Ogham 797150 226095217 2008-07-16T20:19:13Z RedStag8 7486369 /* Neopaganism */ {{Infobox WS |name= Ogham |type= [[Alphabet]] |typedesc= |time= 4th-10th century AD |languages= [[Primitive Irish]], [[Old Irish]], [[Pictish language|Pictish]]<ref>Forsyth, K.; "Abstract: The Three Writing Systems of the Picts." in Black et al. Celtic Connections: Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Celtic Studies, Vol. 1. East Linton: Tuckwell Press (1999), p. 508</ref>, [[Old Norse]]<ref>Richard A V Cox, The Language of the Ogam Inscriptions of Scotland, Dept. of Celtic, Aberdeen University ISBN 0-9523911-3-9 [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic/old/ogamleaf.html]</ref> |sisters= |children= |sample= |imagesize= 200px |iso15924=ogam }}{{SpecialCharsNote}} '''Ogham''' ({{lang-sga|ogam}} {{IPA2|ˈɔɣam}}, [[Irish language|Modern Irish]] {{IPA|[ˈoːm]}} or {{IPA|[ˈoːəm]}}, English {{IPAlink-en|ˈɒɡəm}}) is an [[Early Medieval]] [[alphabet]] used primarily to represent the [[Old Irish]] language (and, occasionally, the Brythonic-Latin ancestor of [[Welsh]]).<ref>The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, by Meic Stephens, page 540.</ref> Ogham is sometimes referred to as the "Celtic Tree Alphabet", based on a High Medieval ''[[Bríatharogam]]'' traditions ascribing names of trees to the individual letters. There are roughly 400 surviving [[ogham inscriptions]] on stone monuments throughout Ireland and Britain, the bulk of them stretching in arc from Co. [[Kerry]] in the south of Ireland across to [[Dyfed]] in south Wales. The remainder are mostly in south-eastern Ireland, western Scotland, the [[Isle of Man]], and England around the [[Devon]]/[[Cornwall]] border. The vast majority of the inscriptions consist of personal names. The etymology of the word ''ogam'' or ''ogham'' remains unclear. One possible origin is from the Irish ''og-úaim'' - 'point-seam', referring to the seam made by the point of a sharp weapon.<ref> (MacManus, §8.6) </ref>. ==Origins== {{alphabet}} The evidence points to a creation date for ogham not post-dating the [[4th century]]. Although the use of "classical" ogham in stone inscriptions seems to have flowered in the [[5th century|5th]]–[[6th century|6th centuries]] around the [[Irish Sea]], from the phonological evidence it is clear that the alphabet predates the 5th century. A period of writing on wood or other perishable material prior to the preserved monumental inscriptions needs to be assumed, sufficient for the loss of the phonemes represented by ''[[úath]]'' ("H") and ''[[straif]]'' ("Z"), as well as the voiced labiovelar, ''[[gétal]]'', all of which are clearly part of the system, but unattested in inscriptions. In Ireland and in Wales, the language of the monumental stone inscriptions is termed [[Primitive Irish]]. The transition to [[Old Irish]], the language of the earliest sources in the Latin alphabet, takes place in about the 6th century. Since ogham inscriptions consist almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership, linguistic information that may be glimpsed from the Primitive Irish period is mostly restricted to [[phonology|phonological]] developments. ===Theories of origin=== There are two main schools of thought among scholars as to the motivation for the creation of ogham. Scholars such as Carney and MacNeill have suggested that ogham was first created as a cryptic alphabet, designed by the Irish so as not to be understood by those with a knowledge of the Latin alphabet.<ref> Carney, J "The Invention of the Ogam Cipher" 'Ériu' 22, pp 62 -3, 1975; MacNeill, E. "Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions", 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp 33-53, Dublin </ref> In other words, it was created by Irish scholars or druids for political, military or religious reasons to provide a secret means of communication in opposition to the authorities of Roman Britain. The Roman Empire, which then ruled over neighbouring Britain, represented a very real threat of invasion to Ireland, which may have acted as a spur to the creation of the alphabet. Alternatively, in later centuries when the threat of invasion had receded and the Irish were themselves invading the western parts of Britain, the desire to keep communications secret from Romans or Romanised Britons would still have provided an incentive. The second main school of thought, put forward by scholars such as McManus <ref> MacManus, 'Ibid', pp7, 41, 1991 </ref> is that ogham was invented by the first Christian communities in early Ireland, out of a desire to have a unique alphabet for writing short messages and inscriptions in the Irish language. The argument is that the sounds of Primitive Irish were regarded as difficult to transcribe into the Latin alphabet, so the invention of a separate alphabet was deemed appropriate. A possible such origin, as suggested by McManus (1991:41), is the early Christian community known to have existed in Ireland from around AD [[400]] at the latest, the existence of which is attested by the mission of [[Palladius]] by [[Pope Celestine I]] in AD [[431]]. Palladius died and was buried at [[Auchenblae]] in the [[Mearns]] in eastern [[Scotland]]. These events may be associated with a Christian community there propagating ogham to the otherwise anomalous cluster of inscriptions in eastern Scotland. A variation on both theories is that the alphabet was first invented, for whatever reason, in 4th century Irish settlements in west [[History of Wales|Wales]] after contact and intermarriage with Romanized Britons with a knowledge of the Latin alphabet. In fact, several ogham stones in Wales are bilingual, containing both Irish and Brythonic-Latin (an ancestor of contemporary Welsh), testifying to the Celtic contact that led to the existence of some of these stones. <ref>The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, by Meic Stephens, page 540; http://ogham.lyberty.com/mackillop.html</ref> [[Image:Maumanorig drawing.png|thumb|240px|Drawing of the ogham inscription in Maumanorig, Co Kerry (CIIC no. 193): <font style="font-variant:small-caps;">anm colman ailithir</font> "[written in] the name of Colmán, the pilgrim"]] A third theory put forward by the noted ogham scholar R.A.S. Macalaster was influential at one time, but finds little favour with scholars today <ref> Macalister, R.A.S. 'The Secret Languages of Ireland', pp27 - 36, Cambridge University Press, 1937 </ref> Macalister believed that ogham was first invented in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 B.C. by Gaulish druids as a secret system of hand signals, and was inspired by a form of the Greek alphabet current in Northern Italy at the time. According to this theory, the alphabet was transmitted in oral form or on wood only, until it was finally put into a written form on stone inscriptions in early Christian Ireland. Later scholars are largely united in rejecting this theory however <ref> McManus, 'Ibid', pp22 - 23, 1991 </ref>, primarily because a detailed study of the letters show that they were created specifically for the Primitive Irish of the early centuries AD. The supposed links with the form of the Greek alphabet that Macalister proposed can also be disproved. Macalister's theory of hand or finger signals as a source for ogham is a reflection of the fact that the signary consists of four groups of five letters, with a sequence of strokes from one to five. A theory popular among modern scholars is that one origin for the form of the letters was the various forms of numerical tally systems in existence at the time. This theory was first suggested by the scholars Thurneysen and Vendryes, who proposed that the ogham script was inspired by a pre-existing system of counting based around the numbers five and twenty, which was then adapted to an alphabet form by the first ogamists. <ref> McManus, 'Ibid', p11, 1991; Vendryes 'L'écriture ogamique et ses origines' Études Celtiques, 4, pp110- 113, 1931; Thurneysen, 'Zum ogam' Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, pp196-7, 1937 </ref> It is clear that the ogham alphabet was modelled on another script, and some even consider it a mere cipher of its template script (Düwel 1968:<ref>Düwel, Klaus. "Runenkunde" (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. OCLC 183700</ref> points out similarity with [[Cipher runes|ciphers of Germanic runes]]). The largest number of scholars favours the [[Latin alphabet]] as this template, although the [[Elder Futhark]] and even the [[Greek alphabet]] have their supporters. Runic origin would elegantly explain the presence of "H" and "Z" letters unused in Irish, as well as the presence of vocalic and consonantal variants "U" vs. "W" unknown to Latin or Greek writing. The Latin alphabet is the main contender mainly because its influence at the required period (4th century) is most easily established, viz., via [[Roman Britain#The fourth century|Britannia]], while the runes in the 4th century were not very widespread even in [[continental Europe]]. [[Image:Book of Ballymote 170r.jpg|thumb|230px|fol. 170r of the [[Book of Ballymote]] ([[1390]]), the ''[[Auraicept na n-Éces]]'' explaining the ogham script.]] ===Legendary accounts=== According to the 11th c. ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'', the 14th c. ''[[Auraicept na n-Éces]]'', and other Medieval [[Irish folklore]], ogham was first invented soon after the fall of the [[Tower of Babel]], along with the [[Gaelic language]], by the legendary [[Scythian]] king, [[Fenius Farsa]]. According to the Auraicept, Fenius journeyed from [[Scythia]] together with Goídel mac Ethéoir, Íar mac Nema and a [[retinue]] of 72 scholars. They came to the plain of [[Shinar]] to study the [[confusion of tongues|confused languages]] at [[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]]'s tower (the [[Tower of Babel]]). Finding that they had already been dispersed, Fenius sent his scholars to study them, staying at the tower, coordinating the effort. After ten years, the investigations were complete, and Fenius created ''in Bérla tóbaide'' "the selected language", taking the best of each of the confused tongues, which he called ''Goídelc'', [[Goidelic]], after Goídel mac Ethéoir. He also created extensions of ''Goídelc'', called ''Bérla Féne'', after himself, ''Íarmberla'', after Íar mac Nema, and others, and the ''Beithe-luis-nuin'' (the ogham) as a perfected [[writing system]] for his languages. The names he gave to the letters were those of his 25 best scholars. Alternatively, the [[In Lebor Ogaim|Ogam Tract]] credits [[Ogma|Ogma mac Elathan]] ([[Ogmios]]) with the script's invention. Ogma was skilled in speech and poetry, and created the system for the learned, to the exclusion of rustics and fools. The first message written in Ogam were seven ''b'''s on a birch, sent as a warning to [[Lugh|Lug mac Elathan]], meaning: "your wife will be carried away seven times to the otherworld unless the birch protects her". For this reason, the letter ''b'' is said to be named after the birch, and ''In Lebor Ogaim'' goes on to tell the tradition that all letters were named after trees, a claim also referred to by the Auraicept as an alternative to the naming after Fenius' disciples. ==Alphabet - the Beith-Luis-Nin== Strictly speaking, the word ''ogham'' refers only to the form of letters or script, while the letters themselves are known collectively as the ''Beith-luis-nin'' after the letter names of the first letters (in the same manner as the Greek Alpha and Beta). The fact that the order of the letters is in fact BLFSN led the scholar Macalister to propose that the letter order was originally BLNFS. This was to fit into his own theories which linked the ''Beith-luis-nin'' to a form of the Greek alphabet current in Northern Italy in the 5th and 6th centuries BC. However, there is no evidence for Macalister's theories and they have since been discounted by later scholars. There are in fact other explanations for the name ''Beith-luis-nin''. One explanation is that the word ''nin'' which literally means 'a forked branch' was also regularly used to mean a written letter in general. ''Beith-luis-nin'' could therefore mean simply 'Beith-luis letters'. The other explanation is that ''Beith-luis-nin'' is a convenient contraction of the first five letters thus: ''Beith-LVS-nin''. <ref> McManus, 'Ibid', pp 36, 167, 1991 ; B. Ó Cuív, "Irish words for Alphabet", Eriu 31, p101. There is also the fact that it would be impossible to change the order of letters in ogham, given that it is a numbered series of strokes. In other words, to change N from the third to the fifth letter would also mean changing its symbol from three strokes to five strokes. The letters F and S would also have to be changed. This would obviously lead to great confusion, and would only be done if there was some compelling reason for the change. Macalister provides no such reason. </ref> The ogham alphabet originally consisted of twenty distinct characters (''feda''), arranged in four series ''aicmí'' (plural of ''aicme'' "family"; compare ''[[aett]]''). Each aicme was named after its first character (''Aicme Beithe'', ''Aicme hÚatha'', ''Aicme Muine'', ''Aicme Ailme'', "the B Group", "the H Group", "the M Group", "the A Group"). Five additional letters were later introduced (mainly in the manuscript tradition), the so-called ''[[forfeda]]''. [[Image:Ogham airenach.png|thumb|280px|the ''ogam airenach'', closeup from the page shown above.]] The ''[[Ogam Tract]]'' also gives a variety of some 100 variant or secret modes of writing ogham (92 in the [[Book of Ballymote]]), for example the "shield ogham" (''ogam airenach'', nr. 73). Even the [[Younger Futhark]] are introduced as a kind of "Viking ogham" (nrs. 91, 92). The four primary ''aicmí'' are, with their transcriptions in manuscript tradition and their names according to manuscript tradition in normalized Old Irish, followed by the their Primitive Irish sound values, and their presumed original name in Primitive Irish in cases where the name's etymology is known: [[Image:Ogham Con.jpg|right|thumb|100px|The consonants of the ogham alphabet (non-[[IPA]]).]] [[Image:Ogham Vow.jpg|right|thumb|100px|The vowels of the ogham alphabet (non-[[IPA]]). ''Note'': This is the vertical writing of ogham. In the horizontal form, the right side would face downward.]] *Left side/downward strokes *#B ''beith'' [b] (''*betwias'') *#L ''luis'' [l] *#F ''fearn'' [w] (''*wernā'') *#S ''saille'' [s] (''*salis'') *#N ''nuin'' [n] *Right side/upward strokes *#H ''úath'' [y]? *#D ''duir'' [d] (''*daris'') *#T ''tinne'' [t] *#C ''coll'' [k] (''*coslas'') *#Q ''ceirt'' [k<sup>w</sup>] (''*k<sup>w</sup>ertā'') *Across/pendicular strokes *#M ''muin'' [m] *#G ''gort'' [g] (''*gortas'') *#NG ''gétal'' [g<sup>w</sup>] (''*g<sup>w</sup>ēddlan'') *#Z ''straif'' [sw] or [ts]? *#R ''ruis'' [r] *notches (vowels) *#A ''ailm'' [a] *#O ''onn'' [o] (''*osen'') *#U ''úr'' [u] *#E ''edad'' [e] *#I ''idad'' [i] A letter for ''p'' is conspicuously absent, since the phoneme was lost in [[Proto-Celtic]], and the gap was not filled in [[Q-Celtic]], and no sign was needed before loanwords from [[Latin]] containing ''p'' appeared in Irish (''e.g.'', [[Patrick]]). Conversely, there is a letter for the [[labiovelar]] ''q'' (ᚊ ''ceirt''), a phoneme lost in Old Irish. The base alphabet is therefore, as it were, designed for Proto-Q-Celtic. Of the five ''[[forfeda]]'' or supplementary letters, only the first, ''ébad'' regularly appears in inscriptions, but mostly with the value K (McManus, § 5.3, 1991). The others, except for ''emancholl'', have at most only one certain 'orthodox' (see below) inscription each. <ref> See inscription 235 for ''óir'', 240 for ''uillen'', and 327 and 231 for ''pín'' in Macalister CIIC, Vol I </ref> Due to their limited practical use, later ogamists turned the supplementary letters into a series of diphthongs, changing completely the values for ''pín'' and ''emancholl''. <ref> MacManus ''Ibid'', §7.13-14, 1991 </ref> This meant that the alphabet was once again without a letter for the P sound, forcing the invention of the letter ''peithboc'' (soft 'B'), which appears in the manuscripts only. *EA ''ébad'' *OI ''óir'' *UI ''uillenn'' *P , later IO ''pín'' (later ''iphín'') *X or Ch (as in ''loch''), later AE ''emancholl'' ===Letter names=== {{main|Bríatharogam}} The letter names are interpreted as names of trees or shrubs in manuscript tradition, both in ''[[Auraicept na n-Éces]]'' ('The Scholars' Primer') and ''[[In Lebor Ogaim]]'' ('The Ogam Tract'). They were first discussed in modern times by [[Roderic O'Flaherty]] ([[1685]]), who took them at face value. The Auraicept itself is aware that not all names are known tree names, saying "Now all these are wood names such as are found in the ''Ogham Book of Woods,'' and are not derived from men", admitting that "some of these trees are not known today". The Auraicept gives a short phrase or kenning for each letter, known as a ''Bríatharogam'', that traditionally accompanied each letter name, and a further gloss explaining their meanings and identifying the tree or plant linked to each letter. Only five of the twenty primary letters have tree names that the Auraicept considers comprehensible without further glosses, namely ''beith'' "birch", ''fearn'' "alder", ''saille'' "willow" , ''duir'' "oak" and ''coll'' "hazel". All the other names have to be glossed or "translated" with a [[Phytonym|plant name]]. According to the leading modern ogham scholar, Damian McManus the "Tree Alphabet" idea dates to the [[Old Irish]] period (say, [[10th century]]), but it post-dates the Primitive Irish period, or at least the time when the letters were originally named. Its origin is probably due to the letters themselves being called ''feda'' "trees", or ''nin'' "forking branches" due to their shape. Since a few of the letters were, in fact, named after trees, the interpretation arose that they were called ''feda'' because of that. Some of the other letter names had fallen out of use as independent words, and were thus free to be claimed as "Old Gaelic" tree names, while others (such as ''ruis'', ''úath'' or ''gort'') were more or less forcefully re-interpreted as epitheta of trees by the medieval glossators. McManus (1991, §3.15) discusses possible etymologies of all the letter names, and as well as the five mentioned above, he adds one other definite tree name: ''onn'' "ash" (the Auraicept wrongly has furze). McManus (1988, p164) also believes that the name ''Idad'' is probably an artificial form of ''Iubhar'' or yew, as the kennings support that meaning, and concedes that ''Ailm'' may possibly mean "pine tree" as it appears to be used to mean that in an eighth century poem. <ref> The rationale for the artifical form '''Idad''' would be to make a pairing with '''Edad'''. With regard to '''Ailm''', in the ''King and Hermit'' poem the hermit Marban says ''caine ailmi ardom-peitet'' - 'beautiful are the pines that make music for me' This is a reference to the idea that pine makes a pleasing, soothing sound as the wind passes through its needles. </ref> Thus out of twenty letter names, only eight at most are the names of trees. The other names have a variety of meanings, which are set out in the list below. {{Table Oghamletters}} *'''Beith''', Old Irish '''Beithe''' means "[[birch]]-tree", cognate to Latin ''betula''. *'''Luis''', Old Irish '''Luis''' is either related to ''luise'' "blaze" or ''lus'' "herb". The arboreal tradition has ''caertheand'' "[[rowan]]". *'''Fearn''', Old Irish '''Fern''' means "[[alder]]-tree", Primitive Irish ''*wernā'', so that the original value of the letter was [w]. *'''Sail''', Old Irish '''Sail''' means "[[willow]]-tree", cognate to Latin ''salix''. *'''Nion''', Old Irish '''Nin''' means either "fork" or "loft". The arboreal tradition has ''uinnius'' "[[European Ash|ash-tree]]". *'''Uath''', Old Irish '''Úath''' means ''úath'' "horror, fear", the arboreal tradition has "[[Common Hawthorn|white-thorn]]". The original etymology of the name, and the letter's value, are however unclear. McManus (1986) suggested a value [y]. Peter Schrijver (see McManus 1991:37) suggested that if ''úath'' "fear" is cognate with Latin ''pavere'', a trace of PIE ''*p'' might have survived into Primitive Irish, but there is no independent evidence for this. *'''Dair''', Old Irish '''Dair''' means "[[oak]]" (PIE ''*doru-''). *'''Tinne''', Old Irish '''Tinne''' from the evidence of the [[kenning]]s means "bar of metal, ingot". The arboreal tradition has ''cuileand'' "[[holly]]". *'''Coll''', Old Irish '''Coll''' meant "[[hazel]]-tree", cognate with Welsh ''collen'', correctly glossed as ''cainfidh'' "fair-wood" ("hazel") by the arboreal interpretation. The Latin ''corylus'' is a possible cognate. *'''Ceirt''', Old Irish '''Cert''' is cognate with Welsh ''pert'' "bush" , Latin ''quercus'' "oak" (PIE ''*perkwos''). It was confused with Old Irish ''ceirt'' "rag", reflected in the kennings. The Auraicept glosses ''aball'' "[[apple]]". *'''Muin''', Old Irish '''Muin''': the kennings connect this name to three different words, ''muin'' "neck, upper part of the back", ''muin'' "wile, ruse", and ''muin'' "love, esteem". The arboreal tradition has ''finemhain'' "[[vine]]". *'''Gort''', Old Irish '''Gort''' means "field" (cognate to ''garden''). The arboreal tradition has ''edind'' "[[ivy]]". *'''nGéadal''', Old Irish '''Gétal''' from the kennings has a meaning of "killing", maybe cognate to ''gonid'' "slays", from PIE ''{{PIE|gwen-}}''. The value of the letter in Primitive Irish, then, was a voiced labiovelar, [g<sup>w</sup>]. The arboreal tradition glosses ''cilcach'', "[[broom (plant)|broom]]" or "[[fern]]". *'''Straif''', Old Irish '''Straiph''' means "sulphur". The Primitive Irish letter value is uncertain, it may have been a sibilant different from ''s'', which is taken by ''sail'', maybe a reflex of /st/ or /sw/. The arboreal tradition glosses ''draighin'' "[[blackthorn]]". *'''Ruis''', Old Irish '''Ruis''' means "red" or "redness", glossed as ''trom'' "[[elderberry|elder]]". *'''Ailm''', Old Irish '''Ailm''' is of uncertain meaning, possibly "pine-tree". The Auraicept has ''crand giuis .i. ochtach'', "[[fir]]-tree" or "[[pinetree]]". *'''Onn''', Old Irish '''Onn''' means "[[ash-tree]]", although the Auraicept glosses ''aiten'' "[[furze]]". *'''Úr''', Old Irish '''Úr''', based on the kennings, means "earth, clay, soil". The Auraicept glosses ''fraech'' "[[Erica|heath]]". *'''Eadhadh''', Old Irish '''Edad''' of unknown meaning. The Auraicept glosses ''crand fir no crithach'' "test-tree or [[aspen]]" *'''Iodhadh''', Old Irish '''Idad''' is of uncertain meaning, but is probably a form of ''ibhar'' "[[Taxus baccata|yew]]", which is the meaning given to it in the arboreal tradition. of the ''[[forfeda]]'', four are glossed by the Auraicept: *'''Eabhadh''', Old Irish '''Ebhadh''' with ''crithach'' "aspen"; *'''Ór''', "gold" (from Latin aurum); the arboreal tradition has ''feorus no edind'', "spindle tree or ivy" *'''Uilleann''', Old Irish '''Uilleand''' "elbow"; the arboreal tradition has ''edleand'' "[[honeysuckle]]" *'''Pín''', later '''Ifín''', Old Irish '''Iphin''' with ''spinan no ispin'' "[[gooseberry]] or thorn". The fifth letter is '''Emancholl''' which means 'twin of hazel' ==Corpus== {{main|Ogham inscriptions}} [[Image:CIIC 504.gif|thumb|150px|Ogham stone from the Isle of Man showing the ''droim'' in centre. Text reads BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI], or in English Of Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]]] Monumental ogham inscriptions are found in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]], with a few additional specimens found in [[England]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Scotland]] and [[Shetland]]. They were mainly employed as territorial markers and memorials (grave stones). The stone commemorating [[Vortiporius]], a [[6th century]] king of [[Dyfed]] (originally located in [[Clynderwen]]), is the only ogham stone inscription that bears the name of an identifiable individual.<ref>The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press 2008</ref> The language of the inscriptions is predominantly [[Primitive Irish]] and [[Old Irish]], apart from the few examples in Scotland, such as the [[Lunnasting stone]], which record fragments of what is probably the Pictish language. The more ancient examples are [[standing stone]]s, where the script was carved into the edge (''droim'' or ''faobhar'') of the stone, which formed the stemline against which individual characters are cut. The text of these "Orthodox Ogham" inscriptions is read beginning from the bottom left-hand side of a stone, continuing upward along the edge, across the top and down the right-hand side (in the case of long inscriptions). Roughly 380 inscriptions are known in total (a number, incidentally, very close to the number of known inscriptions in the contemporary [[Elder Futhark]]), of which the highest concentration by far is found in the southwestern Irish province of [[Munster]]. One third of the total are found in [[Co Kerry]] alone. Later inscriptions are known as "scholastic", and are post 6th century in date. The term 'scholastic' derives from the fact that the inscriptions are believed to have been inspired by the manuscript sources, instead of being continuations of the original monument tradition. Unlike orthodox ogham, some mediæval inscriptions feature all five [[Forfeda]]. Scholastic inscriptions are written on stemlines cut into the face of the stone, instead of along its edge. Ogham was also occasionally used for notes in manuscripts down to the 16th century. A modern ogham inscription is found on a gravestone dating to [[1802]] in Ahenny, [[County Tipperary]]. In Scotland, a number of inscriptions using the ogham writing system are known, but their language is still the subject of debate. It has been argued by Richard Cox in ''The Language of Ogham Inscriptions in Scotland'' (1999) that the language of these is Old Norse, but others remain unconvinced by this analysis, and regard the stones as being [[Pict]]ish in origin. However due to the lack of knowledge about the Picts, the inscriptions remain undeciphered, their language possibly being non-[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]. The Pictish inscriptions are scholastic, and are believed to have been inspired by the manuscript tradition brought into Scotland by Gaelic settlers. [[Image:OrkneyOgham.jpg|thumb|The [[Buckquoy spindle-whorl]], containing an [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] inscription written in 8th century Orkney with scholastic ogham. It is benedictive, and reads '''''Benddact anim L.''''', meaning "a blessing on the soul of L."]] ==Non-monumental uses== {{Main|Ogham - non-monumental uses}} As well as its use for monumental inscriptions, the evidence from early Irish sagas and legends indicates that ogham was used for short messages on wood or metal, either to relay messages or to denote ownership of the object inscribed. Some of these messages seem to have been cryptic in nature and some were also for magical purposes. In addition, there is evidence from sources such as [[In Lebor Ogaim]], or the Ogham Tract, that ogham may have been used to keep records or lists, such as genealogies and numerical tallies of property and business transactions. There is also evidence that ogham may have been used as a system of finger or hand signals. In later centuries when ogham ceased to be used as a practical alphabet, it retained its place in the learning of Gaelic scholars and poets as the basis of grammar and the rules of poetry. Indeed, until modern times the Latin alphabet in Gaelic continued to be taught using letter names borrowed from the ''Beith-Luis-Nin'', along with the Medieval association of each letter with a different tree. ==Unicode== The ogham alphabet is allotted [[Unicode]] range U+1680 &ndash; U+169F (as of version 4.1). The spelling of the names given is a standardization dating to 1997, used in Unicode Standard and in Irish Standard 434:1999. :U+1680   OGHAM SPACE MARK :U+1681 ᚁ OGHAM LETTER BEITH :U+1682 ᚂ OGHAM LETTER LUIS :U+1683 ᚃ OGHAM LETTER FEARN :U+1684 ᚄ OGHAM LETTER SAIL :U+1685 ᚅ OGHAM LETTER NION :U+1686 ᚆ OGHAM LETTER UATH :U+1687 ᚇ OGHAM LETTER DAIR :U+1688 ᚈ OGHAM LETTER TINNE :U+1689 ᚉ OGHAM LETTER COLL :U+168A ᚊ OGHAM LETTER CEIRT :U+168B ᚋ OGHAM LETTER MUIN :U+168C ᚌ OGHAM LETTER GORT :U+168D ᚍ OGHAM LETTER NGEADAL :U+168E ᚎ OGHAM LETTER STRAIF :U+168F ᚏ OGHAM LETTER RUIS :U+1690 ᚐ OGHAM LETTER AILM :U+1691 ᚑ OGHAM LETTER ONN :U+1692 ᚒ OGHAM LETTER UR :U+1693 ᚓ OGHAM LETTER EADHADH :U+1694 ᚔ OGHAM LETTER IODHADH :U+1695 ᚕ OGHAM LETTER EABHADH :U+1696 ᚖ OGHAM LETTER OR :U+1697 ᚗ OGHAM LETTER UILLEANN :U+1698 ᚘ OGHAM LETTER IFIN :U+1699 ᚙ OGHAM LETTER EAMHANCHOLL :U+169A ᚚ OGHAM LETTER PEITH :U+169B ᚛ OGHAM FEATHER MARK (marks beginning of text) :U+169C ᚜ OGHAM REVERSED FEATHER MARK (marks end of text) ==Neopaganism== Modern [[New Age]] and [[Neopagan]] approaches to ogham largely derive from the theories of [[Robert Graves]] in his book '[[The White Goddess]]'.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} In this work Graves took his inspiration from the theories of the ogham scholar R.A.S Macalister (see above) and elaborated on them much further. Graves proposed that the ogham alphabet encoded a set of beliefs originating in the Middle-east in [[Stone Age]] times, concerning the ceremonies surrounding the worship of the Moon-goddess in her various forms. Graves' argument is extremely complex, but in essence he argues that the Hebrews, Greeks and Celts were all influenced by a people originating in the Aegean, called '[[sea people|the people of the sea]]' by the Egyptians, who spread out around Europe in the 2nd Millennium BC, taking their religious beliefs with them. <ref> Graves, R 'The White Goddess', pp 61, 123, Faber & Faber, London, 1961 </ref> At some early stage these teachings were encoded in alphabet form by poets in order to pass on their worship of the goddess (as the muse and inspiration of all poets) in a secret fashion, understandable only to initiates. Eventually, via the druids of Gaul, this knowledge was passed on to the poets of early Ireland and Wales. Graves therefore looked at the Tree Alphabet tradition surrounding ogham and explored the tree folklore of each of the letter names, proposing that the order of the letters formed an ancient "seasonal calendar of tree magic" <ref> Graves, 'Ibid, p165 </ref>. Although his theories have been disregarded by modern scholars (including Macalister himself, with whom Graves corresponded ) <ref> Graves, 'Ibid', pp116-7 </ref>, they have been taken up with enthusiasm by the neopagan movement. In addition, Graves followed the BLNFS order of ogham letter put forward by Macalister (see above), with the result that this has been taken up by New Age and Neopagan writers as the 'correct' order of the letters, despite its rejection by scholars. The main use of ogham by [[Neo-druidism|modern Druids]], [[Neopaganism|Neo-Pagans]] is for the purpose of divination. Divination by using ogham symbols is mentioned in ''[[Tochmarc Étaíne]]'', a tale in the Irish [[Mythological Cycle]]. In the story, [[druid]] Dalan takes four wands of yew, and writes ogham letters upon them. Then he uses the tools for [[divination]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.druidry.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=PagEd&file=index&topic_id=1&page_id=74 |title=What Is an Ovate? |accessdate=2007-01-19 |author =The Order of Bards Ovates & Druids |format=HTML }}</ref> The tale doesn't explain further how the sticks are handled or interpreted. <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.somersetpagan.org/Ogham.html |title= Ogham |accessdate=2007-01-19 |author =Somerset Pagans |format=HTML }}</ref> Some Neopagans and other interested people use ogham as a divination system, in a manner reminiscent of the incomplete description in ''Tochmarc Étaíne''. They create a series of sticks, one for each letter. The sticks may be used in a fashion similar to [[runic divination]].<ref name="emick">{{cite web| url=http://altreligion.about.com/library/weekly/aa022203a.htm | title= Ogham- the Celtic Oracular Alphabet | accessdate=2007-01-19 | author= Jennifer Emick | publisher=[[About.com]] | format=HTML }}</ref> Another method requires a cloth marked out with [[Auraicept na n-Éces|Finn's Window]].<ref name="shallcrass">{{cite web| url=http://www.druidorder.demon.co.uk/ogham.htm | title=A Little History of Ogham |accessdate=2007-01-19 | author=Philip Shallcrass | publisher=[[The British Druid Order]] | format=HTML }}</ref> A person selects some sticks randomly, throws them on the cloth, and then looks both at the symbols and where they fell. <ref name="odubhain">{{cite web| url=http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/library/oghamdiv.htm | title= Druids, Ogham and Divination |accessdate=2007-01-19 | author=Searles O'Dubhain | format=HTML }}</ref> The divinatory meanings are usually based on the tree ogham, rather than the kennings of the ''[[Bríatharogam]]''.<ref name="centerofthegrove">{{cite web| url=http://www.centerofthegrove1.com/ | title= Center of the Grove |accessdate=2007-01-19 | format=HTML }}</ref> Each letter is associated with a tree or other plant, and meanings are derived from them. [[Robert Graves]]' book ''[[The White Goddess]]'' has been a major influence on assigning divinatory meanings for ogham.<ref name="shallcrass"/> Some reconstructionists of Druidic ways use Briatharogam kennings as a basis for divinatory meanings in ogham divination. The three sets of kennings can be separated into Past-Present-Future or Land-Sea-Sky groupings in such systems, but other organizing structures are used, as well.<ref>O'Dubhain, Searles, ''Ogham Divination Course'', ''The Journal of the Henge of Keltria'' (1995-1998) {{cite web| url=http://www.keltria.org/journal/orderint.htm | title=Keltria Back Issues |format=HTML}}and offered online in the Summerlands (1995-2007) {{cite web| url=http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/daireclass_promo/ogham_divination_book_toc.htm |title=Ogham Divination Course |format=HTML }}</ref><ref>Laurie, Erynn Rowan, ''Ogam: Weaving Word Wisdom'', Megalithica Books (2007) ISBN 1905713029</ref> ==See also== * [[Auraicept na n-Éces]] * [[Ogham inscriptions]] * [[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]] * [[Runic alphabet]] * [[Scottish Gaelic alphabet]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== *Carney, James. ''The Invention of the Ogam Cipher'' 'Ériu' 22, 1975, pp 62 -3, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy *Düwel, Klaus. ''Runenkunde'' (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. OCLC 183700 *Forsyth, Katherine. ''The Ogham Inscriptions of Scotland: An Edited Corpus'', PhD Dissertation, Harvard University (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1996). OCLC 48938210 *Gippert, Jost; Hlaváček, Ivan; Homolka, Jaromír. ''Ogam. Eine frühe keltische Schrifterfindung'', Praha: Charles University, 1992. ISBN 80-901489-3-X OCLC 39570484 *Macalister, Robert A.S. ''The Secret Languages of Ireland'', pp27 - 36, Cambridge University Press, 1937 *Macalister, Robert A.S. ''Corpus inscriptionum insularum celticarum''. First edition. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1945-1949. OCLC 71392234 *McManus, Damian. ''Ogam: Archaizing, Orthography and the Authenticity of the Manuscript Key to the Alphabet'', Ériu 37, 1988, 1-31. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. OCLC 56088345 *McManus, Damian. ''A Guide to Ogam'', Maynooth 1991. ISBN 1-870684-17-6 OCLC 24181838 *MacNeill, Eoin. ''Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions'', 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp 33-53, Dublin *O'Brien, M.A. ''Corpus Genealogiarum Hiberniae'' Maynooth: An Sagart, 1991, vol. 1, 2nd edition. ISBN 0-901282-31-6 OCLC 56540733 *Raftery, Barry. ''A Late Ogham Inscription from Co. Tipperary'', Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 99, 1969. ISSN 0035-9106 OCLC 6906544 *Swift, C. ''Ogam Stones and the Earliest Irish Christians'', Maynooth: Dept. of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College, 1997. ISBN 0-901519-98-7 OCLC 37398935 *Ranke-Graves, Robert von. ''Die Weisse Göttin: Sprache des Mythos'' (''The White Goddess''), ISBN 978-3-499-55416-2 OCLC 52100148, several re-editions, but rarely available. Editions available in German and English. *Sims-Williams, Patrick. ''The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c. 400—1200. (Publications of the Philological Society 37)'' Oxford : Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-4051-0903-3 *Thurneysen, ''Zum ogam'' Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, pp196-7, 1937 *Vendryes ''L'écriture ogamique et ses origines'' Études Celtiques, 4, 1931, pp110- 113, ==External links== * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ogham.htm Description and history of the ogham script] * TITUS: [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/kelt/ogamabb.htm The Ogham Script]& Project [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/ogam/index.htm Ogamica] * [http://ogham.lyberty.com/ The Ogham Stone] * [http://www.evertype.com/standards/og/ogmharc.html Every Ogham Thing on the Web] * [http://www.megalithicireland.com Irish Ogham Stones] * [http://web.onetel.net.uk/~hibou/Pictish%20Inscriptions.html Pictish Ogham Inscriptions] * [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/timeteam/2007_iom_ogham.html Time Team - Manx Gaelic Ogham Stone] * [http://www.equinox-project.com/ogamx.htm The writing system of the Celts] *[http://www.mockfont.com/old/ Free ogham font download] {{Irish linguistics}} {{writing systems}} [[Category:Ogham| ]] [[Category:Ancient Ireland]] [[Category:Celtic studies]] [[Category:Medieval Ireland]] [[Category:Medieval Scotland]] [[Category:Pictish studies]] [[ast:Alfabetu ogham]] [[br:Ogham]] [[bg:Огам]] [[cs:Ogam]] [[cy:Ogam]] [[da:Ogam]] [[de:Ogam]] [[el:Αλφάβητο Όγκχαμ]] [[es:Ogam]] [[eo:Ogamo]] [[fr:Écriture oghamique]] [[ga:Ogham]] [[gd:Ogham]] [[it:Alfabeto ogamico]] [[hu:Ogham]] [[nl:Ogham (alfabet)]] [[ja:オガム文字]] [[no:Ogham-skrift]] [[nn:Ogham]] [[nrm:Ogham]] [[pl:Pismo ogamiczne]] [[pt:Ogham]] [[ro:Alfabetul celtic]] [[ru:Огамическое письмо]] [[sl:Ogamska pisava]] [[fi:Ogam]] [[tr:Ogham]]