Oceanography
44044
226144064
2008-07-17T00:44:33Z
Ron Ritzman
154046
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.124.78.82|24.124.78.82]] to last version by Frank (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
[[Image:Thermohaline Circulation 2.png|thumb|225px|right|[[Thermohaline circulation]]]]
[[Image:Antarctic_frontal-system_hg.png|thumb|Oceanographic frontal systems on the southern hemisphere]]
'''Oceanography''' (from the [[Greek language|greek]] words ''Ωκεανός'' meaning [[Ocean]] and ''γράφω'' meaning to write), also called '''oceanology''' or '''marine science''', is the branch of [[Earth Sciences]] that studies the [[Earth]]'s [[ocean]]s and [[sea]]s. It covers a wide range of topics, including [[marine organism]]s and [[ecosystem]] dynamics; [[ocean currents]], [[waves]], and geophysical fluid dynamics; [[plate tectonics]] and the geology of the sea floor; and [[flux]]es of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], and [[physics]].
== Sub categories ==
The study of oceanography is divided into a number of branches:
* '''Biological oceanography''', or '''[[marine biology]]''', is the study of the plants, animals and microbes ([[biota (ecology)|biota]]) of the oceans and their [[ecology|ecological]] interaction;
* '''[[Chemical oceanography]]''', or '''marine chemistry''', is the study of the [[chemistry]] of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere;
* '''Geological oceanography''', or '''[[marine geology]]''', is the study of the [[geology]] of the ocean floor including [[plate tectonics]];
* '''[[Physical oceanography]]''', or '''marine physics''', studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, [[ocean surface wave|waves]], internal waves, [[tide]]s and [[ocean current|currents]]. Of particular interest is the behaviour of sound ([[acoustical oceanography]]), light (optical oceanography) and radio waves in the ocean.
These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the [[exact sciences]] or [[mathematics]] and then focus on applying their [[interdisciplinary]] knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.<ref>[http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=8E5BF2D2-2B35-221B-6CC622E027B244CC Impact from the Deep]; October 2006; [[Scientific American]] Magazine; by Peter D. Ward; 8 Page(s)</ref>
Oceanology is used in '''[[Ocean engineering]]''', involved in the design and building of [[oil platforms]], ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean safely.<ref>Tom Garrison. "Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science" 5th edition. Thomson, 2005. Page 4.</ref>
Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that oceanographic data both past and present are available to researchers.
== History ==
[[Image:Ocean currents 1911.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Ocean currents (1911)]]
Man began to acquire knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on [[tides]] are recorded by [[Aristotle]] and [[Strabo]]. Early modern exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. But when [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]], who voyaged between 1766 and 1769, and [[James Cook]], who voyaged from 1768 to 1779, carried out their explorations in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], information on the oceans themselves formed part of the reports.
[[James Rennell]] wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the [[Atlantic ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Indian ocean|Indian]] oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Sir [[James Clark Ross]] took the first modern sounding in deep sea in [[1840]], and [[Charles Darwin]] published a paper on [[reef]]s and the formation of [[atoll]]s as a result of the second voyage of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] in 1831-6. [[Robert FitzRoy|Fitzroy]] published a report in four volumes of the three voyages of the ''Beagle''.
The steep slope beyond the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] was not discovered until 1849. [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]]'s ''Physical Geography of the Sea'', [[1855]] was the first textbook of oceanography. The first successful laying of [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] in August 1858 confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau" [[mid-ocean ridge]].
After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans. In the 19th century [[Edward Forbes]] undertook dredging in the [[Aegean Sea]] that founded marine ecology.
In 1871, under the recommendations of the [[Royal Society]] of London, the British government sponsored an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct scientific investigations. With that, oceanography began as a quantifiable [[science]] in [[1872]], when the [[Scotland|Scots]] [[Charles Wyville Thompson]] and [[John Murray (oceanographer)|Sir John Murray]] launched the [[Challenger expedition]] (1872–1876). The results of this were published in 50 volumes covering biological, physical and geological aspects. 4417 new species were discovered.
Other [[Europe]]an and [[Americas|American]] nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The first purpose built oceanographic ship, the "Albatros" was built in 1882. The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by [[John Murray (oceanographer)|Sir John Murray]] and [[Johan Hjort]] was at that time the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever, and led to the classic 1912 book ''The Depths of the Ocean''.
Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the [[United States]], these included the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] in 1892, [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] in 1930, [[Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]] at [[Columbia University]], and the [[University of Washington#Organization|School of Oceanography]] at [[University of Washington]]. In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], there is a major research institution: [[National Oceanography Centre, Southampton]] which is the successor to the Institute of Oceanography. In [[Australia]], [[CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research]], known as CMAR, is a leading center. In [[1921]] the [[International Hydrographic Bureau]] (IHB) was formed in [[Monaco]].
In 1893 [[Fridtjof Nansen]] allowed his ship "Fram" to be frozen in the Arctic ice. As a result he was able to obtain oceanographic data as well as meteorological and astronomical data. The first international organization of oceanography was created in [[1902]] as the [[International Council for the Exploration of the Sea]].
The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the [[Mid Atlantic Ridge]]. The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discoved by [[Maurice Ewing]] and [[Bruce Heezen]] in 1953 while the mountain range under the Arctic was found in 1954 by the Arctic Institute of the USSSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by [[Harry Hammond Hess]]. The [[Ocean Drilling Project]] started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discovered in 1977 by [[John Corlis]] and [[Robert Ballard]] in the submersible "[[Alvin]]".
In the 1950s [[Auguste Piccard]] invented the [[bathyscape]] and used the "Trieste" to investigate the ocean's depths. The nuclear submarine [[Nautilus]] made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962 there was the first deployment of FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355 foot spar buoy.
Then in [[1966]], the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] created a ''National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development''. [[NOAA]] was put in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography in the USA. It also enabled the [[National Science Foundation]] to award [http://www.factbites.com/topics/Sea-Grant-Colleges '''Sea Grant College'''] funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography.
From the 1970s there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of [[El Niño]] events.
1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995.
In 1942 Sverdrup and Fleming published "The Ocean" which was a major landmark. "The Sea" (in three volumes covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962 while the "Encyclopedia of Oceanography by Rhodes Fairbridge was published in 1966.
== Ocean and atmosphere connections ==
The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding [[global warming]] and related [[Biosphere#Origin and use of the term|biosphere]] concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of [[evaporation]] and [[precipitation]] as well as [[thermal flux]] (and solar [[insolation]]). [[Wind]] stress is a major driver of [[ocean currents]] while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]].
{{Cquote2|Our planet is invested with two great oceans; one visible, the other invisible; one underfoot, the other overhead; one entirely envelopes it, the other covers about two thirds of its surface.|[[Matthew F. Maury]] (1855) ''The [[Physical Geography]] of the Seas and Its [[Meteorology]]''}}
== Major oceanographic institutions and programs==
{{main|List of oceanographic institutions and programs}}
==References==
<references/>
== See also ==
* [[American Practical Navigator]]
* [[Anoxic event]] - [[Anoxic sea water]]
* [[Argo (oceanography)]]
* [[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]] (AOML) (in the US)
* [[Bathymetric chart]]
* [[Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center]] (USA)
* [[Freak wave]]
* [[List of Oceanic basins]]
* [[Oceans Act of 2000]]
* [[Ocean colonization]]
* [[Oceanographic Museum]] - Monaco
* [[Sea]] - contains list of world's seas
* [[Sea level]]
* [[Sea level rise]]
* [[Marine archaeology]]
* [[Marine engineering]]
* [[Ocean engineering]]
* [[Pollution]]
=== Related disciplines ===
* [[Biogeochemistry]]
* [[Biogeography]]
* [[Coastal geography]]
* [[Hydrography]]
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Limnology]]
* [[Meteorology]]
* [[Environmental science]]
* [[Physical geography]]
* [[Glaciology]]
* [[Geophysics]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.io.usp.br/ Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo]
* [http://www.whoi.edu Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)] - World's largest private, nonprofit ocean research, engineering and education organization.
* [http://sio.ucsd.edu Scripps Institution of Oceanography]
* [http://www.noc.soton.ac.uk National Oceanography Centre, Southampton]
* [http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov Ocean Explorer] - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration.
* [http://nosdataexplorer.noaa.gov/nosdataexplorer NOS Data Explorer] - A portal to obtain NOAA National Ocean Service data
* [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/gallery/gallery.html NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery] - A rich collection of images, video, audio and [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/podcast/06oceanexplorer_podcast.xml podcast].
* [http://www.explore.noaa.gov NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration]
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator] - Plot and download ocean data
* [http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/contrast/cover.html Exploring Marine Ecosystems] - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History permanent exhibit
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/10 Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme] - Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU
* [http://www.lodyc.jussieu.fr/NEMO NEMO: Modeling framework for Oceanography]
* [http://marine.artuz.com/ Oceanographycal and Hidrobiological manuscripts] The Turkish Seas
* [http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ch8.asp Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology]
* [http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom Matthias Tomczak's oceanography teaching site] (Open source studying material)
* [http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/home/oceanography_book.htm Ocean World] (Open source textbook)
* [http://www.pewoceanscience.org/mission/mission.php Pew Institute fo Ocean Science] - Protecting the world's oceans and the species that inhabit them.
* Herdman, William A. - [http://repositories.cdlib.org/sio/lib/4/ Founders of Oceanography, and their work] - An introduction to the science of the sea
* [http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/timeline_Oceanography.html Timeline of Oceanography]
* [http://www.uea.ac.uk/ocean/vl Virtual Library] - lists of oceanic publications, societies and conferences
* [http://oceanmotion.org/ Ocean Motion and Surface Currents ([[NASA]])]
* [http://www.bodc.ac.uk/ British Oceanographic Data Centre] - a source of oceanographic data and information
* [http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/ocean/ Office of Naval Research]
== Further reading ==
*Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences.'' San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X
*Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). ''Fundamentals of Oceanography'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0072826789.
{{Earth science}}
{{Environmental science}}
{{Physical geography topics}}
[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Oceanography| ]]
[[Category:Physical geography]]
[[bs:Okeanografija]]
[[bg:Океанография]]
[[ca:Oceanografia]]
[[cs:Oceánografie]]
[[da:Oceanografi]]
[[de:Ozeanografie]]
[[et:Okeanograafia]]
[[el:Ωκεανογραφία]]
[[es:Oceanografía]]
[[eo:Oceanografio]]
[[fr:Océanographie]]
[[gl:Oceanografía]]
[[ko:해양학]]
[[hr:Oceanografija]]
[[id:Oseanografi]]
[[ia:Oceanographia]]
[[is:Haffræði]]
[[it:Oceanografia]]
[[he:אוקינוגרפיה]]
[[lad:Oseanografiya]]
[[la:Oceanologia]]
[[lv:Okeanogrāfija]]
[[jbo:xasyske]]
[[ms:Oseanografi]]
[[nl:Oceanografie]]
[[ja:海洋学]]
[[no:Oseanografi]]
[[nn:Oseanografi]]
[[pl:Oceanografia]]
[[pt:Oceanografia]]
[[ru:Океанология]]
[[simple:Oceanographer]]
[[sk:Oceánografia]]
[[sr:Океанографија]]
[[sh:Oceanografija]]
[[fi:Meritiede]]
[[sv:Oceanografi]]
[[th:สมุทรศาสตร์]]
[[tr:Oşinografi]]
[[uk:Океанологія]]
[[ur:علم المحیطات]]
[[vo:Seanakaedav]]
[[zh:海洋学]]