20th century 34558 226157184 2008-07-17T02:10:09Z ClueBot 4928500 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contributions/74.66.95.143|74.66.95.143]] to version by 66.227.97.50. False positive? [[User:ClueBot/FalsePositives|Report it]]. Thanks, [[User:ClueBot]]. (442108) (Bot) {{verylong}} {{Essay-like|date=January 2008}} {{Citations missing|date=January 2008}} {{Centurybox}} {{otheruses}} [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|The [[Earth]] seen from Apollo 17. The second half of the 20th century saw an increase of interest in both [[space exploration]] and the [[environmental movement]].]] The '''twentieth century''' of the [[Common Era]] began on <!--Please DO NOT change the following dates, they are CORRECT. There was no year zero.-->[[January 1]], [[1901]] and ended on [[December 31]], [[2000]], according to the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>The historian [[Eric Hobsbawm]] has coined the term [[the short twentieth century]] for the period from 1914 (the start of [[World War I]]) to 1991 (the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]]).</ref> The century saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and political innovation. Arguably more technological advances occurred in any ten-year period following [[World War I]] than the sum total of new technological development in any century before the [[industrial revolution]].{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Terms like [[ideology]], [[world war]], [[genocide]], and [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] entered common usage. The period witnessed radical changes in many areas of human endeavors. Scientific discoveries, such as the [[theory of relativity]] and [[quantum physics]], drastically changed the world-view of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was much more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. Accelerating scientific understanding, more efficient communications, and faster transportation transformed the world in those hundred years more rapidly and widely than at any time in the past. It was a century that started with steam-powered ships and ended with the [[space shuttle]]. [[Horses]] and other pack animals, Western society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by [[automobiles]] within the span of a few decades. These developments were made possible by the large-scale exploitation of [[petroleum]] resources, which offered great amounts of energy in an easily portable and storable liquid form, but also caused widespread concerns about [[pollution]] and our [[global warming|long-term impact]] on the environment. Humanity explored [[outer space]] for the first time, even taking their first footsteps on the [[Moon]]. [[Mass media]], [[telecommunication]]s, and [[computer|information technology]] (especially the [[Internet]]) put the world's knowledge at the disposal of nearly anyone in most industrialized societies. Many peoples's view of the world changed significantly as they became much more aware of the suffering and struggles of others and, as such, became increasingly concerned with [[human rights]]. In the latter half of the century especially, mankind became aware of the vast scale on which it had affected the planet, and took steps to minimize its damage of the planet's fragile [[ecosystem]]s. Advancements in [[medical technology]] also improved the welfare of many people on the planet; life expectancy increased dramatically from the mid-30s to the mid-60s worldwide during the century. The healthiest countries had life expectancies of over 80 years by the turn of the millennium. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach an unprecedented scale; [[World War II]] alone killed over 60 million people, while [[nuclear weapon]]ry gave mankind the means to destroy itself in a very short amount of time. The world also became more [[Homogenization|culturally homogenized]] than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, [[popular music]] and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a true [[global economy]] by the end of the century. ==Summary== The massive arms race of the 19th century culminated in a war which involved many powerful nations: [[World War I]] (1914&ndash;1918). This war drastically changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as [[machine gun]]s, [[tank]]s, [[chemical weapons]], and [[grenade]]s created stalemates on the battlefield and millions of troops were killed with little progress made on either side. After more than four years of [[trench warfare]] in western Europe, and 20 million dead, those powers who had formed the [[Triple Entente]] ([[France]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and [[Russia]], later replaced by the [[United States]] and joined by [[Italy]]) emerged victorious over the [[Triple Alliance]] ([[Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]). In addition to annexing much of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from their former foes, plunging [[Germany]] in particular into economic depression. The [[Russian Empire]] was plunged into revolution during the conflict and transitioned into the first ever [[communist]] state, and the [[Austro-Hungarian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. World War I brought about the end of the royal and imperial ages of Europe (although some portion of the British Empire remained until the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China) and established the United States as a major world military power. At the start of the period, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] was arguably the world's most powerful nation. However, its economy was ruined by World War I, and its [[British Empire|empire]] began to shrink, producing a growing power vacuum in Europe. [[Fascism]], a movement which grew out of post-war [[angst]] and accelerated by the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, gained momentum in [[Italy]], Germany and [[Spain]] in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II (1939&ndash;1945), sparked off by [[Nazi Germany]]'s aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbours. Meanwhile, [[Japan]] had rapidly industrialized and transformed itself into a technologically-advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the [[Pacific Ocean]] helped to bring the United States into World War II. Germany was defeated by the [[Soviet Union]] in the east and by the [[D-Day]] invasion of the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and [[Free France]] from the west. The war ended with the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropping]] of two [[atomic bombs]] on Japan. Japan later became a U.S. ally with a powerful economy based on [[consumer goods]] and trade. [[Germany]] was divided between the western powers and the [[Soviet Union]]; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union ([[East Germany]] and eastward) were essentially transitioned into Soviet [[puppet state]]s under [[communist]] rule. Meanwhile, western Europe was influenced by the American [[Marshall Plan]] and made a quick economic recovery, becoming major allies of the United States under [[capitalism|capitalist]] economies and relatively democratic governments. World War II left about 60 million people dead. When the conflict ended in 1945, the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] emerged as very powerful nations. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one other as the competing ideologies of [[capitalism]] and [[communism]] occupied Europe, divided by the [[Iron Curtain]] and the [[Berlin Wall]]. The military alliances headed by these nations ([[NATO]] in [[North America]] and western [[Europe]]; the [[Warsaw Pact]] in eastern Europe) were prepared to wage total war with each other throughout the [[Cold War]] (1947&ndash;1991). The period was marked by a new arms race, and [[nuclear weapons]], the most devastating ones yet to have been developed, were produced in the tens of thousands, sufficient to end most life on the planet had they ever been used. This is believed by some historians to have staved off an inevitable war between the two, as neither could win if their full nuclear arsenals were unleashed upon each other. This was known as [[mutually assured destruction]] (MAD). Although the Soviet Union and the United States never directly entered conflict with each other, several [[proxy war]]s, such as the [[Korean War]] (1950&ndash;1953) and the [[Vietnam War]] (1957&ndash;1975), were waged to contain the spread of communism. After World War II, most of the European-colonized world in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] gained independence in a process of [[decolonization]]. This, and the drain of the two world wars, caused [[Europe]] to lose much of its long-held power. Meanwhile, the wars helped the [[United States]] to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. American culture spread around the world with the advent of [[Hollywood]], [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], [[rock and roll]], [[pop music]], [[fast food]], [[big-box store]]s, and the [[hip-hop]] lifestyle. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, a ripple effect led to the dismantling of communist states across eastern Europe and their rocky transitions into market economies. After [[World War II]], the [[United Nations]] was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could get together and discuss issues diplomatically. It has enacted laws on conducting warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights, among other things. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, in concert with various United Nations and other aid agencies, has helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to contain local wars and conflicts. Europe slowly united, politically and economically, into what eventually became the [[European Union]], which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the century. Perhaps the first major policy of the United Nations was the creation of [[Israel]], a country created as a homeland for the [[Jewish]] population. This infuriated some [[Muslims]] who had inhabited the area for over a thousand years. Some surrounding [[Arab]] countries quickly declared war on Israel, sparking a conflict which became one of the most volatile global conflicts of the latter half of the century. Behind nearly unilateral support from the United States and other Western nations, Israel waged several wars with its Arab neighbors in [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|1948]], [[Suez Crisis|1958]], [[Six-Day War|1967]], [[Yom Kippur War|1973]], and [[1982 Lebanon War|1982]]. Anger over the Israeli capture of Palestinian lands during the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967 led to a wave of attacks by the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), during the 1970s. Negotiations during the late 1980s and 1990s led to the PLO transitioning officially to a political organization; however, other Palestinian groups continued attacks against Israel. A derailing of the peace process during the late 1990s led to a resumption of attacks around the turn of the millennium. The political situation in the Middle East was further complicated as questions arose over the influence of [[Islam]] on the governments of many Middle Eastern countries; perceived human rights violations by many of these countries; the possession of vast [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] reserves in the [[Persian Gulf]] region; and the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] that fueled such rogue Islamic groups as [[Al-Qaeda]] that would change the political landscape in the [[21st century|following century]]. In approximately the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's [[environment (biophysical)|environment]] caused [[environmentalism]] to become a major citizen movement. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics partly through [[Green party|Green parties]], though awareness of the problem permeated societies. By the end of the century, some progress had been made in cleaning up the environment in [[first-world]] countries, though pollution continued apace, and environmental problems in newly industrializing countries, such as [[India]] and [[China]], had grown rapidly. Increasing awareness and pessimism over [[global warming]] began in the 1980s, sparking one of the most heated social and political debates by the turn of the century. [[Medicine|Medical science]] and the [[Green Revolution]] in agriculture enabled the [[world population|world's population]] to grow from about 1.65 billion to about 6 billion. This rapid population increase quickly became a major concern and directly caused or contributed to several global issues, including pressure on finite natural resources, conflict, poverty, major environmental issues, and severe overcrowding in some areas. === The nature of change === Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the 20th century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the [[light bulb]], the [[automobile]], and the [[telephone]] in the late 1800s, followed by [[supertanker]]s, [[airliner]]s, [[motorway]]s, [[radio]], [[television]], [[antibiotics]], [[frozen food]], [[computer]]s and [[microcomputer]]s, the [[internet]], and [[mobile telephone]]s affected the [[quality of life]] for great numbers. Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. Still, the gulf between the world's rich and poor grew much wider than it had ever been in the past. While increasing industrialization and world trade had helped great numbers out of at least abject poverty by the century's end, the poorer half of the world population &mdash; three billion people &mdash; lived on the purchasing power of two U.S. dollars or less per day.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-7-2003_pg7_51 3 billion live on two dollars a day or less: ILO]</ref> == Developments in brief == === Wars and politics === * After decades of struggle by the [[women's suffrage]] movement, all western countries gave women the right to vote. * Rising [[nationalism]] and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914&ndash;1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Russia]]/[[USSR]], the [[United States]] and the [[British Empire]]. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in [[Eastern Europe]]. At the time it was said by many to be the "war to end all wars". [[Image:WW1 TitlePicture For Wikipedia Article.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Warfare in the early 20th Century (1914&ndash;1918)'''<br />''Clockwise from top:'' [[front line]] [[Trench warfare|Trenches]], a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Mark I (tank)|Mark I Tank]] crossing a trench, the [[Royal Navy]] [[battleship]] [[HMS Irresistible (1898)|HMS Irresistible]] sinking after striking a [[Naval mine|mine]] at the [[Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign|battle of the Dardanelles]], a [[Vickers machine gun]] crew with [[gas mask]]s, and German [[Albatros D.III]] [[biplane]]s.]] * A violent [[Spanish Civil War|civil war]] broke out in [[Spain]] in 1936 when General [[Francisco Franco]] rebelled against the [[Second Spanish Republic]]. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II as the [[fascist]] armies bombed some Spanish territories. * The economic and political aftermath of World War I and the [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s led to the rise of fascism and [[nazism]] in Europe, and subsequently to World War II (1939&ndash;1945). This war also involved Asia and the Pacific, in the form of [[Japan]]ese aggression against [[China]] and the United States. Civilians also suffered greatly in World War II, due to the aerial bombing of cities on both sides, and the German [[genocide]] of the [[Jew]]s and others, known as [[the Holocaust]]. In 1945, [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed with nuclear weapons]]. * During World War I, in [[Russia]] the Bolshevik putsch took over the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], precipitating the founding of the [[Soviet Union]] and the rise of [[communism]]. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, communism became a major force in [[global politics]], notably in [[Eastern Europe]], [[China]], [[Indochina]] and [[Cuba]], where communist parties gained near-absolute power. This led to the [[Cold War]] and [[proxy war]]s with [[Western world|the West]], including wars in [[Korean War|Korea]] (1950&ndash;1953) and [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] (1957&ndash;1975). * The [[Human rights in the Soviet Union|Soviet]] authorities caused the deaths of millions of their own citizens in order to eliminate domestic opposition. More than 18 million people passed through the [[Gulag]], with a further 6 million being [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union#Timeline|exiled]] to remote areas of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D00EED61F3DF932A25756C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print The Other Killing Machine]</ref><ref>[http://www.jamestown.org/getman_paintings.php?painting_id=1 The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman].</ref> * The [[civil rights movement]] in the [[United States]] and the movement against [[apartheid]] in [[South Africa]] challenged racial segregation in those countries. * The two world wars led to efforts to increase international cooperation, notably through the founding of the [[League of Nations]] after World War I, and its successor, the [[United Nations]], after World War II. * The creation of [[Israel]], a [[Jew]]ish state in the [[Middle East]], by the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] fueled many regional conflicts. These were also influenced by the vast [[Petroleum|oil]] fields in many of the other countries of the mostly [[Arab]] region. * [[Decolonization|The end of]] [[colonialism]] led to the independence of many [[Africa]]n and [[Asia]]n countries. During the [[Cold War]], many of these aligned with the United States, the USSR, or China for defense. * The [[Great Chinese Famine]] was a direct cause of the death of tens of millions of Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962. It is thought to be the largest [[famine]] in [[human history]]. * The [[revolutions of 1989]] released Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet supremacy. Soon thereafter, the [[Soviet Union]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] dissolved, the latter violently over several years, into [[successor state]]s, many rife with [[ethnic nationalism]]. * After a long period of civil wars and conflicts with European powers, [[China]]'s last imperial dynasty ended in 1912. The resulting republic was replaced, after yet another civil war, by a [[communist]] [[People's Republic]] in 1949. At the end of the century, though still ruled by a communist party, China's economic system had transformed almost completely to capitalism. * [[European integration]] began in earnest in the 1950s, and eventually led to the [[European Union]], a political and economic union that comprised 15 countries at the end of the century. === Culture and entertainment === [[Image:Miles-davis-in-a-silent-way.jpg|thumb|left|Trumpeter [[Miles Davis]], one of the century's most influential [[jazz]] musicians.]] * As the century began, [[Paris]] was the artistic capital of the world, where both French and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gathered. By the end of the century, the focal point of culture had moved to the United States, especially [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles]]. * [[Film|Movies]], [[music]] and the [[Mass media|media]] had a major influence on [[fashion]] and trends in all aspects of life. As many movies and music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world. * After gaining political rights in the United States and much of [[Europe]] in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new [[birth control]] techniques women became more independent throughout the century. * In [[classical music]], composition branched out into many completely new domains, including dodecaphony, aleatoric and chance music, and minimalism. Electronic musical instruments were developed as well, vastly broadening the scope of sounds available to composers and performers. * The [[jazz]] and [[rock and roll]] genres developed in the United States, and quickly became the dominant forms of [[popular music]]. Many other genres of pop music were born in the latter half of the century, such as [[heavy metal]], [[Punk rock|punk]], [[alternative rock]], [[House music|house]], [[dance]], [[reggae]], [[soul music|soul]], [[rap music|rap]] and [[hip-hop]]. [[Image:Chagall IandTheVillage.jpg|thumb|''I and the Village'' by [[Marc Chagall]], a modern painter.]] * The art world experienced the development of new styles and explorations such as [[expressionism]], [[Dadaism]], [[cubism]], [[de stijl]], [[abstract expressionism]] and [[surrealism]]. * The [[modern art]] movement revolutionized art culture and set the stage for contemporary [[postmodern art]] practices. * In Europe, [[modern architecture]] departed radically from the excess decoration of the [[Victorian era]]. Streamlined forms inspired by machines became more commonplace, enabled by developments in building materials and technologies. Before World War II, many European architects moved to the United States, where modern architecture continued to develop. * The [[automobile]] vastly increased the mobility of people in the Western countries in the early to mid-century, and in many other places by the end of the century. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. * The popularity of [[sport]] increased considerably &mdash; both as an activity for all, not just the elite, and as entertainment, particularly on [[television]]. === Medicine === * [[Placebo]]-[[scientific control|controlled]], [[random sample|randomized]], [[blind experiment|blinded]] [[clinical trial]]s became a powerful tool for testing new medicines. * [[Antibiotics]] drastically reduced mortality from [[bacterial disease]]s and their [[prevalence]]. * A [[vaccine]] was developed for [[polio]], ending a worldwide [[epidemic]]. Effective vaccines were also developed for a number of other serious infectious [[disease]]s, including [[DPT vaccine|diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus]], [[MMR vaccine|measles]], [[mumps vaccine|mumps]], [[MMR vaccine|rubella (German measles)]], [[varicella vaccine|chickenpox]], [[influenza vaccine|influenza]], [[hepatitis A vaccine|hepatitis A]], and [[hepatitis B vaccine|hepatitis B]]. * A successful application of [[epidemiology]] and [[vaccination]] led to the eradication of the [[smallpox]] [[virus]] in humans. * [[X-ray]]s became powerful diagnostic tool for wide spectrum of diseases, from bone fractures to [[cancer]]. In the 1960s, [[computerized tomography]] was invented. Other important diagnostic tools developed were [[sonography]] and [[magnetic resonance imaging]]. * Development of [[vitamins]] virtually eliminated [[scurvy]] and other vitamin-deficiency diseases from industrialized societies. * New psychiatric drugs were developed. These include [[antipsychotic]]s for treating [[hallucination]]s and [[delusion]]s, and [[antidepressant]]s for treating [[clinical depression|depression]]. * The role of [[tobacco smoking]] in the causation of [[cancer]] and other diseases was proven during the 1950s (see [[British Doctors Study]]). * New methods for cancer treatment, including [[chemotherapy]], [[radiation therapy]], and [[immunotherapy]], were developed. As a result, cancer could often be [[cure]]d or placed in [[remission (medicine)|remission]]. * The development of [[blood type|blood typing]] and [[blood bank]]ing made [[blood transfusion]] safe and widely available. * The [[invention]] and development of [[immunosuppressive drug]]s and [[tissue typing]] made [[organ transplant|organ and tissue transplantation]] a clinical reality. * Research on [[sleep]] and [[circadian rhythm]]s led to the discovery of sleep disorders. * New methods for [[heart surgery]] were developed. * [[Cocaine]] and [[heroin]] were found to be dangerous addictive drugs, and their wide usage had been outlawed, and mind-altering drugs such as [[LSD]] and [[MDMA]] were discovered and later outlawed. * [[Contraceptive]] drugs were developed, which reduced [[population]] growth rates. * The development of medical [[insulin]] during the 1920s helped raise the life expectancy of [[diabetes|diabetics]] to three times of what it had been earlier. * The elucidation of the [[structure]] and [[function (biology)|function]] of [[DNA]] initiated the development of [[genetic engineering]] and the mapping of the [[human genome]]. === Notable diseases === * An [[influenza]] pandemic, the [[Spanish Flu]], killed anywhere from 20 to 100 million people between 1918 and 1919. * A new [[viral]] disease, [[AIDS]], arose in [[Africa]] and subsequently killed millions of people throughout the world. AIDS treatments remained inaccessible to many people living with AIDS in [[developing countries]], and a cure has yet to be discovered. * Because of increased [[Life expectancy|life spans]], the [[prevalence]] of cancer, [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], and other diseases of [[old age]] increased. * Sedentary lifestyles, due to labor-saving devices and technology, contributed to an "epidemic" of [[obesity]], at first in the rich countries, but by the end of the century, increasingly in the developing world, too. === Energy, natural resources and the environment === [[Image:Oilfields California.jpg|frame|Oil field in [[California]], 1938 The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 by Russian engineer F.N. Semyonov, on the [[Abşeron|Apsheron Peninsula]] north-east of [[Baku]].]] * The dominant use of [[fossil source]]s and [[nuclear power]], considered the conventional energy sources. * Widespread use of [[petroleum]] in industry &mdash; both as a chemical precursor to [[plastic]]s and as a fuel for the [[automobile]] and [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]] &mdash; led to the vital geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The [[Middle East]], home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in [[Japan]]'s decision to go to war against the [[United States]] in 1941, and the oil cartel, [[OPEC]], used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the [[Yom Kippur War]] in the 1970s). * A vast increase in [[fossil fuel]] consumption caused [[smog]] and other forms of [[air pollution]], [[global warming]], local and [[global]] [[climate change]], and an [[acceleration|accelerating]] [[depletion]] of [[natural resources]]. * [[Pesticide]]s, [[herbicide]]s and other [[toxicity|toxic]] [[chemical substance|chemicals]] were accumulating in the environment, including the bodies of humans and other animals. * [[Overpopulation]] and world-wide [[deforestation]] reduced [[biodiversity]] and diminished the [[environmental quality|quality of the environment]]. === Science and technology === * The first [[airplane]] was flown in 1903. With the engineering of the faster [[jet engine]] in the 1940s, mass [[air travel]] became commercially viable. * The [[assembly line]] made mass production of the [[automobile]] viable. By the end of the century, billions of people had automobiles for personal transportation. The combination of the automobile and air travel allowed for unprecedented personal mobility. * The [[integrated circuit]] revolutionized [[computer]]s, leading to the proliferation of the [[personal computer]] in the 1980s and the public-use [[Internet]] in the 1990s. * The [[Space Race]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] gave a peaceful outlet to the political and military tensions of the [[Cold War]], leading to man's first landing on another world--the [[Moon]]--with America's [[Apollo 11]] mission in 1969. As the century ended, a permanent manned presence in space was being founded with the construction of the [[International Space Station]]. == Major events == === The world at the beginning of the century === In Europe, [[the British Empire]] achieved the height of its power. [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], which came into existence as unified nations at the end of the 19th century, grew in power, challenging the traditional hegemony of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[France]]. With [[nationalism]] in full force at this time, the European powers competed with each other for land, military strength and economic power. Asia and Africa were for the most part still under control of their European colonizers. The major exceptions were [[China]] and [[Japan]]. The [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1905 was the first major instance of a European power being defeated by a so-called inferior nation. The war itself strengthened Japanese [[militarism]] and enhanced Japan's rise to the status of a [[world power]]. Tsarist Russia, on the other hand, did not handle the defeat well. The war exposed the country's military weakness and increasing economic backwardness, and contributed to the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], the dress rehearsal for [[Russian Revolution of 1917|the conclusive one in 1917]]. Already in the 19th century, the United States had become an influential actor in world politics. It had made its presence known on the world stage by challenging Spain in the [[Spanish-American War]], gaining the colonies of [[Cuba]] and the [[Philippines]] as [[protectorate]]s. Now, with growth in immigration and a resolution of the national unity issue through the bloody [[American Civil War]], America was emerging as an industrial power as well, rivaling Britain, Germany, and France. With increasing rivalry among the European powers, and the rise of Japan and the United States, the stage was set for a major upheaval in world affairs. === "The war to end all wars": World War I (1914&ndash;1918) === {{main|World War I}} The First World War, termed "The Great War" by contemporaries, started in 1914 and ended in 1918. It was ignited by the [[Assassination in Sarajevo]] of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]'s heir to the throne, Erzherzog [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]], by [[Gavrilo Princip]] of the [[Serbia]]n nationalist organization "[[Black Hand]]". Bound by Slavic nationalism to help the small Serbian state, the Russians came to the aid of the Serbs when they were attacked. Interwoven alliances, an increasing arms race, and old hatreds dragged Europe into war. The Allies, known initially as "The [[Triple Entente]]", comprised the British Empire, Russia and France, as well as Italy and the United States later in the war. On the other side, Germany, along with [[Austria-Hungary]] , [[Bulgaria]] and later the [[Ottoman Empire]], were known as "The [[Central Powers]]". In 1917, Russia ended hostile actions against the Central Powers after the fall of the Tsar. The Bolsheviks negotiated the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with Germany, although it was at huge cost to Russia. Although Germany shifted huge forces from the eastern to the western front after signing the treaty, it couldn't stop the Allied advance, especially with the entrance of American troops in 1918. The war itself was also a chance for the combatant nations to show off their military strength and technological ingenuity. The Germans introduced the [[machine gun]] and deadly gases. The British first used the [[tank]]. Both sides had a chance to test out their new [[aircraft]] to see if they could be used in warfare. It was widely believed that the war would be short. Unfortunately, since [[trench warfare]] was the best form of defense, advances on both sides were very slow, and came at a terrible cost in lives. When the war was finally over in 1918, the results would set the stage for the next twenty years. First and foremost, the Germans were forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]], forcing them to make exorbitant payments to repair damages caused during the War. Many Germans felt these reparations were unfair because they did not actually "lose" the war nor did they feel they caused the war (see [[Stab-in-the-back legend]]). Germany was never occupied by Allied troops, yet it had to accept a liberal democratic government imposed on it by the victors after the abdication of [[Kaiser Wilhelm]]. Much of the map of Europe was redrawn by the victors based upon the theory that future wars could be prevented if all ethnic groups had their own "homeland". New states like [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Czechoslovakia]] were created out of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire to accommodate the nationalist aspirations of these groups. An international body called the [[League of Nations]] was formed to mediate disputes and prevent future wars, although its effectiveness was severely limited by, among other things, its reluctance and inability to act. === The Russian Revolution and communism === {{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}} The Russian Revolution of 1917 sparked a wave of [[communist revolution]]s across Europe, prompting many to believe that a [[socialism|socialist]] [[world revolution]] could be realized in the near future. However, the European revolutions were defeated, [[Lenin]] died in 1924, and within a few years [[Joseph Stalin]] displaced [[Leon Trotsky]] as the ''[[de facto]]'' leader of the [[Soviet Union]]. The idea of worldwide revolution was no longer in the forefront, as Stalin concentrated on "[[socialism in one country]]" and embarked on a bold plan of collectivization and industrialization. The majority of socialists and even many communists became disillusioned with Stalin's autocratic rule, his purges and the assassination of his "enemies", as well as the news of [[famine]]s he imposed on his own people. Communism was strengthened as a force in Western democracies when the global economy crashed in 1929 in what became known as the [[Great Depression]]. Many people saw this as the first stage of the end of the capitalist system and were attracted to Communism as a solution to the economic crisis, especially as the Soviet Union's economic development in the 1930s was strong, unaffected by the capitalist world's crisis. === Between the wars === {{main|Interwar period}} ==== Economic depression ==== {{main|Great Depression}} After [[World War I]], the global economy remained strong through the 1920s. The war had provided a stimulus for industry and for economic activity in general. There were many warning signs foretelling the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|collapse]] of the global [[economic system]] in 1929 that were generally not understood by the political leadership of the time. The responses to the crisis often made the situation worse, as millions of people watched their savings become next to worthless and the idea of a steady job with a reasonable income fading away. Many sought answers in alternative ideologies such as [[communism]] and [[fascism]]. They believed that the capitalist economic system was collapsing, and that new ideas were required to meet the crisis. The early responses to the crisis were based upon the assumption that the free market would correct itself. This, however, did very little to correct the crisis or to alleviate the suffering of many ordinary people. Thus, the idea that the existing system could be reformed by government intervention in the economy rather than by continuing the ''[[laissez-faire]]'' approach became prominent as a solution to the crisis. Democratic governments assumed the responsibility to provide needed services in society and alleviate poverty. Thus was born the [[welfare state]]. These two politico-economic principles, the belief in government intervention and the welfare state, as opposed to the belief in the free market and private institutions, would define many political battles for the rest of the century. ==== The rise of dictatorship ==== {{main|Fascism|Totalitarianism|Dictatorship}} Fascism first appeared in Italy with the rise to power of [[Benito Mussolini]] in 1922. The ideology was supported by a large proportion of the upper classes as a strong challenge to the threat of [[communism]]. When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in [[Germany]] in 1933, a new variant of [[fascism]] called [[Nazism]] took over Germany and ended the German experiment with democracy. The [[Nazi party|National Socialist party]] in Germany was dedicated to the restoration of German honor and prestige, the unification of German-speaking peoples, and the annexation of Central and Eastern Europe as vassal states, with the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] population to act as slave labor to serve German economic interests. There was also a strong appeal to a mythical racial purity (the idea that Germans were the ''Herrenvolk'' or the "master race"), and a vicious [[anti-semitism]] which promoted the idea of [[Jew]]s as subhuman (''Untermensch'') and worthy only of extermination. Many people in Western Europe and the United States greeted the rise of Hitler with relief or indifference. They could see nothing wrong with a strong Germany ready to take on the communist menace to the east. Anti-semitism during the [[Great Depression]] was widespread as many were content to blame the Jews for causing the economic downturn. Hitler began to put his plan in motion, annexing Austria in the ''[[Anschluss]]'', or reunification of Austria to Germany, in 1938. He then negotiated the annexation of the [[Sudetenland]], a German speaking mountainous area of [[Czechoslovakia]], in the [[Munich Conference]]. The British were eager to avoid war and believed Hitler's assurance to protect the security of the Czech state. Hitler annexed the rest of the Czech state shortly afterwards. It could no longer be argued that Hitler was solely interested in unifying the German people. Fascism was not the only form of dictatorship to rise in the post-war period. Almost all of the new democracies in the nations of Eastern Europe collapsed and were replaced by [[authoritarian]] regimes. [[Spain]] also became a dictatorship under the leadership of General [[Francisco Franco]] after the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Totalitarian states attempted to achieve total control over their subjects as well as their total loyalty. They held the state above the individual, and were often responsible for some of the worst acts in history, such as the [[Holocaust]] Adolf Hitler perpetrated on [[Ashkenazi Jews]], or the [[Great Purge]] Stalin perpetrated on the [[Russians]] later in the century. === Global war: World War II (1939&ndash;1945) === {{main|World War II}} ==== The war in Europe ==== [[Image:Lamenting the dead.jpg|thumb|250px|Nazi massacre in [[Kerch]], 1942. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead]</ref>]] {{main|European Theater of World War II}} ''This section provides a conversational overview of World War II in Europe. See main article for a fuller discussion.'' <!-- Too much detail here for an overview of the entire century. Someone might want to pare it down, and perhaps merge the present text with the article "European Theater of World War II", if necessary. --Teemu Leisti 2008-01-03 --> Soon after the events in Czechoslovakia, Britain and France issued assurances of protection to [[Poland]], which seemed to be next on Hitler's list. World War II officially began on [[1 September]] [[1939]]. On that date, Hitler unleashed his [[Blitzkrieg]], or lightning war, against Poland. Britain and France, much to Hitler's surprise, immediately declared war upon Germany, but the help they could afford Poland was negligible. After only a few weeks, the Polish forces were overwhelmed, and its government fled to exile in London (see [[Polish government in Exile]]). In starting World War II, the Germans had unleashed a new type of warfare, characterized by highly mobile forces and the use of massed aircraft. The German strategy concentrated upon the devotion of the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'', or German army, to the use of tank groups, called [[panzer]] divisions, and groups of mobile infantry, in concert with relentless attacks from the air. Encirclement was also a major part of the strategy. This change smashed any expectations that the Second World War would be fought in the trenches like the first. As Hitler's forces conquered Poland, the [[Soviet Union]], under General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]], was acting out guarantees of territory under a secret part of a [[nonaggression pact]] between the USSR and Germany known as the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]]. This treaty gave Stalin free rein to take the Baltic republics of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]], as well as Eastern Poland, all of which would remain in Soviet possession after the war. Stalin also launched an attack on [[Finland]], which he hoped to reduce to little more than a Soviet puppet state, but the [[Red Army]] met staunch Finnish resistance in what became known as the [[Winter War]], and succeeded in gaining only limited territory from the Finns. This action would later cause the Finns to ally with Germany when its attack on the Soviet Union came in 1941. After the defeat of Poland, a period known as the [[Phony War]] ensued during the winter of 1939&ndash;1940. All of this changed on [[10 May]] [[1940]], when the Germans launched a massive attack on the [[Low Countries]] ([[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Luxembourg]]), most probably to surmount the [[Maginot Line]] of defenses on the Franco-German border. This witnessed the incredible fall of [[Eben Emael]], a Belgian fort considered impregnable and guarded by 600 Belgians, to a force of only 88 German [[paratrooper]]s. The worst of this was that King [[Léopold III of Belgium]] surrendered to the Germans on [[28 May]] without warning his allies, exposing the entire flank of the Allied forces to German panzer groups. Following the conquest of the Low Countries, Hitler occupied [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]], beginning on [[9 April]] [[1940]]. Norway was strategically important because of its sea routes which supplied crucial Swedish [[ore]] to the Nazi war machine. Norway held on for a few crucial weeks, but Denmark surrendered after only four days. With the disaster in the Low Countries, France, considered at the time to have had the finest army in world, lasted only four weeks, with Paris being occupied on [[14 June]]. Three days later, Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] surrendered to the Germans. The debacle in France also led to one of the war's greatest mysteries, and Hitler's first great blunder, [[Battle of Dunkirk|Dunkirk]], where a third of a million trapped British and French soldiers were evacuated by not only British war boats, but every boat the army could find, including fishing rafts. Hitler refused to "risk" his panzers on action at Dunkirk, listening to the advice of Air Minister [[Hermann Göring]] and allowing the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'', or German Air Force, to handle the job. The irony of this was that the escaped men would form the core of the army that was to invade the beaches of [[Normandy]] in 1944. Hitler did not occupy all of France, but about three-quarters, including all of the Atlantic coast, allowing Marshal Pétain to remain as dictator of an area known as [[Vichy France]]. However, members of the escaped French Army formed around General [[Charles de Gaulle]] to create the [[Free French]] forces, which would continue to battle Hitler in the stead of an independent France. At this moment, [[Mussolini]] declared war on the Allies on [[10 June]], thinking that the war was almost over, but he managed only to occupy a few hundred yards of French territory. Throughout the war, the Italians would be more of a burden to the Nazis than a boon, and would later cost them precious time in Greece. Hitler now turned his eyes on [[Great Britain]], which stood alone against him. He ordered his generals to draw up plans for an invasion, code named [[Operation Sea Lion]], and ordered the Luftwaffe to launch a massive air war against the British isles, which would come to be known as the [[Battle of Britain]]. The British at first suffered steady losses, but eventually managed to turn the air war against Germany, taking down 2,698 German planes throughout the summer of 1940 to only 915 [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) losses. The key turning point came when the Germans discontinued successful attacks against British airplane factories and radar command and coordination stations and turned to [[civilian]] bombing known as [[terror bombing]] using the distinctive "bomb" sound created by the German dive-bomber, the [[Stuka]]. The switch came after a small British bombing force had attacked [[Berlin]]. Hitler was infuriated. However, his decision to switch the attacks' focus allowed the British to rebuild the RAF and eventually force the Germans to indefinitely postpone Sea Lion. The importance of the Battle of Britain is that it marked the beginning of Hitler's defeat. Secondly, it marked the advent of [[radar]] as a major weapon in modern air war. With radar, squadrons of fighters could be quickly assembled to respond to incoming bombers attempting to bomb civilian targets. It also allowed the identification of the type and a guess at the number of incoming enemy aircraft, as well as tracking of friendly airplanes. Hitler, taken aback by his defeat over the skies of Britain, now turned his gaze eastward to the [[Soviet Union]]. Despite having signed the non-aggression pact with Stalin, Hitler despised communism and wished to destroy it in the land of its birth. He originally planned to launch the attack in early spring of 1941 to avoid the disastrous Russian winter. However, a pro-allied coup in [[Yugoslavia]] and Mussolini's almost utter defeat in his invasion of [[Greece]] from occupied [[Albania]] prompted Hitler to launch a personal campaign of revenge in Yugoslavia and to occupy Greece at the same time. The Greeks would have a bitter revenge of sorts; the attack caused a delay of several crucial weeks of the invasion of Russia. On [[22 June]] [[1941]], Hitler attacked Stalin with the largest army the world has ever seen. Over three million men and their weapons were put into service against the Soviet Union. Stalin had been warned about the attack, both by other countries and by his own intelligence network, but he had refused to believe it. Therefore, the Russian army was largely unprepared and suffered incredible setbacks in the early part of the war, despite Stalin's orders to counterattack the Germans. Throughout 1941, German forces, divided into 3 army groups (Army Group A, Army Group B, and Army Group C), occupied the Eastern Europe states of [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]], laid siege to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] (present day Saint Petersburg), and advanced to within 15 miles of [[Moscow]]. At this critical moment, the Russian winter, which began early that year, stalled the German ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' to a halt at the gates of Moscow. Stalin had planned to evacuate the city, and had already moved important government functions, but decided to stay and rally the city. Recently arrived troops from the east under the command of military genius Marshal [[Georgi Zhukov]] counterattacked the Germans and drove them from Moscow. The German army then dug in for the winter. Here marks the third great blunder of Hitler's. He could have won the war in the USSR except for a few reasons. One, he started the war too late to avoid the Russian winter. Second, he tried to capture too much too fast; he wanted the German army to advance all the way to the [[Urals]], which amounted to one million square miles (2,600,000&nbsp;km²) of territory, when he probably should have concentrated on taking Moscow and thereby driving a wedge into heart of the Soviet Union. Third, he ignored the similar experiences of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] nearly one hundred and fifty years earlier in his attempt to conquer Russia. Despite this, Stalin was not in a good position. Roughly two-fifths of the USSR's industrial might was in German hands. Also, the Germans were at first seen by many as liberators fighting the communists. Stalin was also not a very able general, and like Hitler, at first tried to fight the war as a military strategist. However, Hitler managed to turn all of his advantages against himself, and lost the only remaining hope for Germany: seizing the [[Caucasus]] and taking control of [[North Africa]] and the [[Petroleum|oil]]-rich [[Middle East]]. Mussolini had launched an offensive in [[North Africa]] from Italian-controlled [[Libya]] into British-controlled Egypt. However, the British smashed the Italians and were on the verge of taking Libya. Hitler decided to help by sending in a few thousand troops, a ''Luftwaffe'' division, and the first-rate general [[Erwin Rommel]]. Rommel managed to use his small force to repeatedly smash massively superior British forces and to recapture the port city of [[Tobruk]] and advance into [[Egypt]]. However, Hitler, embroiled in his invasion of the Soviet Union, refused to send Rommel any more troops. If he had, Rommel might have been able to seize the [[Middle East]], where Axis-friendly regimes had taken root in [[Iraq]] and [[Iran|Persia]] (present-day [[Iran]]). Here, Rommel could have cut the major supply route of the Soviets through Persia, and helped take the Caucasus, virtually neutralizing Britain's effectiveness in the war and potentially sealing the fate of the USSR. However, Hitler blundered again, throwing away the last vestiges of the German advantage on his coming offensive in 1942. After the winter, Hitler launched a fresh offensive in the spring of 1942, with the aim of capturing the oil-rich Caucacus and the city of [[Stalingrad]]. However, he repeatedly switched his troops to where they were not needed. The offensive bogged down, and the entire [[Sixth Army (Germany)|6th Army]], considered the best of German troops, was trapped in Stalingrad. Hitler now refused to let 6th Army break out. He insisted that the German army would force its way in. Hermann Goering also assured Hitler that the ''Luftwaffe'' could supply the 6th Army adequately, when it could in reality only supply a minute fraction of the needed [[ammunition]] and [[ration]]s. Eventually, the starved 6th Army surrendered, dealing a severe blow to the Germans. In the end, the defeat at Stalingrad was the turning point for the war in the east. Meanwhile, the Japanese had attacked the [[United States]] at [[Pearl Harbor]] in [[Hawaii]] on [[December 7]] [[1941]]. This disastrous attack forced the Americans into the war. Hitler need not have declared war on the United States, and kept its continued neutrality in Europe, but he did not. Both he and Mussolini declared war only a few days after the attack. At the time, most German generals, preoccupied with war in Russia, did not even notice America's entrance. It was to be a crucial blunder. Throughout the rest of 1942 and 1943, the Soviets began to gain ground against the Germans. The tank battle of [[Kursk]] is one example. However, by this time, Rommel had been forced to abandon [[North Africa]] after a defeat by [[Bernard Montgomery|Montgomery]] at [[El Alamein]], and the ''Wehrmacht'' had encountered serious casualties that it could not replace. Hitler also insisted on a "hold at all costs" policy which forbade relinquishing any ground. He followed a "fight to the last man" policy that was completely ineffective. By the beginning of 1944, Hitler had lost all initiative in Russia, and was struggling even to hold back the tide turning against him. From 1942 to 1944, the United States and Britain acted in only a limited manner in the European theater, much to the chagrin of Stalin. They drove out the Germans in Africa, invading [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] on [[November 8]] [[1942]]. Then, on [[July 10]] [[1943]], the Allies invaded [[Sicily]], in preparation for an advance through [[Italy]], the "soft underbelly" of the Axis, as [[Winston Churchill]] called it. On [[September 9]], the invasion of Italy began. By the winter of 1943, the southern half of Italy was in Allied hands. The Italians, most of whom did not really support the war, had already turned against Mussolini. In July, he had been stripped of power and taken prisoner, though the Italians feigned continued support of the Axis. On [[September 8]], the Italians formally surrendered, but most of Italy not in Allied hands was controlled by German troops and those loyal to Mussolini's (Mussolini had been freed by German paratroopers) new [[Italian Social Republic]], which in reality consisted of the shrinking zone of German control. The Germans offered staunch resistance, but by [[June 4]] [[1944]], [[Rome]] had fallen. The [[Second Battle of the Atlantic]] took place from 1942 to 1944. The Germans hoped to sever the vital supply lines between Britain and America, sinking many tons of shipping with [[U-boats]], German submarines. However, the development of the [[destroyer]] and aircraft with a longer patrol range were effective at countering the U-boat threat. By 1944, the Germans had lost the battle. On [[June 6]] [[1944]], the Western Allies finally launched the long awaited assault on "Fortress Europe" so wanted by Stalin. The offensive, codenamed [[Operation Overlord]], began the early morning hours of [[6 June]]. The day, known as [[D-day]], was marked by foul weather. Rommel, who was now in charge of defending France against possible Allied attack, thought the Allies would not attack during the stormy weather, and was on holiday in Germany. Besides this, the Germans were expecting an attack, but at the natural harbor of [[Calais]] and not the beaches of [[Normandy]]; a blunder that sealed the operation's success. They did not know about the Allies' [[Mulberry Harbour|artificial harbour]]s, and clues planted by the Allies suggested Calais as the landing site. By this time, the war was looking ever darker for Germany. On [[July 20]] [[1944]], a group of conspiring German officers attempted to assassinate Hitler. The bomb they used did injure him, but the second was not used, and a table shielded Hitler in a stroke of luck. The plotters still could have launched a coup, but only the head of occupied Paris acted, arresting [[SS]] and [[Gestapo]] forces in the city. The German propaganda minister, [[Joseph Goebbels]], rallied the Nazis, and saved the day for Hitler. In France, the Allies took Normandy and finally Paris on [[August 25]]. In the east, the Russians had advanced almost to the former Polish-Russian border. At this time, Hitler introduced the [[V-weapons]], the [[V-1]] and, later, the [[V-2]], the first rockets used in modern warfare. The V-1 was often intercepted by air pilots, but the V-2 was extremely fast and carried a large payload. However, this advance came too late in the war to have any real effect. The Germans were also on the verge on introducing a number of terrifying new weapons, including advanced jet aircraft, which were too fast for ordinary propeller aircraft, and submarine improvements which would allow the Germans to again fight effectively in the Atlantic. All this came too late to save Hitler. Although a September invasion of [[The Netherlands]] failed, the Allies made steady advances. In the winter of 1944, Hitler put everything into one last desperate gamble in the West, known as the [[Battle of the Bulge]], which, despite an initial advance, was a failure, because the introduction of new Allied tanks and low troop numbers among the Germans prevented any real action being taken. In early February 1945, the three Allied leaders, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]], [[Winston Churchill]], and [[Joseph Stalin]], met at newly liberated [[Yalta]] in the [[Crimea]] in the Soviet Union in the [[Yalta Conference]]. Here, they agreed upon a plan to divide post-war Europe. Most of the east went to Stalin, who agreed to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, which he never did. The west went to Britain, France, and the U.S. Post-war Germany would be split between the four, as would Berlin. Here the territory of the [[Cold War]] was set. The boundaries of a new Europe, stripped of some of its oldest ruling families, were drawn up by the three men at Yalta. At the beginning of 1945, Hitler was on his last strings. The Russians launched a devastating attack from Poland, where they had liberated Warsaw, into Germany and Eastern Europe, intending to take Berlin. The Germans collapsed in the West, allowing the Allies to fan out across Germany. However, the Supreme Allied Commander, American general [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], refused to strike for Berlin, and instead became obsessed with reports of possible guerrilla activity in southern Germany, which in reality existed only in the propaganda of Joseph Goebbels. By [[April 25]], the Russians had besieged Berlin. Hitler remained in the city in a bunker under the [[Chancellery]] garden. On [[30 April]], he committed suicide, after a ritual wedding with his long time mistress [[Eva Braun]]. The Germans held out another 7 days under Admiral Doenitz, their new leader, but the Germans surrendered unconditionally on [[May 7]] [[1945]], ending the war in Europe (see [[V-E Day]]). Rivalries that had begun during the war, combined with the sense of strength in the victorious powers, laid the foundations of the [[Iron Curtain]] and of the Cold War. ==== The war in the Pacific ==== {{main|Pacific Theater of Operations}} ==== The Holocaust ==== {{main|Holocaust}} The Holocaust (which roughly means "great fire") was the deliberate, systematic, and horrific murder of millions of Jews and other minorities during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. After the conquest of Poland, the [[Third Reich]], which had previously deported Jews and other "undesirables", suddenly had within its borders the largest concentration of Jews in the world. The solution was to round up Jews and place them in [[concentration camps]] or in [[ghetto]]s, cordoned off sections of cities where Jews were forced to live in deplorable conditions, often with tens of thousands starving to death, and the bodies decaying in the streets. As appalling as this sounds, they were the lucky ones. After the invasion of the Soviet Union, armed killing squads of [[SS]] men known as ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' systematically rounded up Jews and murdered an estimated one million Jews within the country. As barbaric and inhuman as this seems, it was too slow and inefficient by Nazi standards. In 1942, the top leadership met in [[Wannsee]], a suburb of Berlin, and began to plan a more efficient way to slaughter the Jews. The Nazis created a system of [[extermination camp]]s throughout Poland, and began rounding up Jews from the Soviet Union, and from the Ghettos. Not only were Jews shot or gassed to death en masse, but they were forced to provide slave labor and they were used in horrific medical experiments (see [[Human experimentation in Nazi Germany]]). Out of the widespread condemnation of the Nazis' medical experiments, the [[Nuremberg Code]] of medical ethics was devised. [[Image:Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Slave laborers at the [[Buchenwald concentration camp]].]] The Nazis took a sadistic pleasure in the death camps; the entrance to the worst camp, [[Auschwitz]], stated ''"Arbeit Macht Frei"'' &mdash; "Work Makes Free". In the end, seven million Jews, [[homosexual]]s, [[Jehovah's Witness]]es, [[Roma people|Gypsies]] and political prisoners were killed by various means, mainly in the death camps. An additional seven million Soviet and other Allied prisoners of war died in camps and holding areas. There is some controversy over whether ordinary Germans knew about the Holocaust. It appears that many Germans knew about the concentration camps; such things were prominently displayed in magazines and newspapers. In many places, Jews had to walk past towns and villages on their way to work as slaves in German industry. In any case, Allied soldiers reported that the smell of the camps carried for miles. A very small number of people [[Holocaust denial|deny the Holocaust occurred]] entirely, though these claims have been routinely discredited by mainstream historians. ==== The Nuclear Age begins ==== [[Image:Trinity explosion2.jpeg|thumb|right|The first [[nuclear explosion]], named "[[Trinity site|Trinity]]", was detonated July 16, 1945.]] {{main|History of nuclear weapons}} During the 1930s, innovations in [[physics]] made it apparent that it could be possible to develop [[nuclear weapons]] of incredible power using [[nuclear reactions]]. When World War II broke out, scientists and advisors among the Allies feared that Nazi Germany may have been trying to develop its own atomic weapons, and the United States and the United Kingdom pooled their efforts in what became known as the [[Manhattan Project]] to beat them to it. At the secret [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos laboratory]] in [[New Mexico]], scientist [[Robert Oppenheimer]] led a team of the world's top scientists to develop the first nuclear weapons, the first of which was tested at the [[Trinity site]] in July 1945. However, Germany had surrendered in May 1945, and it had been discovered that the [[German nuclear energy project|German atomic bomb program]] had not been very close to success. The Allied team produced two nuclear weapons for use in the war, one powered by [[uranium-235]] and the other by [[plutonium]] as [[Nuclear fission|fissionable]] material, named "[[Little Boy]]" and "[[Fat Man]]". These were dropped on the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] in August 1945. This, in combination with the Soviet entrance in the war, convinced the Japanese to surrender unconditionally. These two weapons remain the only two nuclear weapons ever used against other countries in war. Nuclear weapons brought an entirely new and terrifying possibility to warfare: a nuclear holocaust. While at first the United States held a monopoly on the production of nuclear weapons, the Soviet Union, with some assistance from espionage, managed to detonate its first weapon (dubbed "[[Joe-1]]" by the West) in August 1949. The post-war relations between the two, which had already been deteriorating, began to rapidly disintegrate. Soon the two were locked in a massive stockpiling of nuclear weapons. The United States began a crash-program to develop the first [[hydrogen bomb]] in 1950, and detonated its first [[thermonuclear]] weapon in 1952. This new weapon was alone over 400 times as powerful as the weapons used against Japan. The Soviet Union detonated a primitive thermonuclear weapon in 1953 and a full-fledged one in 1955. [[Image:Trident II missile image.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nuclear missiles and computerized launch systems increased the range and scope of possible [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]].]] The conflict continued to escalate, with the major superpowers developing long-range missiles (such as the [[ICBM]]) and a [[nuclear strategy]] which guaranteed that any use of the nuclear weapons would be [[suicide]] for the attacking nation ([[Mutually Assured Destruction]]). The creation of [[Ballistic Missile Early Warning System|early warning system]]s put the control of these weapons into the hands of newly created [[computer]]s, and they served as a tense backdrop throughout the [[Cold War]]. Since the 1940s there were concerns about the rising [[nuclear proliferation|proliferation of nuclear weapons]] to new countries, which was seen as being destabilizing to international relations, spurring regional [[arms race]]s, and generally increasing the likelihood of some form of [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]]. Eventually, seven nations would overtly develop nuclear weapons, and still maintain stockpiles today: the [[The United States and weapons of mass destruction|United States]], the [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Soviet Union]] (and later [[Russia]] would inherit these), the [[The United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction|United Kingdom]], [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]], [[People's Republic of China and weapons of mass destruction|China]], [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]], and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]]. [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa]] developed six crude weapons in the 1980s (which it later dismantled), and [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction|Israel]] almost certainly developed nuclear weapons though it never confirmed nor denied it. The creation of the [[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]] in 1968 was an attempt to curtail such proliferation, but a number of countries developed nuclear weapons since it was signed (and many did not sign it), and a number of other countries, including [[Libya and weapons of mass destruction|Libya]], [[Iran and weapons of mass destruction|Iran]], and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]], were suspected of having clandestine nuclear weapons programs. === The post-war world === Following [[World War II]], the majority of the industrialized world lay in ruins as a result of aerial bombings, naval bombardment, and protracted land campaigns. The [[United States]] was a notable exception to this; barring [[Pearl Harbor]] and some minor incidents, the U.S. had suffered no attacks upon its territory. The United States and the [[Soviet Union]], which, despite the devastation of its most populated areas, rebuilt quickly, found themselves the world's two dominant [[superpower]]s. Much of Western Europe was rebuilt after the war with assistance from the [[Marshall Plan]]. [[Germany]], chief instigator of the war, was placed under joint military [[Military occupation|occupation]] by the United States, [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and the Soviet Union. [[Berlin]], although in Soviet-controlled territory, was also divided between the four powers. Occupation of Berlin would continue until 1990. Japan was also placed under U.S. occupation, that would last five years, until 1949. Oddly, these two [[Axis Powers|Axis]] powers, despite military occupation, soon rose to become the second (Japan) and third (West Germany) most powerful economies in the world. Following the end of the war, the [[Allies]] famously prosecuted numerous German officials for [[war crime]]s and other offenses in the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. Although [[Adolf Hitler]] had committed suicide, many of his cronies, including [[Hermann Göring]], were convicted. Less well-known trials of other [[Axis Powers|Axis]] officials also occurred, including the [[Tokyo War Crime Trial]]. The failure of the [[League of Nations]] to prevent World War II essentially discredited the organization, and it was dissolved. A new attempt at [[world peace]] was begun with the founding of the [[United Nations]] on [[24 October]] [[1945]] in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Today, nearly all countries are members, but despite its many successes, the organization's success at achieving its goal of world peace is dubious. The organization was never given enough power to overcome the conflicting interests and priorities of its member nations. ==== The end of empires: decolonization ==== {{main|Decolonization|New Imperialism}} Almost all of the major nations that were involved in World War II began shedding their overseas [[colony|colonies]] soon after the conflict. In Africa, nationalists such as [[Jomo Kenyatta]] of [[Kenya]] and Kwame Nkrumah of [[Ghana]] led their respective nations to independence from foreign rule. The tactics employed by the revolutionaries ranged from [[nonviolence|non-violent]] forms of protest to armed rebellions, depending on the nation involved. The [[United States]] granted independence to the [[Philippines]], its major Pacific possession. European powers also began withdrawing from their possessions in Africa and Asia. [[France]] was forced out of both [[French Indochina|Indochina]] and, later, [[Algeria]]. ==== Mutually assured destruction: the Cold War (1947&ndash;1991) ==== {{main|Cold War}} '''This section should be added, and the following (War by proxy) merged into it.''' ==== War by proxy ==== {{main|Korean War|Vietnam War|Cuban Missile Crisis}} Two wars and a near-war in the 1950s became the foci for capitalist versus communist struggle. The first war was the [[Korean War]], fought between [[People's Republic of China]]-backed [[North Korea]] and mainly [[United States]]-backed [[South Korea]]. North Korea's invasion of South Korea led to [[United Nations]] intervention. General [[Douglas MacArthur]] led troops from the United States, [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Great Britain]], and other countries in repulsing the Northern invasion. However, the war reached a stalemate after Chinese intervention pushed U.N. forces back, and a [[cease-fire]] ended hostilities, leaving the two Koreas divided and tense for the rest of the century. The second war, the [[Vietnam War]], was perhaps the second most visible war of the 20th century, after [[World War II]]. After the [[France|French]] withdrawal from its former colony, Vietnam became partitioned into two halves, much like Korea. Fighting between North and South eventually escalated into a regional war. The United States provided aid to South Vietnam, but was not directly involved until the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]], passed in reaction to a supposed North Vietnamese attack upon American [[destroyer]]s, brought the U.S. into the war as a belligerent. The war was initially viewed as a fight to contain communism (see [[containment]], [[Truman Doctrine]], and [[Domino Theory]]), but, as more Americans were [[conscription|draft]]ed and news of events such as the [[Tet Offensive]] and [[My Lai massacre]] leaked out, American sentiment turned against the war. [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Richard Nixon]] was elected partially on claims of a "secret plan" to stop the war. This [[Nixon Doctrine]] involved a gradual pullout of American forces; South Vietnamese units were supposed to replace them, backed up by American air power. Unfortunately, the plan went awry, and the war spilled into neighboring [[Cambodia]] while South Vietnamese forces were pushed further back. Eventually, the U.S. and North Vietnam signed the [[Paris Peace Accords]], ending U.S. involvement in the war. With the threat of U.S. retaliation gone, the North proceeded to violate the ceasefire and invaded the South with full military force. [[Saigon]] was captured on [[30 April]] [[1975]], and Vietnam was unified under Communist rule a year later, effectively bringing an end to one of the most unpopular wars of all time. The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] illustrates just how close to the brink of [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] the world came during the [[Cold War]]. [[Cuba]], under [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[socialist]] government, had formed close ties with the [[Soviet Union]]. This was obviously disquieting to the [[United States]], given Cuba's proximity. When [[Lockheed U-2]] spy plane flights over the island revealed that Soviet missile launchers were being installed, [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] instituted a naval [[blockade]] and publicly confronted the Soviet Union. After a tense week, the Soviet Union backed down and ordered the launchers removed, not wanting to risk igniting a new world war. ==== The space race ==== [[Image:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|left|In 1969, [[human]]s first set foot on [[Moon|the Moon]].]] {{main|Space Race}} With [[Cold War]] tensions running high, the [[Soviet Union]] and [[United States]] took their rivalry to the stars in 1957 with the Soviet launch of [[Sputnik]]. A "space race" between the two powers followed. Although the USSR reached several important milestones, such as the first craft on the [[Moon]] ([[Luna 2]]) and the first human in space ([[Yuri Gagarin]]), the U.S. eventually pulled ahead with its [[Mercury program|Mercury]], [[Gemini program|Gemini]], and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] programs, which culminated in [[Apollo 11]]'s manned landing on the moon. Five more manned landings followed ([[Apollo 13]] was forced to abort its mission). In addition, both countries launched numerous [[probe]]s into space, such as the [[Venera 7]] and [[Voyager 2]]. In later decades, space became a somewhat friendlier place. Regular manned space flights were made possible with the American [[space shuttle]], which was the first reusable spacecraft to be successfully used. [[Mir]] and [[Skylab]] enabled prolonged human habitation in space. In the 1990s, work on the [[International Space Station]] began, and by the end of the century, while still incomplete, it was in continual use by astronauts from the United States, Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada. ==== The end of the Cold War ==== [[Image:Thefalloftheberlinwall1989.JPG|thumb|250px|In 1989, the [[Berlin Wall]] separating West and East [[Berlin]] fell.]] {{main|Cold War (1985-1991)}} By the 1980s, the [[Soviet Union]] was weakening. The [[Sino-Soviet split]] had removed the USSR's most powerful ally, the [[People's Republic of China]]. Its [[arms race]] with the U.S. was draining the country of funds, and further weakened by internal pressures, ethnic and political. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], its last leader, attempted to reform the country with ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'', but the formation of [[Solidarity]], the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], and the breaking-off of several Soviet republics, such as [[Lithuania]], started a slippery slope of events that culminated in a [[coup]] to overthrow Gorbachev, organized by Communist Party hard-liners. [[Boris Yeltsin]], president of [[Russia]], organized mass opposition, and the coup failed. On [[26 December]] [[1991]], the Soviet Union was officially disbanded into its constituent republics, thus putting a final line under the already exhausted [[Cold War]]. ==== Information and communications technology ==== <!-- Too much detail here for an overview of the entire century. ("Young programmers in their bedrooms became the core of a youthful games industry"?) Someone might want to pare it down. --Teemu Leisti 2008-01-03 --> {{main|Computer|History of computing hardware|Internet}} The creation of the [[transistor]] revolutionized the development of the [[computer]]. The first computers, room-sized electro-mechanical devices built to break [[cryptographic]]al codes during World War II, quickly became at least 20 times smaller using transistors. Computers became [[computer programming|reprogrammable]] rather than fixed-purpose devices. The invention of [[programming language]]s meant computer operators could concentrate on problem solving at a high-level, without having to think in terms of the individual instructions to the computer itself. The creation of [[operating systems]] also vastly improved programming productivity. Building on this, computer pioneers could now realize what they had envisioned. The [[graphical user interface]], piloted by a [[computer mouse]] made it simple to harness the power of the computer. [[Computer storage|Storage]] for computer programs progressed from [[punch card]]s and [[paper tape]] to [[magnetic tape]], [[floppy disk]]s and [[hard disk]]s. [[Core memory]] and [[bubble memory]] fell to [[random access memory]]. The invention of the [[word processor]], [[spreadsheet]] and [[database]] greatly improved [[office]] productivity over the old paper, [[typewriter]] and filing cabinet methods. The economic advantage given to businesses led to economic efficiencies in computers themselves. Cost-effective [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] led to thousands of industrial and home-brew computer designs, many of which became successful; a home-computer boom was led by the [[Apple II]], the [[Sinclair ZX80|ZX80]] and the [[Commodore PET]]. [[Image:IBM PC 5150.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The first model of the [[IBM PC]], the [[personal computer]] whose successors and clones would fill the world.]] [[IBM]], seeking to embrace the [[microcomputer]] revolution, devised its [[IBM Personal Computer]] (PC). Crucially, IBM developed the PC from third-party components that were available on the open market. The only impediment to another company duplicating the system's architecture was the proprietary [[BIOS]] software. Other companies, starting with [[Compaq]], [[reverse engineered]] the BIOS and released [[PC compatible]] computers that soon became the dominant architecture. [[Microsoft]], which produced the PC's operating system, rode this wave of popularity to become the world's leading software company. The 1980s heralded the [[Information Age]]. The rise of computer applications and [[data processing]] made ethereal "information" as valuable as physical commodities. This brought about new concerns surrounding [[intellectual property]] issues. The [[United States|U.S.]] Government made algorithms [[patent]]able, forming the basis of [[software patent]]s. The controversy over these and [[proprietary software]] led [[Richard Stallman]] to create the [[Free Software Foundation]] and begin the [[GNU|GNU Project]]. Computers also became a usable platform for entertainment. [[Computer games]] were first developed by software programmers exercising their creativity on large systems at universities, but these efforts became commercially successful in [[arcade game]]s such as ''[[Pong]]'' and ''[[Space Invaders]]''. Once the home computer market was established, young programmers in their bedrooms became the core of a youthful games industry. In order to take advantage of advancing technology, [[games console]]s were created. Like arcade systems, these machines had custom hardware designed to do game-oriented operations (such as [[sprite (computer science)|sprites]] and [[parallax scrolling]]) in preference to general purpose computing tasks. [[Computer network]]s appeared in two main styles; the [[local area network]], linking computers in an office or school to each other, and the [[wide area network]], linking the local area networks together. Initially, computers depended on the [[PSTN|telephone networks]] to link to each other, spawning the [[Bulletin board system|Bulletin Board]] sub-culture. However, a [[DARPA]] project to create bomb-proof computer networks led to the creation of the [[Internet]], a network of networks. The core of this network was the robust [[TCP/IP]] [[network protocol]]. Thanks to efforts from [[Al Gore]], the Internet grew beyond its military role when universities and commercial businesses were permitted to connect their networks to it. The main impetus for this was [[electronic mail]], a far faster and convenient form of communication than conventional letter and memo distribution, and the [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP). However, the Internet remained largely unknown to the general public, who were used to Bulletin Boards and services like [[Compuserve]] and [[AOL|America Online]]. This changed when [[Tim Berners-Lee]] devised a simpler form of [[Vannevar Bush]]'s [[hypertext]], which he dubbed the [[World Wide Web]]. "The Web" suddenly changed the Internet into a printing press beyond the geographic boundaries of physical countries; it was termed "[[cyberspace]]". Anyone with a computer and an Internet connection could write pages in the simple [[HTML]] format and publish their thoughts to the world. The Web's immense success also fueled the commercial use of the Internet. Convenient home shopping had been an element of "visions of the future" since the development of the telephone, but now the race was on to provide convenient, interactive consumerism. Companies trading through web sites became known as "[[dot com company|dot coms]]", due to the ".com" suffix of commercial Internet addresses. ==== European Union ==== {{main|History of the European Union}} === The world at the end of the century === By the end of the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left with truly independent new nation states, some cut from whole cloth, standing up after centuries of foreign domination. The world was undergoing its second major period of [[globalization]]; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was on in a position of almost unchallenged domination, a major part of the process was [[Americanization]]. This led to anti-Western and [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]] feelings in parts of the world, especially the [[Middle East]]. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations, long marginalized by the West and by their own rulers, were rapidly integrating with the world economy. However, several problems faced the world. First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the [[Third World]]. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, and the cost that goes along with it. Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as [[SARS]] and [[West Nile virus|West Nile]] continued to spread. In poor nations, [[malaria]] and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with [[HIV]], the virus which causes [[AIDS]]. The virus was becoming an [[AIDS in Africa|epidemic in southern Africa]]. [[Image:Global Warming Predictions Map.jpg|thumb|280px|The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21<sup>st</sup> century calculated by the [[HadCM3]] climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds to 3.0&nbsp;°C (5.4&nbsp;°F).]] [[Terrorism]], [[dictatorship]], and the spread of [[nuclear weapons]] were other issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. [[Despotism|Despots]] such as [[Kim Jong-il]] of [[North Korea]] continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. Perhaps most importantly, it was recognized that in the long term, environmental problems threatened the planet's liveability. The most serious was [[global warming]] due to human-caused emission of [[greenhouse gas]]es, particularly [[carbon dioxide]] produced by the burning of [[fossil fuel]]s. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the [[Kyoto Protocol|Kyoto treaty]], which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions. A significant driver of many of many of these problems was [[overpopulation]]. At the century's end, the global population was six and a half billion and rising. There was some hope on this score, because the number of children per woman had been decreasing throughout the world, not only in the rich countries. In the long term, it was predicted that the population would probably reach a plateau of nine billion. However, it remained doubtful whether the planet had the long-term capacity to sustain such numbers. == See also == * [[Infectious disease in the 20th century]] * [[Death rates in the 20th century]] * [[List of battles 1901-2000]] * [[Timeline of invention#20th century|20th century inventions]] * [[#Decades and years|The individual decades and years]] * [[20th century art]] ==References== <references /> ==Sources== * {{cite encyclopedia | title = The Twentieth Century | author = [[UNESCO]] | encyclopedia = History of Humanity | volume = VII | pages = 600 | publisher = [[Routledge]] | date = [[2008-02-28]] | id = ISBN 978-0-415-09311-8 }} == External links == {{commonscat|20th century}} * [http://www.20th-century.net The 20th Century Research Project] * [http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Old.html Slouching Towards Utopia: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century] * [http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_writers,00.shtml TIME Archives] The greatest writers of the 20th Century == Decades and years == {{DecadesAndYears}} {{Centuries}} {{Modernism}} [[Category:20th century| ]] [[Category:2nd millennium]] [[Category:Centuries]] [[Category:Modern history]] [[af:20ste eeu]] [[als:20. Jahrhundert]] [[ang:20e gēarhundred]] [[ar:قرن 20]] [[an:Sieglo XX]] [[frp:XXiémo sièclo]] [[ast:Sieglu XX]] [[az:XX əsr]] [[zh-min-nan:20 sè-kí]] [[be:20 стагоддзе]] [[be-x-old:20 стагодзьдзе]] [[bs:20. vijek]] [[br:XXvet kantved]] [[bg:20 век]] [[ca:Segle XX]] [[cv:XX ĕмĕр]] [[cs:20. století]] [[cy:20fed ganrif]] [[da:20. århundrede]] [[de:20. Jahrhundert]] [[et:20. sajand]] [[el:20ος αιώνας]] [[es:Siglo XX]] [[eo:20-a jarcento]] [[eu:XX. mendea]] [[fa:سده ۲۰ (میلادی)]] [[fo:20. øld]] [[fr:XXe siècle]] [[fy:20e ieu]] [[ga:20ú haois]] [[gv:20oo eash]] [[gd:20mh Linn]] [[gl:Século XX]] [[gan:20世紀]] [[ko:20세기]] [[hy:20-րդ դար]] [[hi:बीसवी शताब्दी]] [[hr:20. stoljeće]] [[io:20ma yar-cento]] [[id:Abad ke-20]] [[os:XX æнус]] [[is:20. öldin]] [[it:XX secolo]] [[he:המאה ה-20]] [[jv:Abad kaping 20]] [[ka:XX საუკუნე]] [[kk:20 ғ.]] [[kw:20ves kansblydhen]] [[sw:Karne ya 20]] [[ku:Sedsala 20'an]] [[la:Saeculum 20]] [[lv:20. gadsimts]] [[lb:20. Joerhonnert]] [[lt:XX amžius]] [[lij:XX secolo]] [[li:Twintegste iew]] [[jbo:20moi na'acto]] [[hu:20. század]] [[mk:20 век]] [[ml:ഇരുപതാം നൂറ്റാണ്ട്]] [[mi:Rautau 20]] [[mr:इ.स.चे २० वे शतक]] [[ms:Abad ke-20]] [[nl:20e eeuw]] [[nds-nl:20e ieuw]] [[ja:20世紀]] [[no:20. århundre]] [[nn:1900-talet]] [[nrm:XXe s.]] [[nov:20esmi sekle]] [[uz:XX asr]] [[nds:20. Johrhunnert]] [[pl:XX wiek]] [[pt:Século XX]] [[ksh:20. Joohunndot]] [[ro:Secolul al XX-lea]] [[ru:XX век]] [[sah:XX үйэ]] [[sq:Shekulli XX]] [[scn:Sèculu XX]] [[simple:20th century]] [[sk:20. storočie]] [[sl:20. stoletje]] [[sr:20. век]] [[sh:20. vijek]] [[stq:20. Jierhunnert]] [[su:Abad ka-20]] [[fi:1900-luku]] [[sv:1900-talet]] [[ta:20ம் நூற்றாண்டு]] [[kab:Lqern wis XX]] [[tt:20. yöz]] [[th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20]] [[vi:Thế kỷ 20]] [[tr:20. yüzyıl]] [[uk:20 століття]] [[ur:1900صبم]] [[vec:XX secoło]] [[fiu-vro:20. aastagasada]] [[wa:20inme sieke]] [[yi:20סטער י"ה]] [[yo:Ọ̀rúndún 20th]] [[zh-yue:20世紀]] [[bat-smg:XX omžios]] [[zh:20世纪]]