Oat 46573 224772341 2008-07-10T10:21:57Z 202.40.137.198 {{otheruses1|the common cereal}} :'''''Oats''' redirects here. It may mean either the common cereal oat discussed here, or any cultivated or wild species of the [[genus]] ''[[Avena]]. {{Taxobox | name = Oat | image = Avena sativa L.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Oat plants with [[inflorescence]]s | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Poales]] | familia = [[Poaceae]] | genus = ''[[Avena]]'' | species = '''''A. sativa''''' | binomial = ''Avena sativa'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] (1753) }} The common '''oat''' plant ('''''Avena sativa''''') is a [[species]] of [[Cereal|cereal grain]] [[Agriculture|grown]] for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural, unlike other grains). While oats are suitable for human consumption as [[oatmeal]] and [[rolled oats]], one of the most common uses is as [[livestock]] feed. Oats make up a large part of the diet of [[horse]]s and are regularly fed to [[cattle]] as well. Oats are also used in some brands of dog and [[chicken]] feed. ==Origin== The wild ancestor of ''Avena sativa'' and the closely-related minor crop, ''A. byzantina'', is the hexaploid wild oat ''A. sterilis''. Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of ''A. sterilis'' grow in the [[Fertile Crescent]] of the Near East. Domesticated oats appear relatively late, and far from the [[Near East]], in [[Bronze Age]] Europe. Oats, like [[rye]], are usually considered a secondary crop, i.e. derived from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates wheat and barley. As these cereals spread westwards into cooler, wetter areas, this may have favoured the oat weed component, leading to its eventual domestication.<ref>Zhou, X., Jellen, E.N., Murphy, J.P. 1999. Progenitor germplasm of domesticated hexaploid oat. ''Crop science'' 39: 1208-1214</ref> ==Cultivation== {{agricultural production box |plant=Oats |year=2005 |country1={{RUS}} | amount1=5.1 |country2= {{CAN}} |amount2= 3.3 |country3= {{USA}} |amount3= 1.7 |country4= {{POL}} |amount4= 1.3 |country5= {{FIN}} |amount5= 1.2 |country6= {{AUS}}|amount6= 1.1 |country7= {{GER}} |amount7= 1.0 |country8= {{BLR}} |amount8= 0.8 |country9= {{CHN}} |amount9= 0.8 |country10= {{UKR}} |amount10= 0.8 |world=24.6 }} [[Image:2005oat.PNG|thumb|left|Oat output in 2005]] Oats are grown throughout the [[temperate]] zones. They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of [[rain]] than other cereals like [[wheat]], [[rye]] or [[barley]], so are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers such as [[Northwest Europe]], even being grown successfully in [[Iceland]]. Oats are an [[annual plant]], and can be planted either in autumn (for late summer harvest) or in the spring (for early autumn harvest). Historical attitudes towards oats vary. Oat bread was first manufactured in [[England]], where the first oat bread factory was established in 1899. In [[Scotland]] they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet. A traditional saying in England is that "oats are only fit to be fed to horses and Scotsmen", to which the Scottish riposte is "and England has the finest horses, and Scotland the finest men". [[Samuel Johnson]] notoriously defined ''oats'' in his ''Dictionary'' as "a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people". Given the centrality of oats in traditional Scottish cuisine, it is not surprising that in Scotland the word "corn", when otherwise unqualified, refers to oats{{Fact|date=February 2008}}, just as in England it refers to [[wheat]] and in [[North America]] and [[Australia]], to [[maize]]. Oats grown in Scotland command a premium price throughout the [[United Kingdom]] as a result of these traditions{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. ==Uses== [[Image:Avena-sativa.jpg|thumb|left|Closeup of oat flowers]] Oats have numerous uses in food; most commonly, they are [[rolled oats|rolled]] or [[crushed oats|crushed]] into [[oatmeal]], or ground into fine oat [[flour]]. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as [[porridge]], but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as [[oatcake]]s, [[oatmeal cookie]]s, and oat bread. Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular [[muesli]] and [[granola]]. Oats may also be consumed raw, and cookies with raw oats are becoming popular. Oats are also occasionally used in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] for [[brewing]] [[beer]]. [[Oatmeal stout]] is one variety brewed using a percentage of oats for the [[wort]]. The more rarely used Oat Malt is produced by the Thomas Fawcett & Sons Maltings and was used in the Maclay Oat Malt Stout before Maclay ceased independent brewing operations. In Scotland a dish called '''Sowans''' was made by soaking the husks from oats for a week so that the fine, floury part of the meal remained as sediment to be strained off, boiled and eaten (Gauldie 1981). Oats are also commonly used as feed for horses, where it is [[dehulled]] and [[rolled oats|rolled]]. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole, or ground into a coarse flour using a [[roller mill]], [[burr mill]], or [[hammer mill]]. Oat [[straw]] is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature. The straw can also be used for making [[corn dolly|corn dollies]]. Oat extract can also be used to soothe skin conditions, e.g. skin lotions.<ref>[http://www.aveeno.com/about-aveeno.jsp AVEENO® Skin Care Products<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Health== Oats are generally considered "healthy", or a [[health food]], being touted commercially as nutritious. The discovery of the healthy [[cholesterol]]-lowering properties has led to wider appreciation of oats as human food. [[Image:Haverkorrels Avena sativa.jpg|right|thumb|Oat grains in their husks]] ===Soluble fiber=== Oat [[bran]] is the outer casing of the oat. Its consumption is believed to lower [[LDL]] ("bad") [[cholesterol]], and possibly to reduce the risk of [[heart disease]]. After reports found that oats can help lower cholesterol, an "oat bran craze" swept the U.S. in the late 1980s, peaking in 1989, when [[potato chip]]s with added oat bran were marketed. The food fad was short-lived and faded by the early 1990s. The popularity of oatmeal and other oat products again increased after the January 1998 decision by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) when it issued its final rule allowing a [[health claims on food labels|health claim]] to be made on the labels of foods containing soluble fiber from whole oats (oat bran, oat flour and rolled oats), noting that 3.00 grams of soluble fiber daily from these foods, in conjunction with a diet low in [[saturated fat]], cholesterol, and [[fat]] may reduce the risk of [[heart disease]]. In order to qualify for the health claim, the whole oat-containing food must provide at least 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving. The soluble fiber in whole oats comprises a class of [[polysaccharide]]s known as [[Beta-D-glucan]]. Beta-D-glucans, usually referred to as beta-glucans, comprise a class of non-digestible polysaccharides widely found in nature in sources such as grains, [[barley]], [[yeast]], [[bacteria]], [[algae]] and [[mushroom]]s. In oats, barley and other cereal grains, they are located primarily in the [[endosperm]] [[cell wall]]. Oat beta-glucan is a soluble fiber. It is a viscous polysaccharide made up of units of the [[sugar]] D-[[glucose]]. Oat beta-glucan is comprised of mixed-linkage polysaccharides. This means that the [[chemical bond|bonds]] between the D-glucose or D-glucopyranosyl units are either beta-1, 3 linkages or beta-1, 4 linkages. This type of beta-glucan is also referred to as a mixed-linkage (1→3), (1→4)-beta-D-glucan. The (1→3)-linkages break up the uniform structure of the beta-D-glucan molecule and make it soluble and flexible. In comparison, the non-digestible polysaccharide [[cellulose]] is also a beta-glucan but is non-soluble. The reason that it is non-soluble is that cellulose consists only of (1→4)-beta-D-linkages. The percentages of beta-glucan in the various whole oat products are: oat bran, greater than 5.5% and up to 23.0%; rolled oats, about 4%; whole oat flour about 4%. Oats after corn ([[maize]]) have the highest [[lipid]] content of any cereal, e.g., greater than 10 percent for oats and as high as 17 percent for some maize cultivars compared to about 2–3 percent for wheat and most other cereals. The polar [[lipid]] content of oats (about 8–17% glycolipid and 10–20% phospholipid or a total of about 33% ) is greater than that of other cereals since much of the lipid fraction is contained within the endosperm. ===Protein=== {{nutritionalvalue | name=Oats | kJ=1628 | protein=17 g | fat=7 g | carbs=66 g | fiber=11 g | iron_mg=5 | magnesium_mg=177 | thamin_mg=0.8 | pantothenic_mg=1.3 | folate_ug=56 | opt1n=β-glucan (soluble fiber)&nbsp; | opt1v=4 g | source_usda=1 | right=1 }} Oat is the only cereal containing a [[globulin]] or [[legume]]-like protein, [[avenalin]], as the major (80%) storage protein. Globulins are characterized by water solubility; because of this property, oats may be turned into milk but not into bread. The more typical cereal proteins such as [[gluten]] and [[zein]] are [[prolamine]]s (prolamins). The minor protein of oat is a prolamine: avenin. Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to [[soy protein]], which has been shown by the [[World Health Organization]] to be equal to meat, milk, and egg protein. The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel ([[groats|groat]]) ranges from 12–24%, the highest among cereals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lasztity|first=Radomir|year=1999|title=The Chemistry of Cereal Proteins|publisher=Akademiai Kiado(English)|isbn=978-0849327636}}</ref> === Celiac Disease === [[Coeliac disease]], or celiac disease, from Greek "koiliakos", meaning "suffering in the bowels", is a disease often associated with ingestion of [[wheat]], or more specifically a group of proteins labelled prolamines, or more commonly, [[gluten]]. Oats lack many of the prolamines found in wheat; however, oats do contain avenin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csaceliacs.org/library/useofoats.php |title=On the Use of Oats in the Gluten-Free Diet |accessdate=2006-10-31 |date=2006-09-26 |author=Rottmann LH |publisher=Celiac Sprue Association/United States of America, Inc. (CSA) }}</ref> Avenin is a prolamine that is toxic to the intestinal submucosa and can trigger a reaction in some celiacs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csaceliacs.org/InfoonOats.php |title=Info on Oats |accessdate=2007-09-29 |date=2006-09-26 |publisher=Celiac Sprue Association/United States of America, Inc. (CSA) }}</ref> {{Further|[[Oat sensitivity#Avenin-sensitive enteropathy|Avenin-sensitive enteropathy]]}} Although oats do contain avenin, there are several studies suggesting that oats can be a part of a gluten free diet if it is pure. The first such study was published in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/333/16/1033 |title=A Comparison of Diets with and without Oats in Adults with Celiac Disease |date=1995-10-19 |author=Janatuinen, E et al. |publisher=New England Journal of Medicine}}</ref> A follow-up study indicated that it is safe to use oats even in a longer period.<ref>Janatuinen, E.K., Kemppainen, T.A., Julkunen, R.J.K., Kosma, V-M., Mäki, M., Heikkinen, M. and Uusitupa, M.I. (2002) No harm from five year ingestion of oats in celiac disease, ''Gut'', '''50''', 332&ndash;335</ref> Additionally, oats are frequently processed near wheat, barley and other grains such that they become contaminated with other glutens. Because of this, the [[FAO]]'s [[Codex Alimentarius Commission]] officially lists them as a crop containing gluten. Oats from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]], where less wheat is grown, are less likely to be contaminated in this way.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Oats are part of a gluten free diet in, for example, Finland and Sweden. In both of these countries there are "pure oat" products on the market. {{Further|[[Gluten sensitivity#The oat controversy|The oat controversy in gluten sensitivity]]}} ==Agronomy== Oats are sown in the spring or early summer, as soon as the soil can be worked. An early start is crucial to good yields as oats will go dormant during the summer heat. Oats are cold-tolerant and will be unaffected by late frosts or snow. ===Seeding rates=== Typically about 125 to 175 kg/hectare (between 2.75 and 3.25 bushels per acre) are sown, either broadcast, [[seed drill|drilled]], or [[air seeder|planted using an airseeder]]. Lower rates are used when [[underseeding]] with a [[legume]]. Somewhat higher rates can be used on the best soils, or where there are problems with weeds. Excessive sowing rates will lead to problems with lodging and may reduce yields. Winter oats may be grown as an off-season [[groundcover]] and plowed under in the spring as a [[green fertilizer]]. ===Fertilizer requirements=== Oats remove substantial amounts of [[nitrogen]] from the soil. They also remove phosphorus in the form of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> at the rate of 0.25 pound per bushel per acre (1 bushel = 38 pounds at 12% moisture){{Fact|date=December 2007}}; Phosphate is thus applied at a rate of 30 to 40 kg/ha, or 30 to 40 lb/ac. Oats remove potash (K<sub>2</sub>O) at a rate of 0.19 pound per bushel per acre, which causes it to use 15–30 kg/ha, or 13–27 lb/ac. Usually 50–100 kg/ha (45–90 pounds per acre) of nitrogen in the form of [[urea]] or [[ammonia|anhydrous ammonia]] is sufficient, as oats uses about 1 pound per bushel per acre. A sufficient amount of nitrogen is particularly important for plant height and hence straw quality and yield. When the prior-year crop was a legume, or where ample manure is applied, nitrogen rates can be reduced somewhat. ===Weed control=== The vigorous growth habit of oats will tend to choke out most weeds. A few tall [[broadleaf]] weeds, such as [[ragweed]], [[goosegrass]], [[wild mustard]] and [[buttonweed]] (velvetleaf), can occasionally be a problem as they complicate harvest and reduce yields. These can be controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide such as [[2,4-D]] while the weeds are still small. ===Pests and diseases=== Oats are relatively free from diseases and pests, with the exception being leaf diseases, such as [[leaf rust]] and [[stem rust]]. A few [[Lepidoptera]] [[caterpillar]]s feed on the plants&mdash;e.g. [[Rustic Shoulder-knot]] and [[Setaceous Hebrew Character]]—but these rarely become a major pest. See also [[List of oats diseases]]. ===Harvesting=== Modern harvest technique is a matter of available equipment, local tradition, and priorities. Best yields are attained by [[swather|swathing]], cutting the plants at about 10 cm (4 inches) above ground and putting them into windrows with the grain all oriented the same way, when the kernels have reached 35% moisture, or when the greenest kernels are just turning cream-color. The windrows are left to dry in the sun for several days before being combined using a [[pickup header]]. Then the straw is baled. Oats can also be left standing until completely ripe and then [[combine harvester|combined]] with a grain head. This will lead to greater field losses as the grain falls from the heads and to harvesting losses as the grain is threshed out by the reel. Without a [[draper head]], there will also be somewhat more damage to the straw since it will not be properly oriented as it enters the throat of the [[combine harvester|combine]]. Overall yield loss is 10–15% compared to proper swathing. Historical harvest methods involved cutting with a scythe or sickle, and threshing under the feet of cattle. Late 19th and early 20th century harvesting was performed using a [[binder]]. Oats were gathered into shocks and then collected and run through a stationary [[threshing machine]]. ===Storage=== After it is combined, the oats are transported to the farm-yard using a [[grain truck]], [[semi]], or [[road train]], where it is [[auger]]ed or [[conveyor|conveyed]] into a [[grain bin|bin]] for storage. Sometimes, when there is not enough bin-space, it is augered into [[grain rings|portable grain rings]], or [[grain piles| piled]] on the ground. Oats can be safely stored at 12% moisture; at higher moisture levels, it must be [[aereate]]d, or [[grain dryer|dried]]. ===Yield and quality=== In the United States, No.1 oats weighs 42 lb per bushel; No.3 oats must weigh at least 38 lb/bu. If it weighs over 36 lb/bu, it is a No.4, and anything under 36 lb/bu is graded as "light weight". Note, however, that oats are bought and sold, and yields are figured, on the basis of a bushel equal to 32 lb in the United States. A Canadian bushel of oats, however, is 34 lb. Yields range from 60 to 80 bushels on marginal land, to 100 to 150 bushels per acre on high-producing land. The average production is 100 bushels per acre, or 3½ tonnes per hectare. Straw yields are variable, ranging from one to three tonnes per hectare, mainly due to available nutrients, and the variety used (some are short-strawed, meant specifically for straight-combining). ==Processing== Oats processing is a relatively simple process: ===Cleaning & sizing=== Upon delivery to the milling plant, chaff, rocks, other grains, and other foreign material are removed from the oats. ===Dehulling=== Separation of the outer hull from the inner oat groat is effected by means of centrifugal acceleration. Oats are fed by gravity onto the center of a horizontally spinning stone, which accelerates them towards an outer ring. Groat and hull are separated on impact with this ring. The lighter oat hulls are then aspirated away while the denser oat groats are taken to the next step of processing. Oat hulls can be used as feed, processed further into insoluble oat fiber, or used as a biomass fuel. : ===Kilning=== The unsized oat [[groats]] will then pass through a heat and moisture treatment to balance moisture, but mainly to stabilize the groat. Oat groats are high in fat (lipids) and once exposed from their protective hull, enzymatic (lipase) activity begins to break down the fat into free fatty acids, ultimately causing an off flavor or [[rancidity]]. Oats will begin to show signs of enzymatic rancidity within 4 days of being dehulled and not stabilized. This process is primarily done in food grade plants, not in feed grade plants. An oat groat is not considered a raw oat groat if it has gone through this process: the heat has disrupted the germ, and the oat groat will not sprout. ===Sizing of groats=== Many whole oat groats are broken during the dehulling process, leaving the following types of groats to be sized and separated for further processing: Whole Oat Groats, Coarse Steel Cut Groats, Steel Cut Groats and Fine Steel Cut Groats. Groats are sized and separated using screens, shakers and indent screens. After the whole oat groats are separated, the remaining broken groats get sized again into the 3 groups (Coarse, Regular, Fine) and then stored. The term steel cut is referred to all sized or cut groats. When there are not enough broken to size for further processing, then whole oat groats get sent to a cutting unit with steel blades that will evenly cut the groats into the three sizes as discussed earlier. ===Final processing=== Three methods are used to make the finished product: ====Flaking==== This process uses two large smooth or corrugated rolls spinning at the same speed in opposite directions at a controlled distance. Oat flakes, also known as Rolled Oats, have many different sizes, thicknesses and other characteristics depending on the size of oat groat passed between the rolls. Typically the three sizes of steel cut oats are used to make Instant, Baby and Quick [[rolled oats]], whereas whole oat groats are used to make Regular, Medium and Thick Rolled Oats. Oat flakes range from a thickness of 0.014" to 0.040". ====Oat bran milling==== This process takes the oat groats through several roll stands that flatten and separate the bran from the flour (endosperm). The two separate products (flour and bran) get sifted through a gyrating sifter screen to further separate them. The final products are oat bran and debranned oat flour. ====Whole flour milling==== This process takes oat groats straight to a grinding unit (stone or hammer mill) and then over sifter screens to separate the coarse flour and final whole oat flour. The coarser flour gets sent back to the grinding unit until it's ground fine enough to be whole oat flour. This method is used very much in India. ==Naming== In [[Scottish English]] oats may be referred to as '''corn'''.<ref> {{cite book |title=Usage and Abusage: A Guide to Good English |first=Eric |last=Partridge |coauthors=Janet Whitcut (ed.) |isbn=0393037614 |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton, 1995 |year=1995 |edition=1st American ed. |pages=p.82 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=icnKIlILT4oC&pg=PA82&vq=corn&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1_1&sig=gDb63y1bG3c40htw8rMw_1_v4GI }} </ref> ==See also== *[[Oat milk]] *[[Oatcake]] *[[Quaker Oats Company]] *[[Steel-cut oats]] *[[Rolled oats]] *[[Oatmeal]] *[[Export Hay]] == References == {{commons|Avena sativa}} {{reflist}} *Gauldie, Enid (1981). ''The Scottish Miller 1700 - 1900''. Pub. John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-067-7. {{Cereals}} [[Category:Cereals]] [[Category:Fodder]] [[Category:Staple foods]] [[Category:Medicinal plants]] [[ar:شوفان]] [[zh-min-nan:Iàn-be̍h]] [[ca:Civada]] [[cs:Oves setý]] [[cy:Ceirch]] [[da:Almindelig Havre]] [[pdc:Hawwer]] [[de:Saat-Hafer]] [[el:Βρώμη]] [[es:Avena sativa]] [[eo:Aveno]] [[fa:یولاف]] [[fr:Avoine cultivée]] [[ko:귀리]] [[hr:Zob]] [[id:Haver]] [[is:Hafrar]] [[it:Avena sativa]] [[sw:oti]] [[ht:Avwàn]] [[la:Avena sativa]] [[lv:Auzas]] [[lt:Sėjamoji aviža]] [[hu:Zab]] [[ms:Oat]] [[nl:Haver]] [[ja:エンバク]] [[no:Havre]] [[nn:Havre]] [[oc:Civada]] [[pl:Owies]] [[pt:Aveia]] [[ru:Овёс]] [[sq:Tërshëra]] [[simple:Oat]] [[sl:Oves]] [[sr:Ovas]] [[fi:Kaura]] [[sv:Havre]] [[ta:ஓட்ஸ்]] [[th:ข้าวโอ๊ต]] [[tr:Yulaf]] [[uk:Овес]] [[wa:Avoenne]] [[zh:燕麦]] [[zh-yue:燕麥]]