you weren't really there."'''
The 1960s have become [[synonym]]ous with all the new, exciting, radical, and subversive events and trends of the period, which continued to develop in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and beyond. In Africa the 1960s was a period of radical political change as countries gained independence from their European colonial rulers, only for this rule to be replaced in many cases by civil war or corrupt dictatorships.
Some commentators<ref>[[Christopher Booker]]: The Neophiliacs: A Study of the Revolution in English Life In The Fifties and Sixties, Gambit Incorporated, London, 1970</ref> have seen in this era a classical Jungian nightmare cycle as a rigid culture, unable to contain the demands for greater individual freedom, broke free of the social constraints of the previous age through extreme deviation from the norm. Booker charts the rise, success, fall/nightmare and explosion in the London scene of the 1960s. This does not alone however explain the mass nature of the phenomenon.
Several Western governments turned to the [[Left-wing politics|left]] in the early 1960s. In the United States President [[John F. Kennedy]] was elected as president. Italy formed its first left-of-centre government in March 1962 with a coalition of Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, and moderate Republicans. Socialists joined the ruling block in December 1963. In Britain, the Labour Party gained power in 1964.<ref>Arthur Marwick, ''The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, Israel, Italy, India, South Korea, Pen Island, and the United States, c.1958-c.1974'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 247-248.</ref>
==Assassinations==
The 1960s were marked by several notable assassinations.
* The Prime Minister of the [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]], [[Patrice Lumumba]], was assassinated by Belgian/Congolese firing squad on [[January 17]], [[1961]].
* [[Medgar Evers]], a [[NAACP]] field secretary, was assassinated by a [[Ku Klux Klan]] member on [[June 12]], [[1963]].
* Vietnamese president [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] (Ngô Ðình Diệm) was assassinated in the back of an APC [[November 2]], [[1963]].
* US President [[John F. Kennedy]] was assassinated on [[November 22]], [[1963]] in his car during a parade, [[JFK assassination]] for more details.
* [[Malcolm X]] was assassinated on [[February 21]], [[1965]]
* [[Civil rights]] leader [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was assassinated on [[April 4]], [[1968]].
* Senator [[Robert F. Kennedy]] was assassinated on [[June 6]], [[1968]].
* Social activist and deputy chairman of the [[Illinois]] chapter of the [[Black Panther Party]] (BPP), [[Fred Hampton]], was assassinated in [[December]], 1969.
==Social and political movements==
===Counterculture/social revolution===
Younger generations soon began to rebel against the conservative norms of the time, as well as disassociate themselves from mainstream liberalism, in particular they turned away from the high levels of materialism which was so common during the era. This created a counter-culture that eventually turned into a social revolution throughout much of the western world. It began in the United States as a reaction against the conservative social norms and stasis of the 1950s, the political conservatism (and social repression) of the Cold War period, and the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam. The more social/cultural youth from the movement were called [[hippies]]. Together they created a new liberated stance for society, including the [[sexual revolution]], questioning authority and government, and demanding more freedoms and rights for women, homosexuals, and minorities. The [[Underground Press]], a wide-spread, eclectic collection of underground newspapers served as a unifying factor for the counterculture. The movement was marked by drug use (including [[LSD]] and [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]) and [[psychedelic]] music.
===Anti-war movement===
A mass movement began rising in opposition to the [[Vietnam War]], ending in the massive [[Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam|Moratorium]] protests in 1969, and also the movement of resistance to [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] (“the Draft”) for the war. The [[antiwar movement]] was initially based on the older 1950s [[Peace movement]] heavily influenced by the [[Communist Party USA|American Communist Party]], but by the mid-1960s it outgrew this and became a broad-based mass movement centered on the universities and churches: one kind of protest was called a "''[[sit-in]]''." Other terms heard nationally included ''[[the Draft]]'', ''[[draft dodger]]'', ''[[conscientious objector]]'', and ''[[Vietnam veteran|Vietnam vet]]''. [[Voting|Voter]] age-limits were challenged by the phrase: "If you're old enough to die for your country, you're old enough to vote." Many of the youth involved in the politics of the movements distanced themselves from the "hippies".
The most well-known anti-war demonstration was the [[Kent State shootings]]. In 1970, university students were protesting the war and the draft. Riots ensued during the weekend and the National Guard was called into maintain the peace. However, by Monday, tensions arose again, and as the crowd grew larger, the National Guard started shooting. Four students were dead and nine injured. This event caused disbelief and shock throughout the country and became a staple of anti-Vietnam demonstrations.
===Civil rights===
Much of the political movements and the people participating in them came from the civil rights struggle in the south in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Blacks began to challenge segregation in the south through various means, such as, boycotts, freedom rides, sit-ins, law suits and registering blacks to vote. Stimulated by this movement, but growing beyond it, were large numbers of student-age youth, beginning with the [[Free Speech Movement]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1964, peaking in the riots at the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Chicago]] and reaching a climax with the shootings at [[Kent State University]] in 1970, which some claimed as proof that ''"police brutality"'' was rampant. The terms were: ''"[[The Establishment]]"'' referring to traditional management/government, and ''"pigs"'' referring to police using excessive force.
===Chicano Movement===
Socially, the Chicano Movement addressed what it perceived to be negative [[ethnic stereotype]] of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness. It did so through the creation of works of literary and visual art that validated the Mexican-American ethnicity and culture.
The Chicano Movement also addressed discrimination in public and private institutions. Early in the twentieth century, Mexican Americans formed organizations to protect themselves from discrimination. One of those organizations, the [[League of United Latin American Citizens]], was formed in 1929 and remains active today.<ref>[http://www.lulac.org/about/history.html History | LULAC-League of United Latin American Citizens<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The movement gained momentum after [[World War II]] when groups such as the [[American G.I. Forum]], which was formed by returning Mexican American veterans, joined in the efforts by other civil rights organizations.<ref>[http://www.americangiforum.org/about.cfm American GI Forum - About Us<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Mexican American civil rights activists achieved several major legal victories including the 1947 [[Mendez v. Westminster]] [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling which declared that segregating children of "Mexican and Latin descent" was unconstitutional and the 1954 [[Hernandez v. Texas]] ruling which declared that Mexican Americans and other racial groups in the United States were entitled to equal protection under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]].<ref>[http://www.latinola.com/story.php?story=432 LatinoLA - Latino Hollywood - On Screen and Behind the Scenes<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.oyez.org/cases/1950-1959/1953/1953_406/ Oyez: Hernandez v. Texas, 347 U.S. 475 (1954), U.S. Supreme Court Case Summary & Oral Argument<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The most prominent civil rights organization in the Mexican-American community is the [[Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund]] (MALDEF), founded in 1968.<ref>[http://www.maldef.org/about/index.htm MALDEF - About Us<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Although modeled after the [[NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund]], MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of other organizations, including political advocacy and training of local leaders.
===New Left===
The rapid rise of a "[[New Left]]" applied the class perspective of [[Marxism]] to postwar America, but had little organizational connection with older Marxist organizations such as the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]], and even went as far as to reject organized labor as the basis of a unified left-wing movement. The New Left differed from the traditional left in its resistance to dogma and its emphasis on personal as well as societal change. [[SDS]] ([[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]]) became the organizational focus of the New Left and was the prime mover behind the opposition to the War in Vietnam. The sixties left also consisted of ephemeral campus-based [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]], [[Maoism|Maoist]] and [[anarchism|anarchist]] groups, some of which by the end of the 1960s had turned to [[Militant|militancy]].
==Technology==
The [[Soviet Union]] and the United States were involved in the [[space race]]. This led to an increase in spending on science and technology during this period. The space race heated up when Soviet [[Astronaut|cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] orbited the Earth and President Kennedy announced [[Project Apollo]] in 1961. The Soviets and Americans were then involved in a race to put a man on the Moon before the decade was over. America won the race when it placed the first men on the Moon: [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]], in July 1969.
American automobiles evolved through the stream-lined, [[Jet aircraft|jet]]-inspired designs for sports cars such as the [[Pontiac GTO]] and the [[Plymouth Barracuda]], [[Ford Mustang]], and the [[Chevrolet Corvette]].
* 1960 - The female birth control contraceptive, [[Combined oral contraceptive pill|the pill]], was released
* 1960 - The first working [[laser]] was demonstrated in May by [[Theodore Maiman]] at [[Hughes Research Laboratories]].
* 1961 - First human spaceflight to orbit the Earth: [[Yuri Gagarin]], [[Vostok 1]].
* 1962 - First trans-Atlantic satellite broadcast via the [[Telstar]] satellite.
* 1962 - The first computer video game, [[Spacewar!]], is invented.
* 1963 - The first [[Geosynchronous satellite|geosynchronous communications satellite]], '''[[Syncom#Syncom2|Syncom 2]]''' is launched.
* 1963 - [[Touch-Tone]] telephones introduced.
* 1964 - The first successful [[Minicomputer]], [[Digital Equipment Corporation]]’s 12-bit [[PDP-8]], is marketed.
* 1964 - The [[programming language]] [[BASIC]] was created.
* 1965 - [[Sony]] markets the [[CV-2000]], the first home video tape recorder.
* 1966 - The Soviet Union launches ''[[Luna 10]]'', which later becomes the first [[space probe]] to enter orbit around the [[Moon]].
* 1967 - First [[heart transplantation]] operation.
* 1967 - [[PAL]] and [[SECAM]] broadcast color TV systems start publicly transmitting in Europe.
* 1967 - The first [[minibank]] is opened in [[Barclays Bank]], [[London]].
* 1968 - First humans to leave Earth's gravity influence and orbit another world: [[Apollo 8]].
* 1968 - The [[The Mother of All Demos|first public demonstration]] of the [[computer mouse]], the [[paper paradigm]] [[Graphical user interface]], [[video conference|video conferencing]], [[teleconference|teleconferencing]], [[email]], and [[hypertext]].
* 1969 - [[Arpanet]], the research-oriented prototype of the [[Internet]], was introduced.
* 1969 - First humans to walk on the Moon: [[Apollo 11]].
* 1969 - [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] invented at AT&T [[Bell Labs]], used as the electronic imager in still and video cameras.
==Popular culture==
The overlapping, but somewhat different, movement of youth cultural radicalism was manifested by the [[hippies]] and the [[counter-culture]], whose emblematic moments were the [[Summer of Love]] in [[San Francisco]] in 1967 and the [[Woodstock festival|Woodstock]] Festival in 1969. The sub-culture, associated with this movement, spread the recreational use of [[cannabis]] and other drugs, particularly new semi-synthetic drugs such as [[LSD]]. The era heralded the rejection and a reformation by [[hippies]] of traditional Christian notions on spirituality, leading to the widespread introduction of Eastern and ethnic religious thinking to western values and concepts concerning one's religious and [[spirituality|spiritual]] development.
[[Psychedelic drugs]], especially [[LSD]], were popularly used medicinally, spiritually and recreationally throughout the 1960s. [[Psychedelic]] influenced the music, artwork and movies of the decade.
===Music===
Popular music entered an era of "all hits", as numerous artists released recordings, beginning in the 1950s, as [[phonograph record|45-rpm]] "singles" (with another on the [[B-side|flip side]]), and [[radio station]]s tended to play only the most popular of the wide variety of records being made. Also, bands tended to record only the best of their songs as a chance to become a hit record. The developments of the ''[[Motown Sound]]'', ''"[[folk rock]]"'' and the ''[[British Invasion]]'' of bands from the [[U.K.]] ([[The Beatles]], [[The Dave Clark Five]], [[The Rolling Stones]] [[British Invasion|and so on]]), are major examples of American listeners expanding from the [[folksinger]], [[doo-wop]] and [[saxophone]] sounds of the 1950s and evolving to include [[psychedelic]] music.
The rise of the [[counterculture]], particularly among the youth, created a huge market for [[Rock and roll|rock]], [[soul (music)|soul]], [[pop music|pop]] and [[blues]] music produced by drug-culture, influenced bands such as [[The Beatles]], [[The Doors]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Cream (band)|Cream]], [[The Grateful Dead]], [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[The Who]], [[Sly and the Family Stone]], [[Jimi Hendrix Experience]], and [[The Incredible String Band]], also for radical music in the [[folk music|folk]] tradition pioneered by [[Bob Dylan]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and [[Joan Baez]] in the United States, and in England, [[Donovan]] was helping to create folk rock.
Significant events in music in the 1960s:
*[[Motown Records|Motown Record Corporation]] founded in 1960. Its first [[Top 40|Top Ten]] hit was "[[Shop Around]]" by the Miracles in 1960. "Shop Around" peaked at number-two on the [[Billboard Hot 100]], and was Motown's first million-selling record.
*[[The Marvelettes]] scored Motown Record Corporation's first US #1 pop hit, "[[Please Mr. Postman]]" in 1961. Motown would score 110 Billboard Top-Ten hits during its run.
*[[The Seekers]] are the first Australian Group to have a number one with "Georgy Girl" in 1966.
*[[The Four Seasons (group)|The Four Seasons]] released 4 straight number 1s
*The [[Beatles]] went to America in 1964, spearheading the first [[British Invasion]].
*[[The Supremes]] scored twelve number one hit singles between 1964 and 1969, beginning with [[Where Did Our Love Go]].
*[[Bob Dylan#Dylan goes electric|Bob Dylan]] goes [[Electric Dylan controversy|electric]] at the 1965 [[Newport Folk Festival]].
*[[The Beach Boys]] release ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' in 1966, ushering in the era of album-orientated rock.
*[[Bob Dylan]] is called "Judas" by an audience member during the legendary [[Electric Dylan controversy#Aftermath|Manchester]] [[Free Trade Hall|Free Trade Hall concert]], the start of the [[Bootleg recording]] industry follows, with recordings of this concert circulating for 30 years – wrongly labeled as – ''The Royal Albert Hall Concert'' before a legitimate release in 1998 as'' [[The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The "Royal Albert Hall" Concert]].''
*In February 1966, Nancy Sinatra's song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" became very popular.
* In 1966, ''[[The Supremes A' Go-Go]]'' was the first album by a female group to reach the top position of the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' magazine pop albums chart]] in the United States.
*[[Jefferson Airplane]] release the influential [[Surrealistic Pillow]] in 1967.
*[[The Velvet Underground]] release their influential self-titled debut album''[[The Velvet Underground and Nico]]'' in 1967.
*[[The Doors]] release their self-tilted debut album ''[[The Doors (album)|The Doors]]''.
*[[Love]] release their masterpiece '' [[Forever Changes]]'' in 1967.
*[[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]] release two successful albums during 1967 ''[[Are You Experienced (album)|Are You Experienced]]'' and ''[[Axis: Bold as Love]]'' that innovate both guitar, trio and recording techniques.
*[[The Beatles]] release the seminal [[concept album]] ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' in June 1967.
*[[The Moody Blues]] release the album ''[[Days of Future Passed]]'' in November 1967.
*[[Pink Floyd]] releases their debut record ''[[The Piper at the Gates of Dawn]]''.
*[[Bob Dylan]] releases the [[Country Rock]] album ''[[John Wesley Harding (album)|John Wesley Harding]]'' in December 1967.
*[[The Bee Gees]] release their international debut album ''[[Bee Gees 1st]]'' in July, 1967 which contains the pop standard [[To Love Somebody (song)|To Love Somebody]].
*The [[Monterey Pop Festival]] in 1967 was the apex of the so-called "[[Summer of Love]]".
* [[Johnny Cash]] releases ''[[At Folsom Prison]]'' in 1968
*After [[The Yardbirds]] had folded, Jimmy Page and manager [[Peter Grant (music manager)|Peter Grant]], met with [[Robert Plant]] and they together with [[John Bonham]] and [[John Paul Jones (musician)|John Paul Jones]] called themselves [[Led Zeppelin]] and released their début album ''[[Led Zeppelin (album)|Led Zeppelin]]''.
*[[The Band]] releases the [[roots rock]] album ''[[Music from Big Pink]]'' in 1968.
*[[Big Brother and the Holding Company]], with [[Janis Joplin]] as lead singer, becomes an overnight sensation after their performance at Monterey Pop in 1967 and release their massively successful second album [[Cheap Thrills]] in 1968.
*[[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]] release the highly influential double LP ''[[Electric Ladyland]]'' in 1968 that furthered the guitar and studio innovations of the previous two albums.
*[[Sly and the Family Stone]] revolutionize black music with their massive 1968 hit single [[Dance to the Music]] and by 1969 became international sensations with the release of their phenomenal hit record [[Stand!]]. The band cemented their position as a vital counterculture band when they performed at the [[Woodstock Festival]].
*[[The Rolling Stones]] film the TV special ''[[Rock and Roll Circus]]'' in December 1968 which was never broadcast during its contemporary time. Considered for decades as a fabled 'lost' performance until released in North America on [[Laserdisc]] and [[VHS]] in 1995. Features performances from [[The Who]]; [[The Dirty Mac]] featuring [[John Lennon]], [[Eric Clapton]] and [[Mitch Mitchell]]; [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]] and [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]].
*[[The Who]] release and tour the first rock opera ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy]]'' in 1969.
*Proto-punk band [[MC5]] release the live album ''[[Kick Out The Jams]]'' in 1969.
*[[Captain Beefheart and his Magic Band]] release the [[avant garde]] ''[[Trout Mask Replica]]'' in 1969.
*[[The Stooges]] release their debut album in 1969.
*[[The Flying Burrito Brothers]] release their influential debut ''[[The Gilded Palace Of Sin]]'' in 1969.
*The [[Woodstock Festival]], and four months later, the [[Altamont Free Concert]] in 1969.
===Film===
{{see also|History of film#1960s|1960s in film}}
Popular American movies of the 1960s include ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'', ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'', ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird (film)|To Kill a Mockingbird]], [[My Fair Lady]], [[The Pink Panther]], [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]; [[The Sound of Music]]; [[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]], [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]; [[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]; [[Cool Hand Luke]]; [[The Graduate]]; [[Rosemary's Baby (film)|Rosemary's Baby]]; [[Midnight Cowboy]]; [[Head (film)|Head]]; [[Medium Cool]]; [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]; [[Easy Rider]].''
The Counterculture Revolution had a big effect on [[film|cinema]]. Movies began to break social taboos such as [[sex]] and [[violence]] causing both controversy and fascination. They turned increasingly dramatic, unbalanced, and hectic as the cultural revolution was starting. This was the beginning of the [[New Hollywood]] era that dominated the next decade in theatres and revolutionized the movie industry. Films such as [[Arthur Penn]]'s ''[[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]'' (''1967''), [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (''1968''), and [[Roman Polanski]]'s ''[[Rosemary's Baby (film)]]'' (''1968'') are examples of this new, edgy direction. Films of this time also focused on the changes happening in the world. [[Dennis Hopper]]'s ''[[Easy Rider]]'' (''1969'') focused on the drug culture of the time. Movies also became more sexually explicit, such as [[Roger Vadim]]'s'' [[Barbarella (film)|Barbarella]]'' (''1968'') as the [[counterculture]] progressed.
In Europe, [[Art Cinema]] gains wider distribution and sees movements like [[French New Wave|la Nouvelle Vague]] (The French New Wave); [[Cinéma Vérité]] documentary movement in Canada, France and the United States; and the high-point of Italian filmmaking with [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Federico Fellini]] and [[Pier Paulo Pasolini]] making some of their most known films during this period. Notable films from this period include: ''[[8½]]''; ''[[L'avventura]]''; ''[[La notte]]''; ''[[Blowup]]''; ''[[Satyricon (film)|Satyricon]]''; ''[[Accattone]]''; ''[[The Gospel According to St. Matthew (film)|The Gospel According to St. Matthew]]''; ''[[Theorem (film)|Theorem]]''; ''[[Breathless (1960 film)|Breathless]]'';''[[Vivre sa vie (film)|Vivre sa vie]]''; ''[[Contempt (film)|Contempt]]''; ''[[Bande à part]]''; ''[[Alphaville (film)|Alphaville]]''; ''[[Pierrot le fou]]''; ''[[Week End]]''; ''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]''; ''[[Jules and Jim]]''; ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (1966 film)|Fahrenheit 451]]'';''[[Last Year at Marienbad]]'';''[[Dont Look Back]]''; ''[[Chronique d'un été]]''; ''[[Titicut Follies]]''; ''[[High School (film)|High School]]''; ''[[Salesman (film)|Salesman]]''; ''[[La Jetée]]''; ''[[Warrendale]]''
The sixties were about experimentation. With the explosion of light-weight and affordable cameras, the underground [[Experimental film#The New American Cinema and Structural-Materialism|avant-garde film]] movement thrived. Canada's [[Michael Snow]], Americans [[Kenneth Anger]]. [[Stan Brakhage]], [[Andy Warhol]], and [[Jack Smith (film director)|Jack Smith]]. Notable films in this genre are: ''[[Dog Star Man]]''; ''[[Scorpio Rising (film)|Scorpio Rising]]''; ''[[Wavelength (1967 film)|Wavelength]]''; ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'';''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]''; ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|Vinyl]]''; ''[[Flaming Creatures]]''.
Significant events in the film industry in the 1960s:
*Removal of the [[Motion Picture Association of America]]'s [[Production Code]] in 1967.
*The decline and end of the [[Studio system|Studio System]].
*The rise of '[[art house]]' films and theaters.
* The beginning of the [[New Hollywood]] Era due to the counterculture.
*The rise of independent producers that worked outside of the Studio System.
*Move to all-color production in Hollywood movies.
*The invention of the [[Nagra]] 1/4", sync-sound, portable open-reel tape deck.
*[[Expo 67]] where new film formats like [[Imax]] were invented and new ways of displaying film were tested.
*Flat-bed film editing tables appear, like the [[Steenbeck]], they eventually replace the [[Moviola]] editing platform.
*The [[French New Wave]].
*[[Direct Cinema]] and [[Cinéma vérité]] documentaries....
===Music and Film===
The marriage of music and movies keeps the spirit of the sixties alive today. Movies about the era are incredibly popular. The Vietnam War is the topic most often considered, with movies like ''[[Apocalypse Now]]''; ''[[Platoon (film)|Platoon]]''; and ''[[Born on the Fourth of July (film)|Born on the Fourth of July]]''. The influence of the counterculture and Civil Rights is common as well, as seen in movies like ''[[Across the Universe (film)|Across the Universe]]''; ''[[Forrest Gump (film)|Forrest Gump]]''; and ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]''. The subject material of sixties movies is coupled with, and improved by, the music of the era. The integration of the music into a movie makes it seem more realistic and true to the time period.
==International issues==
===In Africa===
The transformation of Africa from [[colonialism]] to [[independence]] in what is known as the [[decolonisation of Africa]] dramatically accelerated during the decade, with 32 new countries declaring independence between 1960 and 1968.
===In Canada===
*Canada celebrated its 100th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1967 by hosting [[Expo 67]], the World's Fair, in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]].
* The [[Quiet Revolution]] in Quebec altered the province into a more secular society. The [[Jean Lesage]] [[Quebec Liberal Party|Liberal]] government created a [[welfare state]] (''État-Providence'') and fermented the rise of active [[nationalism]] among [[Francophone]] [[Québécois]].
* On [[February 15]], [[1965]], Canada got the new [[Flag of Canada|maple leaf flag]], after much acrimonious debate known as the [[Great Flag Debate]].
* In 1960, The [[Canadian Bill of Rights]] becomes law, and Universal Suffrage, the right for any Canadian citizen to vote, is finally adopted{{Fact|date=June 2008}} by [[John Diefenbaker]]'s [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] government. The new election act allows [[first nations]] people to vote for the first time.
===In China===
In the [[People's Republic of China]] the mid-1960s were also a time of massive upheaval and the [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guard]] rampages of [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[Cultural Revolution]] had some superficial resemblances to the student protests in the West. The [[Maoist]] groups that briefly flourished in the West in this period saw in Chinese Communism a more revolutionary, less bureaucratic, model of [[socialism]]. Most of them were rapidly disillusioned when Mao welcomed [[Richard Nixon]] to China in 1972. People both in China and America, however, saw the [[Nixon visit to China 1972|Nixon visit]] as a victory in the relationship between US and China(this was the Party stance on the visit in late 1971 and early 1972).
===In the Commonwealth===
[[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] committed troops to the Vietnam war with controversy and war protests. Canada celebrated its 100th anniversary of confederation in 1967 by hosting [[Expo 67]], the World's Fair, in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]].
===In Europe===
* [[British Prime Minister]] [[Harold Macmillan]] delivers his [[Wind of Change speech]] in 1960.
* [[Pope John XXIII]] calls the [[Second Vatican Council]] of the [[Catholic Church]], continued by [[Pope Paul VI]], which met from Oct. 11, 1962 until Dec. 8, 1965.
* The May 1968 student and worker uprisings in France.
* Mass socialist or Communist movement in most European countries (particularly France and Italy), with which the student-based new left was able to forge a connection. The most spectacular manifestation of this was the [[May 1968|May]] student revolt of 1968 in Paris that linked up with a general strike of ten million workers called by the trade unions;and for a few days seemed capable of overthrowing the government of [[Charles de Gaulle]]. De Gaulle went off to visit French troops in Germany to check on their loyalty. Major concessions were won for trade union rights, higher minimum wages and better working conditions.
* University students protested in their hundreds of thousands in [[London]], [[Paris]], [[Berlin]] and [[Rome]] with the huge crowds that protested against the [[Vietnam War]].
====In Eastern Europe====
In Eastern Europe students also drew inspiration from the protests in the West. In [[Poland]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] they protested against restrictions on free speech by [[Communist]] regimes.
In [[Czechoslovakia]] 1968 was the year of [[Alexander Dubček]]’s [[Prague Spring]], a source of inspiration to many Western leftists who admired Dubček's "socialism with a human face". The [[Warsaw Pact]] invasion of Czechoslovakia in August ended these hopes and also fatally damaged the chances of the orthodox [[communist party|communist parties]] drawing many recruits from the student protest movement.
===In Mexico===
The peak of the student and [[New Left]] protests in 1968 coincided with political upheavals in a number of other countries. Although these events often sprung from completely different causes, they were influenced by reports and images of what was happening in the United States and France.
Students in [[Mexico City]] protested against the authoritarian regime of [[Gustavo Díaz Ordaz]]: in the resulting [[Tlatelolco massacre]] in which hundreds were killed.
* The [[October 2]], [[1968]] [[Tlatelolco Massacre]] in Mexico City, of student protesters and uninvolved bystanders, by the Mexican military and police.
===In the Middle East===
*Military troops from [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], and [[Jordan]] amass at Israeli borders in May and June 1967. [[Israeli Defense Forces]] launch a [[pre-emptive attack]] on June 5th, 1967 capturing the [[Golan Heights]], [[West Bank]], [[Sinai Peninsula]], and [[Gaza Strip]], culminating in the [[Six Day War]].
===In South America===
*The [[Argentinian]] revolutionary [[Che Guevara|Ernesto "Che" Guevara]] travelled to Africa and then [[Bolivia]] in his campaigning to spread worldwide revolution. He was killed in 1967 by Bolivian government forces, but in the process became an iconic figure for the student left.
*[[Velasco Alvarado]] took the power of Peru in the year 1968.
===In the United States===
* President [[John F. Kennedy]] and Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] take office in 1961; Kennedy establishes the [[Peace Corps]].
* Substantial (approximately 700), American forces first arrive in [[Vietnam]] in 1961.
* 1963 - After Kennedy's assassination, [[Lyndon Johnson]] becomes president, and presses [[civil rights]] legislation; college attendance soars. After the [[Gulf of Tonkin incident]], the [[Vietnam War]] escalates. After 1966 with the draft in place more than 500,000 troops are sent to [[Vietnam]] by the Johnson administration.
* U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] is inaugurated in January 1969; promises "peace with honor" to end the [[Vietnam War]]; price [[inflation]] soars; Nixon imposes [[wage and price controls]].
* 1963 - Martin Luther King's,"[[I Have a Dream]]" speech in Washington D.C.
* 1965- The Assassination of Malcolm X
* 1968- The Assassination of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy
==People==
=== Artists, intellectuals, political figures, writers and the rest===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
====Artists in the media====
* [[Muhammad Ali]]
* [[Woody Allen]]
* [[Audrey Hepburn]]
* [[Julie Andrews]]
* [[Michelangelo Antonioni]]
* [[Joan Baez]]
* [[Brigitte Bardot]]
* [[Syd Barrett]]
* [[Artur Barrio]]
* [[Harry Belafonte]]
* [[Ingmar Bergman]]
* [[Stan Brakhage]]
* [[Lenny Bruce]]
* [[Johnny Cash]]
* [[Mama Cass]]
* [[Claude Chabrol]]
* [[Eric Clapton]]
* [[Leonard Cohen]]
* [[Clay Cole]]
* [[Judy Collins]]
* [[John Coltrane]]
* [[Sam Cooke]]
* [[David Crosby]]
* [[Miles Davis]]
* [[Donovan]]
* [[Bob Dylan]]
* [[Jane Fonda]]
* [[Federico Fellini]]
* [[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]]
* [[Jerry Garcia]]
* [[Jean-Luc Godard]]
* [[George Harrison]]
* [[Jimi Hendrix]]
* [[Mick Jagger]]
* [[Brian Jones]]
* [[Janis Joplin]]
* [[Judith Durham]]
* [[Allan King]]
* [[Freddie King]]
* [[Kris Kristofferson]]
* [[Stanley Kubrick]]
* [[Richard Leacock]]
* [[John Lennon]]
* [[Phil Lesh]]
* [[Louis Malle]]
* [[Albert and David Maysles]]
* [[Paul McCartney]]
* [[Joni Mitchell]]
* [[Elizabeth Montgomery]]
* [[Jeanne Moreau]]
* [[Jim Morrison]]
* [[Van Morrison]]
* [[Odetta]]
* [[Yoko Ono]]
* [[Jimmy Page]]
* [[D. A. Pennebaker]]
* [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
* [[John Phillips]]
* [[Roman Polanski]]
* [[Elvis Presley]]
* [[Lou Reed]]
* [[Alain Resnais]]
* [[Keith Richards]]
* [[Dick Rivers]]
* [[Jacques Rivette]]
* [[Éric Rohmer]]
* [[George Romero]]
* [[Diana Ross]]
* [[Jean Rouch]]
* [[Mort Sahl]]
* [[Pete Seeger]]
* [[Peter Sellers]]
* [[Jean Shepherd]]
* [[Grace Slick]]
* [[Ringo Starr]]
* [[Steven Stills]]
* [[Sly Stone]]
* [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]
* [[François Truffaut]]
* [[Bob Weir]]
* [[Brian Wilson]]
* [[Frederick Wiseman]]
* [[Neil Young]]
* [[Frank Zappa]]
====Intellectuals====
* [[Richard Alpert]] aka [[Baba Ram Dass]]
* [[Louis Althusser]]
* [[Roland Barthes]]
* [[Simone de Beauvoir]]
* [[William F. Buckley]]
* [[Rachel Carson]]
* [[Noam Chomsky]]
* [[Jacques Derrida]]
* [[Michel Foucault]]
* [[Betty Friedan]]
* [[Milton Friedman]]
* [[Allen Ginsberg]]
* [[Václav Havel]]
* [[Jane Jacobs]]
* [[Ken Kesey]]
* [[Timothy Leary]]
* [[Norman Mailer]]
* [[Marshall McLuhan]]
* [[Arthur Miller]]
* [[Michael Novak]]
* [[Bertrand Russell]]
* [[Carl Sagan]]
* [[J.D. Salinger]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[Susan Sontag]]
* [[Hunter S. Thompson]]
* [[Alan Watts]]
* [[Tom Wolfe]]
{{col-2}}
====Political figures====
* [[Konrad Adenauer]]
* [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]]
* [[Willy Brandt]]
* [[Leonid Brezhnev]]
* [[Fidel Castro]]
* [[Cesar Chavez]]
* [[Tommie Smith]]
* [[John Carlos]]
* [[John Diefenbaker]]
* [[Tommy Douglas]]
* [[Alexander Dubček]]
* [[Moshe Dayan]]
* [[Abba Eban]]
* [[Zhou Enlai]]
* [[Levi Eshkol]]
* [[Gerald Ford]]
* [[Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[Barry Goldwater]]
* [[Andrei Gromyko]]
* [[David Ben-Gurion]]
* [[Dag Hammarskjöld]]
* [[Abbie Hoffman]]
* [[J. Edgar Hoover]]
* [[Hubert Humphrey]]
* [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
* [[John F. Kennedy]]
* [[Robert F. Kennedy]]
* [[Patrice Lumumba]]
* [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]
* [[Nikita Khrushchev]]
* [[Harold Macmillan]]
* [[Eugene McCarthy]]
* [[Robert McNamara]]
* [[Golda Meir]]
* [[Robert Menzies]]
* [[Ho Chi Minh]]
* [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]
* [[Richard M. Nixon]]
* [[Lester B. Pearson]]
* [[Ronald Reagan]]
* [[Jackie Robinson]]
* [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]]
* [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
* [[Dean Rusk]]
* [[Mario Savio]]
* [[Gloria Steinem]]
* [[Adlai Stephenson]]
* [[U Thant]]
* [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]]
* [[Earl Warren]]
* [[Harold Wilson]]
* [[Malcolm X]]
* [[Mao Zedong]]
====Writers====
* [[Edward Albee]]
* [[Isaac Asimov]]
* [[J. G. Ballard]]
* [[Amiri Baraka]]
* [[Gwendolyn Brooks]]
* [[Basil Bunting]]
* [[William S. Burroughs]]
* [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
* [[Truman Capote]]
* [[Gregory Corso]]
* [[R. Crumb]]
* [[Philip K. Dick]]
* [[Jules Feiffer]]
* [[Louise Fitzhugh]]
* [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]]
* [[Seamus Heaney]]
* [[Robert A. Heinlein]]
* [[Joseph Heller]]
* [[Frank Herbert]]
* [[Ken Kesey]]
* [[John Knowles]]
* [[Philip Larkin]]
* [[Harper Lee]]
* [[Arthur Miller]]
* [[Thomas Pynchon]]
* [[Jean Rhys]]
* [[J.D. Salinger]]
* [[Charles Schulz]]
* [[Dr. Seuss]]
* [[Terry Southern]]
* [[John Steinbeck]]
* [[Tom Stoppard]]
* [[Hunter S. Thompson]]
* [[Gore Vidal]]
* [[Kurt Vonnegut]]
* [[Jack Kerouac]]
====Visual artists, painters and sculptors====
* [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]]
* [[Walter Darby Bannard]]
* [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]]
* [[Larry Bell]]
* [[Sir Anthony Caro]]
* [[John Chamberlain (sculptor)|John Chamberlain]]
* [[Dan Christensen]]
* [[R. Crumb]]
* [[Gene Davis]]
* [[Ronald Davis]]
* [[Richard Diebenkorn]]
* [[Marcel Duchamp]]
* [[Jules Feiffer]]
* [[Dan Flavin]]
* [[Helen Frankenthaler]]
* [[Red Grooms]]
* [[Michael Heizer]]
* [[Eva Hesse]]
* [[David Hockney]]
* [[Jack Jackson]], aka [[Jaxon]]
* [[Jasper Johns]]
* [[Donald Judd]]
* [[Allan Kaprow]]
* [[Ellsworth Kelly]]
* [[Ronnie Landfield]]
* [[Roy Lichtenstein]]
* [[Sol LeWitt]]
* [[Morris Louis]]
* [[Robert Mangold]]
* [[Brice Marden]]
* [[Agnes Martin]]
* [[Peter Max]]
* [[Bruce Nauman]]
* [[Kenneth Noland]]
* [[Claes Oldenburg]]
* [[Jules Olitski]]
* [[Nam June Paik]]
* [[Larry Poons]]
* [[Robert Rauschenberg]]
* [[Bridget Riley]]
* [[Larry Rivers]]
* [[James Rosenquist]]
* [[Richard Serra]]
* [[Tony Smith (sculptor)|Tony Smith]]
* [[Robert Smithson]]
* [[Frank Stella]]
* [[Mark Di Suvero]]
* [[Richard Tuttle]]
* [[Andy Warhol]]
* [[Tom Wesselmann]]
* [[Peter Young (artist)|Peter Young]]
* [[Larry Zox]]
* [[Ben Dover]]
====Miscellaneous====
* [[Hank Aaron]]
* [[Muhammad Ali]]
* [[Bob Beamon]]
* [[Bob Gibson]]
* [[Vo Nguyen Giap]]
* [[Bobby Hull]]
* [[Sandy Koufax]]
* [[Charles Manson]]
* [[Roger Maris]]
* [[Mickey Mantle]]
* [[Willie Mays]]
* [[Joe Namath]]
* [[Bobby Orr]]
* [[Yitzhak Rabin]]
* [[Bart Starr]]
* [[William Westmoreland]]
* [[John Wooden]] {{col-end}}
== Sports ==
There were six [[Olympics]] held during the decade. These were:
1960 XVII Summer Olympics — {{flagicon|Italy}} Rome, Italy <br>
1960 VIII Winter Olympics — {{flagicon|USA}} [[Squaw Valley Ski Resort|Squaw Valley]], [[USA]] <br>
1964 XVIII Summer Olympics — {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Tokyo]], Japan <br>
1964 IX Winter Olympics — {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]] <br>
1968 XIX Summer Olympics — {{flagicon|Mexico}} Mexico City, Mexico <br>
1968 X Winter Olympics — {{flagicon|France}} [[Grenoble]], France
There were two [[FIFA World Cup]]s during the decade:
[[1962 FIFA World Cup]] — {{flagicon|Chile}} [[Chile]] (winner {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Brazil]]) <br>
[[1966 FIFA World Cup]] — {{flagicon|England}} [[England]] (winner {{flagicon|England}} England)
The ten [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] winners during the decade were:
<code>*</code> First British club to win the European Cup, Celtic triumphed over Internazionale 2-1 in a stunning victory. See [[European Cup 1966-67]] or [[Lisbon Lions]].
The ten [[Formula One]] World Championship Winners were:
1960 — {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Jack Brabham]] <br>
1961 — {{flagicon|US}} [[Phil Hill]] <br>
1962 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]] <br>
1963 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[Jim Clark]] <br>
1964 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[John Surtees]] <br>
1965 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[Jim Clark]] <br>
1966 — {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Jack Brabham]] <br>
1967 — {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Denny Hulme]] <br>
1968 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]] <br>
1969 — {{flagicon|UK}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
In baseball, the [[World Series]] champions during the decade were:
1960 - [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] <br>
1961 - [[New York Yankees]] <br>
1962 - [[New York Yankees]] <br>
1963 - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] <br>
1964 - [[St. Louis Cardinals]] <br>
1965 - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] <br>
1966 - [[Baltimore Orioles]] <br>
1967 - [[St. Louis Cardinals]] <br>
1968 - [[Detroit Tigers]] <br>
1969 - [[New York Mets]]
The [[National Football League]] champions during the decade were:
1960 - [[Philadelphia Eagles]] <br>
1961 - [[Green Bay Packers]] <br>
1962 - [[Green Bay Packers]] <br>
1963 - [[Chicago Bears]] <br>
1964 - [[Cleveland Browns]] <br>
1965 - [[Green Bay Packers]] <br>
1966 - [[Green Bay Packers]] won [[Super Bowl I]] <br>
1967 - [[Green Bay Packers]] won [[Super Bowl II]] <br>
1968 - [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] <br>
1969 - [[Minnesota Vikings]]
The [[American Football League]] champions during the decade were:
1960 - [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]] <br>
1961 - [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]] <br>
1962 - [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] <br>
1963 - [[San Diego Chargers]] <br>
1964 - [[Buffalo Bills]] <br>
1965 - [[Buffalo Bills]] <br>
1966 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] <br>
1967 - [[Oakland Raiders]] <br>
1968 - [[New York Jets]] won [[Super Bowl III]] <br>
1969 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] won [[Super Bowl IV]]
The [[National Hockey League]]'s [[Stanley Cup]] champions of the decade were:
1960 - [[Montreal Canadiens]] <br>
1961 - [[Chicago Blackhawks|Chicago Black Hawks]] <br>
1962 - [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] <br>
1963 - [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] <br>
1964 - [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] <br>
1965 - [[Montreal Canadiens]] <br>
1966 - [[Montreal Canadiens]] <br>
1967 - [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] <br>
1968 - [[Montreal Canadiens]] <br>
1969 - [[Montreal Canadiens]]
The [[National Basketball Association]] champions of the decade were:
1960 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1961 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1962 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1963 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1964 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1965 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1966 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1967 - [[Philadelphia 76ers]] <br>
1968 - [[Boston Celtics]] <br>
1969 - [[Boston Celtics]]
The [[Canadian Football League]]'s [[Grey Cup]] champions of the decade were:
1960 - [[Ottawa Rough Riders]] <br>
1961 - [[Winnipeg Blue Bombers]] <br>
1962 - [[Winnipeg Blue Bombers]] <br>
1963 - [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]] <br>
1964 - [[British Columbia Lions]] <br>
1965 - [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]] <br>
1966 - [[Saskatchewan Roughriders]] <br>
1967 - [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]] <br>
1968 - [[Ottawa Rough Riders]] <br>
1969 - [[Ottawa Rough Riders]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rjackson/webbibl.html The 1960s: A Bibliography]
*[http://kclibrary.nhmccd.edu/decade60.html American Cultural History 1960–1969]
*[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-69-1587/life_society/60s/ CBC Digital Archives — 1960s a GoGo]
*[http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/ The Sixties Project]
*[http://www.lib.virginia.edu/small/exhibits/sixties/ The 60s: Literary Tradition and Social Change], exhibit at the [[University of Virginia]], Library, Special Collections.
*[http://www.klarbooks.com/academic/protest.html 1960s protest movements in America]
*[http://www.1968ineurope.com The 1960s in Europe (Online Teaching and Research Guide)]
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/fashion/features/1960s/index.html
|title= 1960s Fashion Feature, including biographies, interviews, clothing and resources}}
[[Category:1960s| ]]
[[Category:20th century]]
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[[is:1961-1970]]
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[[la:Decennium 197]]
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[[zh:1960年代]]