Oil shale
45010
226177503
2008-07-17T04:42:23Z
LeadSongDog
4209904
rv deletion
[[Image:Oilshale.jpg|thumb|350px|Combustion of oil shale]]
'''Oil shale''', a fine-grained [[sedimentary rock]], contains significant amounts of [[kerogen]] (a solid mixture of organic [[chemical compound]]s), from which technology can extract liquid [[hydrocarbon]]s. Authorities have described the name ''oil shale'' as a promotional [[misnomer]], since the rock is not necessarily a [[shale]] and its kerogen is not [[petroleum|crude oil]]; it requires more processing than crude oil, which affects its economic viability as a crude oil substitute and increases its environmental impact.<ref name=hubbel>
{{cite web
|title=Shale Oil: The Elusive Energy
|publisher=[[Colorado School of Mines]]
|url=http://hubbert.mines.edu/news/Youngquist_98-4.pdf
|format=PDF|
|accessdate=2008-03-20
}}</ref><ref name=wec>{{cite book
| title = Survey of energy resources
| publisher = World Energy Council (WEC)
| date = 2007
| edition = edition 21
| pages =93–115
| url = http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser2007_final_online_version_1.pdf
| format = PDF
| isbn = 0946121265
| accessdate = 2007-11-13}}</ref>
[[Deposition (geology)|Deposits]] of oil shale are located around the world, including major deposits in the [[United States of America]]. Global deposits are estimated as equivalent to 2.8 [[trillion]] to 3.3 trillion [[Barrel (volume)|barrels]] {{nowrap|(450{{e|9}} to 520{{e|9}} m<sup>3</sup>)}} of recoverable oil.<ref name=wec/><ref name=aeo2006>
{{cite paper
| title = Annual Energy Outlook 2006
| publisher = [[Energy Information Administration]]
| date = February 2006
| url = http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo06/pdf/0383(2006).pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2008-04-18
}}</ref><ref name=andrews>
{{cite paper
| last = Andrews
| first = Anthony
| title = Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy
| publisher = Congressional Research Service
| date = 2006-04-13
| url = http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33359.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-06-25
}}</ref><ref name=unconventional>
{{cite paper
| title = NPR's National Strategic Unconventional Resource Model
| publisher = [[United States Department of Energy]]
| date = April 2006
| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/NSURM_Documentation.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-07-09
}}</ref>
The chemical process of [[pyrolysis]] can convert the kerogen in oil shale into [[synthetic crude]] oil. Heating oil shale to a sufficiently high temperature will drive off a [[vapor]] which can be [[distillation|distilled]] (retorted) to [[Yield (chemistry)|yield]] a petroleum-like shale oil—a form of [[non-conventional oil]]—and [[Combustibility|combustible]] shale gas (''[[shale gas]]'' can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales). Oil shale can also be [[combustion|burned]] directly as a low-grade fuel for [[Electricity generation|power generation]] and heating purposes and can be used as a raw material in the chemical and construction materials industries.<ref name=dyni>
{{Cite paper
| last =Dyni | first =John R.
| title =Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294
| publisher = U.S. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey
| year = 2006
| url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5294/pdf/sir5294_508.pdf
| format=PDF
| accessdate =2007-07-09
}}</ref><ref name=wec/>
Oil shale has gained attention as an energy resource as the price of conventional sources of petroleum has risen and as a way for some areas to secure independence from external suppliers of energy.<ref name=evi>
{{Cite paper
| title =Energy Security of Estonia
| publisher = Estonian Foreign Policy Institute
| date = September 2006
| url = http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf
| format=PDF
| accessdate =2007-10-20
}}</ref><ref name=doe>
{{Cite web
| title = Oil Shale Activities
| publisher = [[United States Department of Energy]]
| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/npr_oil_shale_program.html
| accessdate =2007-10-20
}}</ref> At the same time, oil shale mining and processing involve a number of environmental issues, such as [[land use]], [[waste management|waste disposal]], [[Water resources|water use]] and [[Water pollution|waste water management]], and [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and [[air pollution]].<ref name="Burnham" /><ref name="openpitimpacts"/> [[Estonia]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] have well-established oil shale industries, and [[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[Israel]] and [[Russia]] also utilize oil shale.
== Geology ==
{{main|Oil shale geology}}
[[Image:OilShaleEstonia.JPG|thumb|Outcrop of [[Ordovician]] oil shale ([[kukersite]]), northern Estonia]]
Oil shale consists of organic-rich sedimentary rock: it belongs to the group of [[sapropel]] [[fuel]]s.<ref name=arvoots>
{{Cite journal
| last =Ots | first =Arvo
| title =Estonian oil shale properties and utilization in power plants
| journal = Energetika
| publisher = Lithuanian Academy of Sciences Publishers
| volume = 53
| issue = 2
| pages = 8–18
| year =2007
| date = 2007-02-12
| url= http://images.katalogas.lt/maleidykla/Ener72/Ener_008_018.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-11-07
| doi =10.2307/3434660}}</ref> It differs from [[Bituminous rocks|bitumen-impregnated rocks]] ([[tar sands]] and petroleum reservoir rocks), [[humic acid|humic]] coals and [[carbonaceous]] [[shale]]. While tar sands have been created by [[biodegradation]] of oil, the kerogen in oil shales has not yet been naturally transformed into petroleum by heat and pressure.<ref name=wec/><ref name=geolsoc>
{{Cite web
| last = Nield | first =Ted
| title = Shale of the Century
| publisher = Geological Society of London
| date =2007-02-17
| url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/null/lang/en/page874.html
| accessdate =2007-10-20}}
</ref><ref name=cna>
{{Cite paper
| author = O’Neil, William D.
| title = Oil as a strategic factor. The supply of oil in the first half of the 21st century, and its strategic implications for the U.S.
| publisher = CNA Corporation
| pages = 94–95
| date =2001-06-11
| url= http://www.analysis.williamdoneil.com/oil_as_strategic_factor.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2008-04-19}}</ref> Coal contains a higher percentage of organic matter than oil shale. In commercial grades of oil shale the ratio of organic matter to mineral matter is about 0.75:5 to 1.5:5. At the same time, the organic matter in oil shale has an atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon approximately the same as for crude oil and four to five times higher than for coals.<ref name=wec/><ref name=arvoots/>
Oil shale does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history.<ref name=turkey>
{{Cite journal
| last =Altun | first =N. E.
| last2 =Hiçyilmaz | first2 =C.
| last3 =Hwang | first3 =J.-Y.
| last4 =Suat Bağci | first4 =A.
| last5 =Kök | first5 =M. V.
| title =Oil Shales in the world and Turkey; reserves, current situation and future prospects: a review
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume = 23
| issue =3
| pages =211–227
| year =2006
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/oil-2006-3-2.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2007-06-16}}
</ref>
Oil shale seams do not always have discrete boundaries and the carbonaceous content varies. Scottish oil shales frequently exhibit a change from no carbonaceous content through a range of carbonaceous content and back to non-carbonaceous shales. As a rule of thumb, the better the oil shale, the more chocolaty-brown the streak and the more woody the sound when struck by a hammer.
The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms, such as the remains of [[algae]], [[spore]]s, [[pollen]], [[plant cuticle]]s and corky fragments of [[herbaceous]] and woody plants, and cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants.<ref name=wec/><ref name=alali>
{{Cite journal
| last = Alali | first = Jamal
| title = Jordan Oil Shale, Availability, Distribution, And Investment Opportunity
| place = Amman, Jordan
| url=http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A117.pdf
| format = PDF
| date = 2006-11-07
| accessdate = 2008-03-04
| doi = 10.1126/science.225.4665.890
| pmid = 17779848
| journal = Science
| volume = 225
| pages = 890}}</ref> Some deposits contain significant [[fossil]]s; Germany's [[Messel Pit]] has the status of a [[Unesco World Heritage Site]]. The mineral matter in oil shale includes various fine-grained [[Silicon dioxide|silicate]]s and [[carbonate minerals|carbonates]].<ref name=arvoots/><ref name=dyni/>
Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as carbonate-rich shales, siliceous shales, or [[Cannel coal|cannel]] shales.<ref>
{{Cite book
| last = Lee | first = Sunggyu
| title = Oil Shale Technology
| publisher = CRC Press
| pages = 10
| year = 1991
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=N0wMCusO6yIC&pg=PA253&lpg=PA253&source=web&ots=RUeSKpiSxN&sig=pvW6H4fqTIb-cHHdVuO57pozdeg#PPP1,M1
| isbn = 0849346150
| accessdate = 2007-07-09}}</ref>
Another classification, assigning kerogen types, is based on the [[hydrogen]], [[carbon]], and [[oxygen]] content of oil shales' original organic matter. This classification is known as the van Krevelen diagram.<ref name=turkey/> The most used classification of oil shales was developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton of the [[University of Wollongong]], adapting [[Petrography|petrographic]] terms from coal terminology. According to this classification, oil shales are designated as [[Terrestrial ecoregion|terrestrial]], [[lacustrine]] (lake-bottom-deposited), or [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] (ocean bottom-deposited), based on the environment where the initial [[biomass]] was deposited.<ref name=dyni/><ref name=hutton>
{{Cite journal
| last = Hutton | first = A.C.
| title = Petrographic classification of oil shales
| journal = International Journal of Coal Geology
| publisher = Elsevier Science
| volume = 8
| pages = 203–231
| year = 1987
| issn = 0166-5162
| doi = 10.1016/0166-5162(87)90032-2}}</ref> Hutton's classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil.<ref name=wec/>
== Reserves==
{{main|Oil shale reserves}}
[[Image:OilShaleFossilsEstonia.JPG|thumb|Fossils in Ordovician oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia]]
Some analysts, along with the [[United States Geological Survey]], draw a distinction between oil shale resources and oil shale reserves. "Resources" may refer to all oil shale deposits, while "reserves", more narrowly defined, represent those deposits from which oil can profitably be extracted using existing technologies. Since extraction technologies are still developing, the amount of recoverable kerogen can only be estimated.<ref name=dyni/><ref name=csm>
{{Cite journal
| last = Youngquist | first = Walter
| title = Shale Oil - The Elusive Energy
| journal = Hubbert Center Newsletter
| publisher = Colorado School of Mines
| issue = 4
| year = 1998
| url= http://hubbert.mines.edu/news/Youngquist_98-4.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2008-04-17}}
</ref>
Although oil shale resources occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess deposits of possible economic value.<ref name=symposium>
{{Cite journal
| last = Brendow | first = K.
| title = Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18–19 November, Tallinn
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume =20
| issue =1
| pages =81–92
| year = 2003
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/9_brendow_1_03.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2007-07-21}}
</ref><ref name=china>
{{Cite journal
| last =Qian | first =Jialin
| last2 =Wang | first2 =Jianqiu
| last3 =Li | first3 =Shuyuan
| title =Oil Shale Development in China
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume =20
| issue =3
| pages =356–359
| year =2003
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/9_qian_2003_3s.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2007-06-16}}
</ref>
Well-explored deposits, which could be classified as reserves, include the [[Green River Formation|Green River]] deposits in the western [[United States]], the Tertiary deposits in [[Queensland]], Australia, deposits in [[Sweden]] and [[Estonia]], the El-Lajjun deposit in [[Jordan]], and deposits in [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[China]], southern [[Mongolia]] and [[Russia]]. It is expected that these deposits would yield at least 40 liters of shale oil per tonne of shale, using the Fischer [[assay]].<ref name=dyni/><ref name=turkey/>
A 2005 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 411 [[gigaton]]s — enough to yield 2.8 to {{convert|3.3|Toilbbl|km3}} of shale oil.<ref name=wec/><ref name=aeo2006/><ref name=andrews/><ref name=unconventional/> This exceeds the world's proven conventional [[oil reserves]], estimated at {{convert|1.317|Toilbbl}}, as of [[1 January]] [[2007]].<ref name=chapter3>
{{Cite web
| title = Chapter 3 - Petroleum and Other Liquids Fuels. International Energy Outlook 2007
| publisher = Energy Information Administration
| date = May 2007
| url= http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/oil.html
| id = DOE/EIA-0484(2007)
| accessdate =2008-04-20}}
</ref> The largest deposits in the world are found in the United States in the Green River basin, which covers portions of [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], and [[Wyoming]]; about 70% of this resource is located on federally owned or managed land.<ref>
{{Cite web
| title = About Oil Shale
| url = http://ostseis.anl.gov/guide/oilshale/index.cfm
| publisher = [[Argonne National Laboratory]]
| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}
</ref> Deposits in the United States constitute 62% of world resources; together, the United States, Russia and Brazil account for 86% of the world's resources in terms of shale oil content.<ref name=symposium/> These figures are considered tentative, as several deposits have not yet been explored or analyzed.<ref name=dyni/><ref name=wec/>
== History ==
{{main|History of the oil shale industry}}
[[Image:Production of oil shale.svg|thumb|right|Production of oil shale ([[megaton]]s) in Estonia (Estonia deposit), Russia (Leningrad and Kashpir deposits), [[United Kingdom]] (Scotland, Lothians), Brazil (Iratí Formation), China (Maoming and Fushun deposits), and Germany (Dotternhausen) from 1880 to 2000<ref name=dyni/>]]
Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without any processing.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6567632
|publisher=U.S. [[Department of Energy]]
|title=Bibliographic Citation: Non-synfuel uses of oil shale
|accessdate=2008-03-20}}
</ref>
Britons of the [[Iron Age]] also used to polish it and form it into ornaments.<ref>
{{cite web
|author=Ian West
|title=Kimmeridge - The Blackstone - Oil Shale
|publisher=[[University of Southampton]]
|date=2008-01-06
|url=http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/kimblack.htm
|accessdate=2008-04-21}}</ref>
Modern industrial oil shale mining began in 1837 in [[Autun]], France, followed by exploitation in Scotland, Germany, and several other countries.<ref name=wec/><ref name=laherrere>
{{Cite paper
| last =Laherrère | first =Jean
| author-link =Jean Laherrère
| title =Review on oil shale data
| publisher = Hubbert Peak
| date = 2005
| url=http://www.hubbertpeak.com/laherrere/OilShaleReview200509.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-06-17}}
</ref>
Operations during the 19th century focused on the production of [[kerosene]], lamp oil, and [[paraffin]]; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name=encarta1>
{{cite web
|title=Petroleum
|first=Todd M. |last=Doscher
|publisher=[[MSN Encarta]]
|accessdate=2008-04-22
|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576221/petroleum.html
}}</ref> Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and [[ammonium sulfate]] were also produced.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://emd.aapg.org/technical_areas/oil_shale.cfm
|title=Oil Shale
|publisher=American Association of Petroleum Geologists
|accessdate=2008-03-31}}</ref>
The oil shale industry expanded immediately before [[World War I]] because of limited access to conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which generated an increase in gasoline consumption.
Although the Estonian and Chinese oil shale industries continued to grow after [[World War II]], most other countries abandoned their projects due to high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum.<ref name=dyni/><ref name=wec/><ref name=laherrere/><ref name=fushun2>
{{Cite paper
| last = Yin | first = Liang
| title = Current status of oil shale industry in Fushun, China
| date = 2006-11-07
| place = Amman, Jordan
| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A106.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-06-29}}
</ref>
Following the [[1973 oil crisis]], world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, due to competition from [[1980s oil glut|cheap conventional petroleum in the 1980s]].<ref name=symposium/><ref name="Burnham">
{{cite paper
| author = Burnham, A. K.
| title = Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil
| publisher = Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
| date = 2003-08-20
| url = http://www.llnl.gov/tid/lof/documents/pdf/243505.pdf
| format = PDF
| id = UCRL-ID-155045
| accessdate = 2007-06-28}}</ref>
On [[2 May]] [[1982]], known as "Black Sunday", [[ExxonMobil|Exxon]] canceled its US$5 billion Colony Shale Oil Project near [[Parachute, Colorado]], laying off more than 2,000 workers and leaving a trail of home-foreclosures and small-business bankruptcies.<ref name=chronicle>
{{cite news
| author = Collier, Robert
| title = Coaxing oil from huge U.S. shale deposits
| publisher = San Francisco Chronicle
| date = 2006-09-04
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/09/04/MNGIEKV0D41.DTL
| accessdate = 2008-05-14}}
</ref>
This led the [[United States Congress]] to abolish its [[Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program]].<ref name=manski2>
{{cite news
| author = Manski, Rebecca
| title = Scrapping the Oil Shale Scam, Investing in Infinite Energy
| publisher = BUSTAN: Environmental Justice in Israel’s Negev
| date = 2006-09-02
| url =http://bustan.org/2006/09/post.html
| accessdate = 2008-05-14}}
</ref>
The global oil shale industry began to revive in the mid-1990s. In 2003, an oil shale development program restarted in the United States. Authorities introduced a commercial leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and [[tar sand]] resources on federal lands in 2005, in accordance with the [[Energy Policy Act of 2005]].<ref name=blm>
{{cite press release
| publisher= Bureau of Land Management
| url= http://www.blm.gov/nhp/news/releases/pages/2005/pr050920_oilshale.htm
| title = Nominations for Oil Shale Research Leases Demonstrate Significant Interest in Advancing Energy Technology.
| date = 2005-09-20
| accessdate=2007-07-10}}
</ref><ref name=blm2>
{{cite press release
| publisher= Bureau of Land Management
| url= http://www.blm.gov/nhp/news/releases/pages/2006/pr060825_anpr.htm
| title = BLM Publishes Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on Commercial Oil Shale Leasing.
| date = 2006-08-25
| accessdate=2008-04-05}}
</ref><ref name=anl>
{{cite web
| publisher= Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS Information Center
| url= http://ostseis.anl.gov/eis/what/index.cfm
| title = What's in the Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS
| accessdate=2007-07-10}}
</ref>
==Industry ==
{{main | Oil shale industry}}
As of 2008, industry uses oil shale in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, Israel, and Russia. Several additional countries started assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry.<ref name=wec/> Oil shale is used for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China; for power generation in Estonia, China, Israel, and Germany; for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China; and by chemical industries in China, Estonia, and Russia.<ref name=fushun2/><ref name=wec/><ref name=eu/><ref name=jordan2>
{{Cite paper
| last = Alali | first = Jamal
| last2 = Abu Salah | first2 = Abdelfattah
| last3 = Yasin | first3 = Suha M.
| last4 = Al Omari | first4 = Wasfi
| title = Oil Shale in Jordan
| publisher = Natural Resources Authority of Jordan
| date = 2006
| url = http://www.nra.gov.jo/images/stories/pdf_files/Oil_Shale.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-06-29}}</ref> As of 2005, Estonia alone accounted for about 70% of the world's oil shale production.<ref name=eu/><ref name=research>
{{Cite paper
| title = Non-Nuclear Energy Research in Europe – A comparative study. Country Reports A – I. Volume 2
| publisher = [[European Commission]]. Directorate-General for Research
| date = 2005
| url = http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/pdf/synergy_vol2_en.pdf
| format= PDF
| id = EUR 21614/2
| accessdate =2007-06-29}}
</ref>
[[Romania]] and Russia have in the past run power-plants fired by oil shale, but have shut them down or switched to other fuel sources such as natural gas. Jordan and [[Egypt]] are planning to construct oil shale-fired power plants, while Canada and Turkey plan to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation.<ref name=wec/><ref name=symposium/><ref name=Jordan>
{{Cite journal
| last =Hamarneh | first =Yousef
| coauthors =Alali, Jamal; Sawaged, Suzan
| title =Oil Shale Resources Development In Jordan
| location=Amman
| publisher=Natural Resources Authority of Jordan
| date = 1998; 2006
| url = http://www.nra.gov.jo/images/stories/pdf_files/Updated_Report_2006.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-06-16}}
</ref> Oil shale is used as the main fuel for power generation only in Estonia, where the oil shale-fired [[Narva Power Plants]] accounted for 95% of electrical generation in 2005.<ref name=figures2005>
{{cite paper
| title = Estonian Energy in Figures 2005
| publisher = Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications
| date = 2006
| url = http://www.mkm.ee/doc.php?173480
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref>
==Extraction and processing ==
{{main|Oil shale extraction}}
[[Image:Shell insitu.gif|thumb|right|Shell's experimental ''in-situ'' oil shale facility, Piceance Basin, Colorado, USA]]
Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere, after which one can burn it directly to generate electricity, or undertake further processing. The most-often used methods of [[surface mining]] are [[open pit mining]] and [[strip mining]]. These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the oil shale deposits, and are practical when the deposits are close to the surface. [[Underground mining]] of oil shale, which removes less of the overlying material, employs the [[Room and pillar|room-and-pillar method]].<ref name=rand>
{{Cite paper
| last = Bartis | first = James T.
| last2 =LaTourrette | first2 = Tom
| last3 = Dixon | first3 =Lloyd
| last4 = Peterson | first4 =D.J.
| last5 = Cecchine | first5 = Gary
| title = Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy
| publisher = [[RAND|The RAND Corporation]]
| date = 2005
| url = http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/Oil%20Shale%20Development%20in%20the%20United%20States%20-%20RAND%20August%20200.pdf
| format=PDF
| isbn = 978-0-8330-3848-7
| accessdate =2007-06-29}}
</ref>
The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above ground (''ex situ'' processing), although several newer technologies perform this underground (on-site or ''in situ'' processing).<ref name=AICHE>
{{Cite paper
| last = Burnham | first = Alan K.
| last2 = McConaghy | first2 = James R.
| title = Comparison of the Acceptability of Various Oil Shale Processes
| date = 2006-10-16
| place =Golden
| publisher = 26th Oil Shale Symposium
| url =http://www.llnl.gov/tid/lof/documents/pdf/341283.pdf
| format = PDF
| id =UCRL-CONF-226717
| accessdate =2007-06-23}}
</ref>
In either case, after access to the shale is gained, its kerogen is converted to synthetic crude oil and shale gas through the chemical process of [[pyrolysis]]. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of [[oxygen]] to a temperature at which kerogen is decomposed (pyrolysed) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue; this usually takes place between {{convert|450|°C|°F|0|lk=on}} and {{convert|500|°C|°F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name=csm/> The process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures ({{convert|300|°C|°F|-1|disp=s}}), but proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures.<ref name=koel>
{{Cite journal
|last=Koel|first=Mihkel
| title=Estonian oil shale
| journal=Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher=Estonian Academy Publishers
| issue=Extra
| year=1999
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/Est-OS.htm
| id=ISSN 0208-189X
| accessdate=2007-07-21}}
</ref>
During the course of ''in-situ'' processing, mining-engineers heat the oil shale underground. These technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ''ex-situ'' processes, since they can access the material at greater depths than do surface mines.<ref name=california>
{{Cite paper
|last=Ennis |first=D.L.
|title=Oil Shale—An Investment We Can’t Afford
|publisher=California Chronicle
|url=http://www.californiachronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=12494
|date=2006-08-15
|accessdate=2007-07-26}}
</ref>
Several companies have patented methods for ''in-situ'' retorting. However, most of these methods are still in the experimental phase. The methods are usually classified as ''true in-situ'' processes (TIS) and ''modified in-situ'' processes (MIS). ''True in-situ'' processes do not involve mining the oil shale. ''Modified in-situ'' processes drill a large shaft to transport workers and equipment to the shale formation, fracture the deposit and crush it, and ignite the rubble.<ref name=fossilenergy>
{{Cite paper
| title =Strategic Significance of America’s Oil Shale Resource. Volume II Oil Shale Resources, Technology and Economics
| publisher = United States Department of Energy
| date = 2004
| url=http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev2.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-06-23}}
</ref>
Hundreds of patents for oil shale [[retort]]ing technologies exist;<ref name=patent>
{{Cite web
| title= Process for the recovery of hydrocarbons from oil shale
| publisher=FreePatentsOnline
| url =http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4449586.html
| accessdate=2007-11-03}}
</ref> however, only a few dozen have been tested. As of 2006, only four technologies were in commercial use: Kiviter, Galoter, Fushun, and [[Petrosix]].<ref name=qian>
{{Cite paper
| last=Qian|first=Jialin
| last2=Wang|first2=Jianqiu
| title=World oil shale retorting technologies
| date=2006-11-07
| place =Amman, Jordan
| url=http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A118.pdf
| format=PDF
| accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
== Applications and products ==
Industry can use oil shale as a fuel for thermal power plants, burning it (like coal) to drive [[steam turbine]]s; some of these plants [[cogeneration|employ the resulting heat]] for [[district heating]] of homes and businesses. Sizable [[Fossil fuel power plant|oil shale-fired power plant]]s are located in Estonia, which has an installed capacity of 2,967 [[megawatt]]s (MW), Israel (12.5 MW), China (12 MW), and Germany (9.9 MW).<ref name=symposium/><ref name=qian3>
{{Cite paper
| last =Qian | first =Jialin
| last2 =Wang | first2 =Jianqiu
| last3 =Li | first3 =Shuyuan
| title =One Year’s Progress in the Chinese Oil Shale Business
| publisher = China University of Petroleum
| url=http://mines.conference-services.net/viewPDF.asp?abstractID=162200&conferenceID=1128
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-10-06}}
</ref>
In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty [[carbon fiber]]s, [[Adsorption|adsorbent carbons]], [[carbon black]], [[phenols]], [[resin]]s, [[glue]]s, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, [[cement]], bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, [[fertilizer]]s, [[rock wool | rock-wool]] insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products.<ref name=eu/> However, oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in its experimental stages.<ref name=dyni/><ref name=wec/> Some oil shales yield [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[alumina]], [[soda ash]], uranium, and [[nahcolite]] as shale oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of ''[[Basidiolichen|Dictyonema]]'' shale was used for [[uranium]] production in [[Sillamäe]], Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 [[alum]] shale was used in Sweden for the same purposes.<ref name=dyni/>
Another of its uses has been as a substitute for [[natural gas]], but as of 2008, producing shale gas as a natural gas substitute is not economically feasible.<ref name=proceedings>
{{Citation
| last = Schora | first = F. C.
| last2 = Tarman | first2 = P. B.
| last3 = Feldkirchner | first3 = H. L.
| last4 = Weil | first4 = S. A.
| title = Hydrocarbon fuels from oil shale
| journal = Proceedings
| publisher = [[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]]
| volume = 1
| pages = 325–330
| year = 1976
| id = A77-12662 02-44}}
</ref><ref name=ttu>
{{Cite web
| author = Valgma, Ingo
| title = Map of oil shale mining history in Estonia
| publisher = Mining Institute of [[Tallinn Technical University]]
| url = http://www.ene.ttu.ee/maeinstituut/mgis/mapofhistory.htm
| accessdate = 2007-07-21}}
</ref>
The oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It contains higher concentrations of [[olefin]]s, [[oxygen]], and [[nitrogen]] than conventional crude oil, as well as higher [[viscosity|viscosities]]. By comparison with [[West Texas Intermediate]], the benchmark standard for crude oil in the [[futures contract]] market, shale oil [[sulfur]] content ranges up to 9.5% by weight, where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%.<ref name=dyni2>
{{cite journal
|last= Dyni | first1= John R.
|title= Distribution and origin of sulfur in Colorado oil shale
|date= 1983-04-01
|publisher= U.S. Geological Survey
|journal = 16th Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings
|pages= 144–159
|url= http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5232531
|id=CONF-830434-
|accessdate= 2007-10-22}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite journal
|last= Al-Harahsheh | first= Adnan
|last2=Al-Otoom | first2= Awni Y.
|last3= Shawabkeh | first3=Reyad A.
|title= Sulfur distribution in the oil fractions obtained by thermal cracking of Jordanian El-Lajjun oil Shale
|date=2003-10-16
|journal = Energy
|volume = 30
|pages = 2784–2795
|publication-date = November 2005
|publisher = [[Elsevier]]
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-4FNTH74-1&_user=10&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6c05f61d6b2ad9d9c83d51710d47a518
|accessdate= 2007-10-22
|doi= 10.1016/j.energy.2005.01.013
|issue= 15}}</ref>
The higher concentrations of these materials means that the oil must undergo considerable upgrading before serving as [[oil refinery | oil-refinery]] feedstock.<ref>
{{Cite book
| last = Lee | first = Sunggyu
| title = Oil Shale Technology
| publisher = [[CRC Press]]
| pages = 6
| year = 1991
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=N0wMCusO6yIC&pg=PA253&lpg=PA253&source=web&ots=RUeSKpiSxN&sig=pvW6H4fqTIb-cHHdVuO57pozdeg#PPP1,M1
| isbn = 0849346150
| accessdate = 2007-07-09}}
</ref>
Shale oil does not contain the full range of hydrocarbons used in modern [[gasoline]] production, and could only be used to produce middle-[[Distillation|distillates]] such as [[kerosene]], [[jet fuel]], and [[diesel|diesel fuel]].<ref name=andrews/> Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, however, is increasing rapidly.<ref>{{cite web
|date=2006-05-04
|publisher=[[United States House of Representatives]]
|title=Statement Of Daniel Yergin, Chairman of Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Before The Committee On Energy And Commerce/U.S. House Of Representatives
|url=http://energycommerce.house.gov/reparchives/108/Hearings/05042006hearing1865/Yergin.pdf
|accessdate=2008-04-20}}</ref>
== Economics==
{{main|Oil shale economics}}
[[Image:Oil Prices Medium Term.png|thumb|Medium-term prices for [[sweet crude oil|light-sweet crude oil]] in US dollars, 2005–2007 (not adjusted for inflation)]]
During the early 20th century, the crude-oil industry expanded. Since then, the various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale oil production in a given region was less than the price of crude oil or its other substitutes.<ref>
{{cite paper
| author = Rapier, Robert
| title = Oil Shale Development Imminent
| publisher = R-Squared Energy Blog
| date = 2006-06-12
| url = http://i-r-squared.blogspot.com/2006/06/oil-shale-development-imminent.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-22}}
</ref>
According to a survey conducted by the [[RAND Corporation]], the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, [[retort|retorting plant]], [[upgrader|upgrading plant]], supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation), would be between [[US dollars|US$]]70–95 ($440–600/m<sup>3</sup>, adjusted to 2005 values). This estimate considers varying levels of kerogen quality and extraction efficiency. In order for the operation to be profitable, the price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels. The analysis also discusses the expectation that processing costs would drop after the complex was established. The hypothetical unit would see a cost reduction of 35–70% after its first {{convert|500|Moilbbl}} were produced. Assuming an increase in output of {{convert|25|koilbbl/d}} during each year after the start of commercial production, the costs would then be expected to decline to $35–48 per barrel ($220–300/m<sup>3</sup>) within 12 years. After achieving the milestone of {{convert|1|Goilbbl}}, its costs would decline further to $30–40 per barrel ($190–250/m<sup>3</sup>).<ref name=rand/><ref name=eu>{{cite journal
| publisher = European Academies Science Advisory Council
| url = http://www.easac.org/displaypagedoc.asp?id=78
| title = A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament
| format = PDF
| date = May 2007
| accessdate = 2007-11-25}}</ref> A comparison of the proposed US oil shale industry to the [[Alberta tar sands]] industry has been drawn (the latter enterprise generated over one million barrels of oil per day in late 2007), stating that "the first-generation facility is the hardest, both technically and economically".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/11/12/071112fa_fact_kolbert
|title=A Reporter at Large:Unconventional Crude
|publisher=[[The New Yorker]]
|date=2007-11-12
|accessdate=2008-03-31}}
</ref><ref name=answer>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/publications/Pubs-NPR/40010-373.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Is Oil Shale The Answer To America's Peak-Oil Challenge?
|publisher=US [[Department of Energy]]
|date=2008-02-08
|accessdate=2008-03-31
|format=PDF}}
</ref>
[[Royal Dutch Shell]] has announced that its ''in situ'' extraction technology in Colorado could become competitive at prices over $30 per barrel ($190/m<sup>3</sup>), while other technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $20 per barrel ($130/m<sup>3</sup>).<ref name=rockymountainnews>
{{cite web
| publisher=''Rocky Mountain News''
| author=Seebach, Linda
| url= http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/news_columnists/article/0,1299,DRMN_86_4051709,00.html
| title =Shell's ingenious approach to oil shale is pretty slick
| date = 2005-09-02
| accessdate=2007-06-02}}
</ref><ref name=schmidt>
{{Cite journal
| last = Schmidt | first = S. J.
| title = New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume =20
| issue =3
| pages =333–346
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/7_schmidt_2003_3s.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate = 2007-06-02}}
</ref><ref name=israel>
{{cite web
| publisher= [[United Press International]]
| author= Krauss, Leah
| url= http://www.upi.com/Energy/view.php?StoryID=20061107-070924-5161r
| title = Analysis: Israel sees shale replacing oil
| date=2006-11-07
| accessdate=2007-07-29}}
</ref><ref name=fossilenergy>
{{Cite paper
| title =Strategic Significance of America’s Oil Shale Resource. Volume II Oil Shale Resources, Technology and Economics
| publisher = United States Department of Energy
| date = 2004
| url=http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev2.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate =2007-06-23}}
</ref>
To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting, several co-pyrolysis processes have been proposed and tested.<ref name=co-pyrolisis>
{{Cite journal
| title =Co-pyrolysis of waste plastics with oil shale
| last = Tiikma | first=Laine
| last2 = Johannes | first2=Ille
| last3 = Pryadka | first3=Natalja
| year = 2002
| journal = Proceedings. Symposium on Oil Shale 2002, Tallinn, Estonia
| pages= 76}}
</ref><ref name=co-pyrolisis2>
{{Cite journal
| title =Fixation of chlorine evolved in pyrolysis of PVC waste by Estonian oil shales
| last = Tiikma | first=Laine
| last2 = Johannes | first2=Ille
| last3 = Luik | first3=Hans
| journal=Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis
| date = March 2006
| volume=75
| issue=2
| pages=205–210
| format=PDF
| url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6TG7-4GR33JX-1-9&_cdi=5247&_user=10&_orig=search&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2006&_sk=999249997&view=c&wchp=dGLbVtz-zSkWW&md5=9e583e16281cce35e8d52957730ad3f3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
| accessdate =2007-10-20
| doi =10.1016/j.jaap.2005.06.001}}
</ref><ref name=veski1>
{{Cite journal
| last =Veski | first =R.
| last2 =Palu | first2 =V.
| last3 =Kruusement | first3 =K.
| title =Co-liquefaction of kukersite oil shale and pine wood in supercritical water
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume =23
| issue =3
| pages =236–248
| year =2006
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/oil-2006-3-4.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2007-06-16}}
</ref><ref name=Morocco>
{{Cite journal
| last = Aboulkas | first =A.
| last2 =El Harfi | first2 =K.
| last3 =El Bouadili | first3 =A.
| last4 =Benchanaa | first4 =M.
| last5 =Mokhlisse | first5 =A.
| last6 =Outzourit | first6 =A.
| title = Kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Tarfaya (Morocco) oil shale with high-density polyethylene
| journal = Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume =24
| issue =1
| pages =15–33
| year =2007
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/oil-2006-3-4.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2007-06-16}}
</ref><ref name=turkey2>
{{Cite paper
| last = Ozdemir | first = M.
| last2 = Akar | first2 = A.
| last3 = Aydoğan | first3 = A.
| last4 = Kalafatoglu | first4 = E.
| last5 = Ekinci | first5 = E.
| title = Copyrolysis of Goynuk oil shale and thermoplastics
| date = 2006-11-07
| place = Amman, Jordan
| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A114.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-06-29}}
</ref>
Some commentators have compared shale-oil production unfavorably with other unconventional oil technologies, arguing that [[Coal#Liquefaction_-_Coal-To-Liquids_.28CTL.29 | liquefaction of coal]] costs less money than oil shale extraction, as well as producing more oil with fewer environmental impacts.<ref name=bustan1>
{{Cite paper
| title = Backgrounder: Negev Oil Shale
| publisher = BUSTAN: Environmental Justice in Israel’s Negev
| date = 2006
| url = http://bustan.org/pdfs/OilShale.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2008-05-14}}
</ref>
In 1972, the journal ''Pétrole Informations'' (ISSN 0755-561X) noted that one [[ton]] of coal yielded {{convert|650|L|U.S.gal impgal|lk=on}} of oil while one ton of oil shale yielded only {{convert|150|L|U.S.gal impgal}} of shale oil.<ref name=laherrere/>
A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" ([[EROEI]]). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7–13.3.<ref name=science2>
{{Cite journal
| last = Cleveland | first = Cutler J.
| last2 = Costanza | first2 = Robert
| last3 = Hall | first3 = Charles A. S.
| last4 = Kaufmann | first4 = Robert
| title =Energy and the U.S. Economy: A Biophysical Perspective
| journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]]
| publisher = [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]
| volume = 225
| issue = 4665
| pages =890–897
| date = 1984-08-31
| year = 1984
| url = http://www.eroei.com/pdf/Energy%20and%20the%20U.S.%20Economy-%20A%20Biophysical%20Perspective.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 00368075
| accessdate=2007-08-28
| doi =10.1126/science.225.4665.890
| pmid =17779848}}
</ref>
Royal Dutch Shell has reported an EROEI of three to four on its ''in situ'' development, [[Mahogany Research Project]].<ref name=rockymountainnews/><ref name=shell>
{{cite paper
| title = Oil Shale Test Project. Oil Shale Research and Development Project
| publisher = Shell Frontier Oil and Gas
| date = 2006-02-15
| url = http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/co/field_offices/white_river_field/oil_shale.Par.79837.File.dat/OSTPlanofOperations.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2007-06-30}}
</ref><ref name=wired>
{{cite web
| publisher=WIRED Magazine
| author=Reiss, Spencer
| url= http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.12/oilshale.html
| title =Tapping the Rock Field
| date = 2005-12-13
| accessdate=2007-08-27}}
</ref>
The water needed in the oil shale retorting process offers an additional economic consideration: this may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity.
== Environmental considerations ==
{{main|Environmental impact of oil shale industry}}
<!-- [[Image:Stuart_oil_shale_processing_plant.jpg|thumb|''Stuart oil shale pilot plant'']] image hide to clarify possibilities to change the license, GFDL image is needed -->
Oil shale mining involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining. They include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent [[oxidation]] of formerly buried materials, the introduction of metals into surface-water and groundwater, increased [[erosion]], sulfur-gas emissions, and air pollution caused by the production of [[particulates]] during processing, transport, and support activities.<ref name="Burnham" /><ref name="openpitimpacts">
{{cite paper
|title=Environmental Impacts from Mining
|url=http://www.ott.wrcc.osmre.gov/library/hbmanual/epa530c/chapter3.pdf
|format=PDF
|publisher=US [[Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement]]
|date=2006-08-02
|accessdate=2008-03-29}}
</ref>
In 2002, about 97% of air pollution, 86% of total waste and 23% of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry, which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production.<ref name=raukas>
{{Cite journal
| last = Raukas | first = Anto
| title =Opening a new decade
| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers
| volume = 21
| issue =1
| pages =1–2
| year =2004
| url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale/1_ed_page_2004_1.pdf
| format = PDF
| issn = 0208-189X
| accessdate =2008-05-14}}
</ref>
Oil shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include [[carbon dioxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]]. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels.<ref name="nrdc">
{{cite paper
|title= Driving It Home. Choosing the Right Path for Fueling North America's Transportation Future
|url= http://www.nrdc.org/energy/drivingithome/drivingithome.pdf
|format= PDF
|publisher= [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]
|date= June 2007
|accessdate= 2008-04-19
}}</ref>
Section 526 of the ''Energy Independence And Security Act'' prohibits United States government agencies from buying oil produced by processes that produce more greenhouse gas emissions than would traditional petroleum.<ref name=mineweb>
{{cite news
|title= Repeal sought for ban on U.S. Govt. use of CTL, oil shale, tar sands-generated fuel
|url=http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page38?oid=50551&sn=Detail
|last = Kosich| first = Dorothy
|publisher= Mine Web
|date= 2008-04-11
|accessdate= 2008-05-27
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|title=United States: Energy Independence And Security Act Provision Poses Major Problems For Synthetic And Alternative Fuels
|author=Bloom David I, Waldron Roger, Layton Duane W, Patrick Roger W
|url=http://www.mondaq.com/article.asp?articleid=58310
|date=2008-03-04
|accessdate=2008-05-27
}}</ref>
Experimental ''in situ'' conversion processes and [[carbon capture and storage]] technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including [[groundwater]] pollution.<ref name="BartisBoston">
{{cite paper
|url=http://www.aspo-usa.com/fall2006/presentations/pdf/Bartis_J_Boston_2006.pdf
| format = PDF
| title=Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview. 2006 Boston World Oil Conference
| author=Bartis, Jim, [[RAND|RAND Corporation]]
| publisher=Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas - USA
| date= 2006-10-26
| accessdate=2007-06-28
}}</ref>
Some commentators have expressed concerns over the oil shale industry's use of water. In 2002, the oil shale-fired power industry used 91% of the water consumed in Estonia.<ref name=raukas/> Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil.<ref name=rand/><ref name=BLM2008/><ref name=myths>
{{cite web
| title = Oil Shale Myths
| publisher = Shale Oil Information Center
| date = 2005-07-09
| url = http://www.shaleoilinfo.org/library/citizens/lukens2005Jul09.php
| author = Luken, Larry
| accessdate = 2008-04-01
}}</ref><ref name=water>
{{cite web
| title = Critics charge energy, water needs of oil shale could harm environment
| publisher = U.S. Water News Online
| date = July 2007
| url = http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/7critchar7.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-01
}}</ref>
A 2007 programmatic [[environmental impact statement]] issued by the US [[Bureau of Land Management]] stated that surface mining and retort operations produce two to ten US gallons {{nowrap|(1.5–8 imperial gallons or 8–38 L)}} of wastewater per tonne of processed oil shale.<ref name=BLM2008>
{{cite web
|url=http://ostseis.anl.gov/documents/dpeis/volumes/OSTS_DPEIS_Vol_2.pdf
|title=Draft Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Volume 2
|format=PDF
|page=36
|publisher=[[Argonne National Laboratory]]
|date= 2007-12-07
|accessdate=2008-03-31
}}</ref> ''In situ'' processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Hopes for shale oil are revived
|url=http://www.worldoil.com/magazine/MAGAZINE_DETAIL.asp?ART_ID=2658&MONTH_YEAR=Aug-2005
|publisher=worldoil.com
|month=August
|year=2005
|accessdate=2008-04-01
}}</ref>
Water concerns are particularly sensitive issue in arid regions, such as the western US and Israel's [[Negev|Negev Desert]], where there are plans to expand the oil shale industry despite a water shortage.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,695263708,00.html
|title=Oil-shale 'rush' is sparking concern
|publisher=''[[Deseret Morning News]]''
|date=2008-03-22
|accessdate=2008-03-31}}
</ref><ref name=manski3>
{{cite news
| author = Manski, Rebecca
| title = Will plans to mine oil shale in Israel Negev Desert sideline renewable resource options?
| publisher = BUSTAN: Environmental Justice in Israel’s Negev
| date = 2006-08-06
| url =http://bustan.org/pdfs/OilShaleTechInIsrael.pdf
| format=PDF
| accessdate = 2008-05-14}}
</ref>
[[environmentalism|Environmental]] activists, including members of [[Greenpeace]], have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. As a result, Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed [[Stuart Oil Shale Project]] in Australia on hold in 2004.<ref name="Burnham" /><ref name=greenpeace>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/news-and-events/media/releases/climate-change/climate-changing-shale-oil-ind
| title=Climate-changing shale oil industry stopped
| publisher=[[Greenpeace]] Australia Pacific
| date=2005-03-03
| accessdate=2007-06-28
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200407/s1159133.htm
| title=Greenpeace happy with part closure of shale oil plant
| publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
| date=2004-07-22
| accessdate=2008-05-19
}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{EnergyPortal}}
{{portal|Earth sciences|Terra.png}}
* [[Core Research Center]] – a facility of the United States Geological Survey, dedicated to preserving valuable rock-samples threatened with disposal or destruction, including oil shales
* [[Kukersite]] – a well-analyzed marine oil shale found in the Baltic Sea basin
* [[Mitigation of peak oil]] – discussion of attempts to delay and minimize the impact of "[[peak oil]]" (the point in time of maximum global petroleum production), including the development of non-conventional oil resources
* [[Narva Power Plants]] – [[as of 2008]] the world's largest oil shale-fired power plants
* [[Oil reserves]] – discussion of global crude oil supplies
* [[Tasmanite]] – a marine oil shale found in Tasmania
* [[Torbanite]] – a lacustrine oil shale found in Scotland
* [[World energy resources and consumption]]
== References==
{{reflist|2}}
== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Oil shale}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Oil_shale.ogg|2008-05-26}}
* {{cite web| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/
|title=Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal |publisher= Estonian Academy Publishers. {{ISSN|0208-189X}} |accessdate=2008-04-22 }}
* {{cite web| url=http://energy.cr.usgs.gov/other/oil_shale/pubs_data.html
|title=Related Oil Shale Publications and Data |publisher= U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=2008-04-22}}
* {{cite book
| name=Andersson | first = Astrid
| name2=Dahlman | first2 = Bertil
| name3=Gee | first3 =David G.
| name4=Snäll | first3 =Sven
| title = The Scandinavian Alum Shales
| year = 1985
| pages=49 pp
| url = http://www.sgu.se/cgi-bin/egwcgi/53514/screen.tcl/name=show_record&format=brief&host=georeg&gattr1=@attr+2%3D102&entry1=The+Scandinavian+Alum+Shales&field1=all&logic1=&attr1=@attr+4%3D2&page=1&norec=1&service=sgu&lang=eng
| isbn = 9171583343
| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}
* {{cite web| url=http://www.mines.edu/outreach/cont_ed/oilshale/index.html
|title=28th Oil Shale Symposium October 13–17, 2008 |publisher=Colorado School of Mines |accessdate=2008-04-22}}
* {{cite web
| author= Fine, Daniel
| Publisher = Heritage Foundation
| title = Oil Shale: Toward a Strategic Unconventional Fuels Supply Policy
| date = [[2007-03-08]]
| url = http://www.heritage.org/Research/EnergyandEnvironment/hl1015.cfm
| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}
* {{cite web
| title = Statement Of Thomas Lonnie Assistant Director for Minerals, Realty & Resource Protection, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee. Oversight Hearing on Oil Shale Development Efforts
| date = [[2005-04-12]]
| publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior
| url = http://www.doi.gov/ocl/2005/OilShaleDev.htm
| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}
* {{cite news
| last=Manski
|first=Rebecca
|url= http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1143468705238&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FPrinter
|title=Solar Energy, Not Shale Pollution
|journal=Jerusalem Post
| date=[[2006-05-27]]
|accessdate=2008-04-22}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Oil shale| ]]
[[Category:Oils]]
[[Category:Petroleum]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[Category:Energy sources]]
[[ar:صخر زيتي]]
[[be:Гаручыя сланцы]]
[[ca:Pissarra bituminosa]]
[[cs:Ropné břidlice]]
[[da:Olieskifer]]
[[de:Ölschiefer]]
[[et:Põlevkivi]]
[[es:Pizarra bituminosa]]
[[eo:Oleoardezo]]
[[fr:Schiste bitumineux]]
[[he:פצלי שמן]]
[[it:Scisto bituminoso]]
[[ja:オイルシェール]]
[[nl:Oil Shale]]
[[no:Oljeskifer]]
[[pl:Łupki bitumiczne]]
[[pt:Xisto betuminoso]]
[[ru:Горючий сланец]]
[[fi:Öljyliuske]]
[[sv:Oljeskiffer]]
[[th:หินน้ำมัน]]
[[uk:Горючі сланці]]
[[zh:油页岩]]