Olive oil
22478
224874908
2008-07-10T20:12:13Z
Thedjatclubrock
3044353
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/59.178.161.199|59.178.161.199]] to last version by Ronz (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
{{for|the Popeye cartoon character|Olive Oyl}}
{{Infobox oils
|name=Olive oil
|image=Italian olive oil 2007.jpg
|imagesize=100px
|caption=Olive oil bottle.
|composition=
|fat=
|water=
|solids=
|sterols=
|fatcomposition=y
|sat= [[Palmitic acid]]: 7.5–20.0 %<br>[[Stearic acid]]: 0.5–5.0 %<br>[[Arachidic acid]]: <0.8%<br>[[Behenic acid]]: <0.3%<br>[[Myristic acid]]: <0.1%<br>[[Lignoceric acid]]: <1.0%
|interster=
|trans=
|unsat=yes
|monoun=[[Oleic acid]]: 55.0–83.0%<br>[[Palmitoleic acid]]: 0.3–3.5%
|polyun=[[Linoleic acid]]: 3.5–21.0 %<br>[[Linolenic acid]]: <1.5%
|o3=
|o6=
|o9=
|properties=y
|energy=3700 kJ (890 kcal)
|melt= −6.0 °C (21 °F)
|boil= 300 °C (570 °F)
|smoke= 190 °C (375 °F) (virgin)<br>210 °C (410 °F) (refined)
|roomtemp=
|sfi20=
|sg20=0.9150–0.9180 (@ 15.5 °C)
|visc20= 84 [[centipoise|cP]]
|refract=1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and refined)<br>1.4680–1.4707 (pomace)
|iodine=75–94 (virgin and refined)<br>75–92 (pomace)
|acid=maximum: 6.6 (refined and pomace)<br>0.6 (extra-virgin)
|aciddeg=
|ph=
|sapon=184–196 (virgin and refined)<br>182–193 (pomace)
|unsapon=
|reichert=
|polenske=
|kirschner=
|shortening=
|peroxide= 20 (virgin)<br>10 (refined and pomace)
}}
'''Olive oil''' is a fruit oil obtained from the [[olive (fruit)|olive]] (''Olea europaea''; family [[Oleaceae]] along with [[lilac]]s, [[jasmine]] and [[Ash tree|ash]] trees), a traditional tree [[crop]] of the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. The wild olive tree originated in [[Asia Minor]], today the nation of [[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/oliveWorld/olivo.html
|author=[[International Olive Oil Council]]|title=The Olive Tree, The Origin and Expansion of the Olive Tree | |accessdate=2008-07-04 }}</ref> It is commonly used in [[cooking]], [[cosmetics]], [[pharmaceuticals]], and [[soap]]s and as a [[fuel]] for traditional [[oil lamp]]s.
== Market ==
Over 750 million [[olive]] trees are cultivated worldwide, 95% of which are in the [[Mediterranean]] region. Most of global production comes from Southern Europe, North Africa and Middle East.
World production in 2002 was 2.6 million [[metric tons]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/agr05/05_ch3.PDF|author=[[USDA]]|title=Agricultural Statistics 2005 | format =PDF |accessdate=2007-05-25 }}</ref>, of which Spain contributed 40% to 45%. In 2006 Turkey accounted for about 5% of world production, similar to the Spanish province of [[Jaen]] alone, well known for the biggest olive groves in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gourmetretailer.com/gourmetretailer/headlines/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003540888|author=[[USDA]]|title=Agricultural Statistics 2005|accessdate=2007-05-25 }}</ref>.
Of the European production, 93% comes from [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]], and [[Turkey]] (in order of annual production).
Greece devotes 60% of its cultivated land to olive growing. It is the world's top producer of [[black olive]]s and has more varieties of olives than any other country. Greece holds third place in world olive production with more than 132 million trees, which produce approximately 350,000 tons of olive oil annually, of which 82% is extra-virgin[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_34_18/ai_92084047] (see below for an explanation of terms). About half of the annual Greek olive oil production is exported, but only some 5% of this reflects the origin of the bottled product. Greece exports mainly to European Union (EU) countries, principally Italy, which receives about three-quarters of total exports. Olives are grown for oil in mainland Greece, with [[Peloponnese]] being the source of 65% of Greek production, as well as in [[Crete]], the [[Aegean Islands]] and [[Ionian Islands]].
Among the many different olive varieties or [[Olive#cultivars|cultivars]] in Italy are Frantoio, Leccino Pendolino, and Moraiolo. In Spain the most important varieties are the Picual, Alberquina, Hojiblanca, and Manzanillo de [[Jaén]]. In Greece : Koroneiki. In France : Picholine. In California : Mission. In Portugal : Galega.
The oil from the varieties varies in flavour and stability (shelf life).
In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality [[#Retail grades in IOOC member nations|extra-virgin]] oils from Italy, Spain and Greece are sold at high prices, often in "prestige" packaging. A large part of US olive oil imports come from the EU, especially Spain. The US imported 28.95 million gallons of olive oil in 1994, a 215% increase from 1984. The US is Italy's biggest customer, importing 22% of total Italian production of 131.6 million gallons in 1994.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
==Regulation and adulteration==
The '''International Olive Oil Council''' ('''IOOC''') is an [[intergovernmental organization]] based in [[Madrid]], [[Spain]], with 23 member states. It promotes olive oil around the world by tracking production, defining quality standards, and monitoring authenticity. More than 85% of the world's olives are grown in IOOC member nations.<ref>International Olive Oil Council [http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aa-institution-ini.html International Olive Council]</ref> The [[United States]] is not a member of the IOOC, and the [[United States Department of Agriculture|US Department of Agriculture]] does not legally recognize its classifications (such as extra-virgin olive oil). The USDA uses a different system, which it defined in 1948 before the IOOC existed. The [[California Olive Oil Council]], a private trade group, is petitioning the USDA to adopt IOOC rules.<ref>[[United States Department of Agriculture]] [http://www.ams.usda.gov/fv/ppbweb/ppbdockets/Olive%20Oil/waisgate-federal%20regsiter%20notice%20olive%20oil.txt Site]</ref>
The IOOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. IOOC terminology is precise, but it can lead to confusion between the words that describe production and the words used on retail labels. Olive oil is classified by how it was produced, by its [[chemistry]], and by its flavor. All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into [[olive paste]]. This paste is then [[malaxation|malaxed]] to allow the microscopic oil droplets to concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure (traditional method) or [[centrifuge|centrifugation]] (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called [[pomace]], still contains a small quantity of oil.
The EU regulates the use of different [[protected designation of origin]] labels for olive oils.
An article by Tom Mueller in the [[August 13]], [[2007]] Issue of the ''[[The New Yorker]]'' alleges that regulation, particularly in Italy, is extremely lax and corrupt. Mueller states that major Italian shippers routinely adulterate olive oil and that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" actually meets the specification.<ref>Mueller, Tom. [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/13/070813fa_fact_mueller Slippery Business] The New Yorker. [[13 August]] [[2007]].</ref> In some cases, [[colza oil]] with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.<ref>[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/ EUbusiness.com]</ref> This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.<ref name="telegraph">[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/07/nfood07.xml Telegraph article]</ref> In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.<ref>[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/ Eubusiness.com]</ref> Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.<ref name="telegraph"/>
In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil," arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/05/witaly105.xml Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud - Telegraph<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In April 2008 another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding [[chlorophyll]] to [[Sunflower oil|sunflower]] and [[soybean oil]] and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad. 25,000 liters of the fake oil was seized and prevented from being exported.<ref>[http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam - Scotsman.com News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Adulterated oil is usually no more serious than passing off inferior, but safe, product as superior olive oil; but there are no guarantees. Almost 700 people died, it is believed as a consequence of consuming [[rapeseed oil|rapeseed]] (canola) oil adulterated with aniline intended for use as an industrial lubricant but sold in 1981 as olive oil in Spain[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE0DC1630F932A15756C0A96F948260].
=== Industrial grades ===
The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
* ''Virgin'' means the oil was produced by the use of physical means and no chemical treatment. The term ''virgin oil'' referring to production is different from ''Virgin Oil'' on a retail label (see next section).
* ''Refined'' means that the oil has been chemically treated to neutralize strong tastes (characterized as defects) and neutralize the acid content (free [[fatty acids]]). Refined oil is commonly regarded as lower quality than virgin oil; the retail labels ''extra-virgin olive oil'' and ''virgin olive oil'' cannot contain any refined oil.
* ''Pomace olive oil'' means oil extracted from the pomace using chemical solvents—mostly [[hexane]]—and by heat.
[[Quantitative analysis]] can determine the oil's [[acidity]], defined as the percent, measured by weight, of [[Fatty acid#Free fatty acids|free]] [[oleic acid]] it contains. This is a measure of the oil's chemical degradation; as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the [[glyceride]]s, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing [[Rancidification|rancidity]]. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the [[organic peroxide]] level, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized, another cause of [[Rancidification|rancidity]].
In order to classify it by taste, olive oil is subjectively judged by a panel of professional tasters in a [[blind taste test]]. This is also called its ''organoleptic'' quality.
=== Retail grades in IOOC member nations ===
In countries which adhere to the standards of the IOOC[http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aa-institution-ini.html] the labels in stores show an oil's grade. The US is not a member.
* '''Extra-virgin olive oil''' comes from cold pressing of the olives, contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. Extra-virgin and virgin olive oil may not contain refined oil.
* '''Virgin olive oil''' has an acidity less than 2%, and is judged to have a good taste.
* '''Pure olive oil'''. Oils labeled as ''Pure olive oil'' or ''Olive oil'' are usually a blend of refined and virgin or extra-virgin oil.
* '''Olive oil''' is a blend of virgin oil and refined oil, of no more than 1.5% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor.
* '''Olive-pomace oil''' is a blend of refined pomace olive oil and possibly some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as ''olive oil''. Olive-pomace oil is rarely sold at retail; it is often used for certain kinds of cooking in restaurants.
* '''Lampante oil''' is olive oil not suitable as food; ''lampante'' comes from olive oil's long-standing use in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial market.
=== Label wording ===
Olive oil vendors choose the wording on their labels very carefully.
* "100% Pure Olive Oil" is often the lowest quality available in a retail store: better grades would have "virgin" on the label.
* "Made from refined olive oils" means that the taste and acidity were chemically controlled.
* "Light olive oil" means refined olive oil, with less flavour. All olive oil has 120 [[calorie]]s per tablespoon (34 [[joule|J]]/ml).
* "From hand-picked olives" implies that the oil is of better quality, since producers harvesting olives by mechanical methods are inclined to leave olives to over-ripen in order to increase yield.
* "First cold press" means that the oil in bottles with this label is the first oil that came from the first press of the olives. The word ''cold'' is important because if heat is used, the olive oil's chemistry is changed. It should be noted that extra-virgin olive oil is cold pressed, but not necessarily the first oils.
* The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from several places<ref>[http://oliveoilonly.org/Clever_labels.htm Cleverly deceptive olive oil labels<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.
=== Retail grades in the United States ===
As the United States is not a member, the IOOC retail grades have no legal meaning there; terms such as "extra virgin" may be used without legal restrictions. The [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] (USDA), which controls this aspect of labeling, currently lists four grades of olive oil: "Fancy", "Choice", "Standard", and "Substandard", also called Grades A through D.<ref name="usda">[http://prod.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011889 Standards for Grades of Olive Oil]</ref> These grades were established in 1948, and are based on acidity, absence of defects, odor and flavor.
== Global consumption ==
Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 26 liters per year; [[Spain]] and [[Italy]], around 14 L; [[Tunisia]], [[Portugal]] and [[Syria]], around 8 L. [[Northern Europe]] and North America consume far less, around 0.7 L, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.
{{out of date}}
Price is an important factor on olive oil consumption in the world commodity market. In 1997, global production rose by 47%, which replenished low stocks, lowered prices, and increased consumption by 27%. Overall, world consumption trends are up by 2.5%. Production trends are also up due to expanded plantings of olives in Europe, [[Latin America]], the [[USA]], and [[Australia]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}}<!--These statistics need dates! "up 2.5%" - when; and since when? Statistics from 1997 are perhaps too old to be worth including.-->.
[[Image:Olive tree.jpg|thumb|300px|Olive tree in Portugal]]
=== Global market ===
The main producing and consuming countries are:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" align="center"
!style="background:#efefef" width="150"|Country
!style="background:#efefef" width="150"|Production (2005<ref name="un_statistics">[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/olive/market.htm Site]</ref>)
!style="background:#efefef" width="150"|Consumption (2005<ref name="un_statistics" />)
!style="background:#efefef" width="150"|Annual Per Capita Consumption (kg)<ref>''"California and World Olive Oil Statistics""'' [http://cesonoma.ucdavis.edu/HORTIC/california_and_world_trends.pdf PDF] at [[UC Davis]].</ref>
|-
| align="center"|[[Spain]]
| align="center"|36%
| align="center"|20%
| align="center"|13.62
|-
| align="center"|[[Tunisia]]
| align="center"|32%
| align="center"|25%
| align="center"|11.1
|
|-
| align="center"|[[Italy]]
| align="center"|25%
| align="center"|30%
| align="center"|12.35
|-
| align="center"|[[Greece]]
| align="center"|18%
| align="center"|9%
| align="center"|23.7
|-
| align="center"|[[Turkey]]
| align="center"|5%
| align="center"|2%
| align="center"|1.2
|
|-
| align="center"|[[Syria]]
| align="center"|4%
| align="center"|3%
| align="center"|6
|
|-
| align="center"|[[Morocco]]
| align="center"|3%
| align="center"|2%
| align="center"|1.8
|
|-
| align="center"|[[Portugal]]
| align="center"|1%
| align="center"|2%
| align="center"|7.1
|
|-
| align="center"|[[United States]]
| align="center"|0%
| align="center"|8%
| align="center"|0.56
|-
| align="center"|[[France]]
| align="center"|0%
| align="center"|4%
| align="center"|1.34
|
|-
| align="center"|[[Lebanon]]
| align="center"|0%
| align="center"|3%
| align="center"|1.18
|
|}
== Extraction ==
{{main|Olive oil extraction}}
The most traditional way of making olive oil is by grinding olives. Green olives produce bitter oil, and overripe olives produce rancid oil, so care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. First the olives are ground into paste using large millstones. The olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30–40 minutes. The oil collected during this part of the process is called virgin oil. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fibre disks, which are stacked on top of each other, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied onto the disk to further separate the oil from the paste. This second step produces a lower grade of oil.
== Constituents ==
Olive oil is composed mainly of [[oleic acid]] and [[palmitic acid]] and other [[fatty acid]]s, along with traces of [[squalene]] (up to 0.7%) and [[sterol]]s (about 0.2% [[phytosterol]] and [[tocosterol]]s). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.
Olive oil contains a group of related [[natural product]]s with potent [[antioxidant]] properties which give extra-virgin unprocessed olive oil its [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] and pungent [[taste]] and which are [[ester]]s of [[tyrosol]] and [[hydroxytyrosol]], including [[oleocanthal]] and [[oleuropein]].<ref name="phenolics">[http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FNRR%2FNRR18_01%2FS0954422405000089a.pdf&code=7ed64343133e6e9e6798fcc5c0bfb3b2 The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial effects on human health] E. Tripoli, M. Giammanco, G. Tabacchi, D. Di Majo, S. Giammanco, and Maurizio La Guardia. ''Nutrition Research Reviews'' '''18''', 98–112 (2005) DOI: 10.1079/NRR200495</ref>
== Human health ==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Olive oil | kJ=3701 | carbs=0 g | fat=100 g | protein=0 g | satfat=14 g | monofat=73 g | polyfat=11 g | omega3fat=<1.5 g| omega6fat=3.5-21g | vitE_mg=14 | vitK_ug=62 | note=100 g olive oil is 109 ml | source_USDA=1 | right=1}}
Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that a higher proportion of [[monounsaturated fat]]s in the diet is linked with a reduction in the risk of [[coronary heart disease]].<ref>Keys A, Menotti A, Karvonen MJ, et al.: The diet and 15-year death rate in the Seven Countries Study. Am J Epidemiol 124: 903–915 (1986).</ref> This is significant because olive oil is considerably rich in monounsaturated fats, most notably [[oleic acid]].
In the [[United States]], producers of olive oil may place the following health claim on product labels:
: Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two [[tablespoon]]s (23 grams) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of [[saturated fat]] and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day.<ref>[[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2004/NEW01129.html Site]</ref>
This decision was announced [[November 1]], [[2004]], by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] after application was made to the FDA by producers. Similar labels are permitted for foods rich in [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s such as [[walnut]]s.<ref>New York Times, [[November 2]], [[2004]], ''"Olive Oil Makers Win Approval to Make Health Claim on Label"''</ref>
There is a large body of clinical data to show that consumption of olive oil can provide heart health benefits such as favourable effects on [[cholesterol]] regulation and [[LDL]] cholesterol [[oxidation]], and that it exerts antiinflamatory, antithrombotic, antihypertensive as well as vasodilatory effects both in animals and in humans.<ref>Covas MI. Olive oil and the cardiovascular system. Pharmacol Res. 2007 Jan 30;</ref>
But some clinical evidence suggests that it is olive oil's [[phenols|phenolic]] content, rather than its fatty acid profile, that is responsible for at least some of its cardioprotective benefits. For example, a clinical trial published <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=15830923&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.PubmedZJ_RVAbstractPlus2|author=Turner R, Etienne N, Alonso MG, de Pascual-Teresa S, Minihane AM, Weinberg PD, Rimbach G. at the School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK.|title=Antioxidant and anti-atherogenic activities of olive oil phenolics.|accessdate=2008-07-04 }}</ref> in 2005 compared the effects of different types of olive oil on arterial elasticity. Test subjects were given a serving of 60 [[gram]]s of white bread and 40 [[liter|milliliters]] of olive oil each morning for two consecutive days. The study was conducted in two stages. During the first stage, the subjects received [[polyphenol]]-rich oil (extra virgin oil contains the highest amount of [[polyphenol antioxidant]]s). During the second phase, they received oil with only one fifth the phenolic content. The elasticity of the arterial walls of each subject was measured using a pressure sleeve and a [[Doppler effect|Doppler]] [[laser]]. It was discovered that after the subjects had consumed olive oil high in polyphenol antioxidants, they exhibited increased arterial elasticity, while after the consumption of olive oil containing fewer polyphenols, they displayed no significant change in arterial elasticity. It is theorized that, in the long term, increased elasticity of arterial walls reduces vascular stress and consequentially the risk of two common causes of death—[[myocardial infarction|heart attack]]s and [[stroke]]. This could, at least in part, explain the lower incidence of both diseases in regions where olive oil and olives are consumed on a daily basis.
In addition to the internal health benefits of olive oil, topical application is quite popular with fans of natural health remedies. Extra Virgin Olive Oil is the preferred grade for moisturizing the skin, especially when used in the Oil Cleansing Method (OCM). OCM is a method of cleansing and moisturizing the face with a mixture of extra virgin olive oil, castor oil (or another suitable carrier oil) and a select blend of essential oils.
[[Jeanne Calment]], who holds the record for the [[oldest people|longest confirmed lifespan]], reportedly attributed her longevity and relatively youthful appearance to olive oil, which she said she poured on all her food and rubbed into her skin.<ref name="telegraph2">[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/08/04/nosplit/ftqi104.xml Quite Interesting - Telegraph<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
However, some of these benefits are disputed. Several scientific studies doubt some of the previously stated positive effects and state several negative effects of olive oil such as impairment of the dilation of the arteries.<ref name="oliveoiltruth">[http://www.pritikin.com/eperspective/0611/oliveOil.shtml The Truth About Olive Oil | Pritkin Center<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== Culinary use ==
Ultra-virgin olive oil is often used for dressing salads and foods to be eaten cold. It is used for frying ingredients (e.g., onions) which are used in [[stew]]s and similar dishes. It can be used for [[deep frying]]. Olive oil, particularly the unrefined grades, gives a pronounced flavour to foods, and is used either where the flavour is desired, or in countries where olive oil is the most common cooking oil.
The flavour of cold-pressed olive oils vary considerably, and choosing an oil can be similar to selecting a [[wine]]. It is not simply a matter of better and worse oils; individual tastes differ, and different oils may be more suited for different dishes.
A factor which is not realised in countries which do not produce oil is that the freshness makes a big difference; a very fresh oil, as available in an oil-producing region, is noticeably different from the older oils available elsewhere. And oils deteriorate as they become stale.
== Medicinal use ==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=December 2007}}
Olive oil is unlikely to cause [[allergy|allergic reactions]], and as such is used in preparations for [[lipophilic]] drug ingredients. It does have [[demulcent]] properties, and mild [[laxative]] properties, acting as a stool softener. It is also used at room temperature as an [[ear wax]] softener.
Olive oil is also a potent blocker of intestinal contractions, and can be used to treat excessive [[Borborygmus]].
[[Oleocanthal]] from olive oil is a non-selective inhibitor of [[cyclooxygenase]] (COX) similar to classical [[NSAID]]s like [[ibuprofen]]. It has been suggested that long-term consumption of small quantities of this compound from olive oil may be responsible in part for the low incidence of [[heart disease]] associated with a [[Mediterranean diet]].
== History ==
[[Image:Klazomenai.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in what is now [[Kilizman]],[[Turkey]]]]
[[Image:The Manufacture of Oil drawn and engraved by J Amman in the Sixteenth Century.png|thumb|250px|right|''The Manufacture of Oil'', drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth Century.]]
[[Homer]] called it "liquid gold." In ancient Greece, athletes ritually rubbed it all over their body. Olive oil has been more than mere food to the peoples of the Mediterranean: it has been medicinal, magical, an endless source of fascination and wonder and the fountain of great wealth and power.
Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious [[ritual]]s, [[medicine]]s, as a [[fuel]] in [[oil lamp]]s, [[Soap#Soap making|soap-making]], and skin care application. The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the English word ''oil'' derives from c. 1175, ''olive oil'', from Anglo-Fr. and O.N.Fr. ''olie'', from O.Fr. ''oile'' (12c., Mod.Fr. ''huile''), from L. ''oleum'' "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. ''olio''), from Gk. ''elaion'' "olive tree",<ref>''Random House Unabridged Dictionary'', s.v. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/olive "olive"] and [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/oil "oil"]</ref> which may have been borrowed through trade networks from the Semitic Phoenician use of ''el'yon'' meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison to other vegetable or animal [[fat]]s available at the time.
The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by [[Neolithic]] peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC<ref>Davidson, ''s.v.'' Olives</ref>. The wild olive tree has possibly originated in [[Asia Minor]].<ref>International Olive Oil Council [http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/oliveWorld/olivo.html International Olive Council]</ref>.
It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in [[Asia Minor]] in the 6th millennium<ref>Rosenblum, p. 10</ref>; along the [[Levantine]] coast stretching from the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to modern Turkey in the 4th millennium <ref>Davidson, ''s.v.'' Olives</ref>; or somewhere in the [[Mesopotamian]] [[Fertile Crescent]] in the 3rd millennium.<ref>Pagnol, p. 19</ref>
A widespread view exists that the first cultivation took place on the island of [[Crete]]. The earliest surviving olive oil [[amphora]]e date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. An alternative view retains that olives were turned into oil by 4500 BC by [[Canaanites]] in present-day [[Israel]].<ref>Ehud Galili ''et al.'', "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' '''24''':1141–1150 (1997); Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in [[Jericho]], but cites no source.</ref>
[[Image:Turkey.Bodrum042.jpg|thumb|left|225px|<center>Ancient oil press <br /><small>Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey </small> </center>]]
Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet understood.<ref>Guillaume Besnarda, André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive (''Olea europaea'' L. ssp. ''europaea'') based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms", ''Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences—Series III—Sciences de la Vie'' '''323''':2:173–181 (February 2000); Catherine Breton, Michel Tersac and André Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster, ''Olea europaea'' L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis", ''Journal of Biogeography'' '''33''':11:1916 (November 2006)</ref>
Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
=== Eastern Mediterranean ===
Over 5,000 years ago oil was being extracted from olives in the Eastern [[Mediterranean]]. In the centuries that followed, olive [[press]]es became common, from the Atlantic shore of North Africa to [[Persia]] and from the [[Po Valley]] to the settlements along the [[Nile]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state [[Ebla]] (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the [[Syria]]n city [[Aleppo]]. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in [[Tanakh]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
Dynastic [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and [[Canaan]] and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a [[tomb]] on the island of [[Naxos Island|Naxos]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. [[Sinuhe]], the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.<ref>[http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/texts/sinuhe.htm Ancient Egyptian texts: The Tale of Sinuhe]</ref>
Until 1500 BC, the eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the [[Late Minoan]] period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the [[Early Minoan]].<ref>F.R. Riley, "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil", ''Oxford Journal of Archaeology'' '''21''':1:63–75 (2002)</ref> The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the [[Minoan civilization]], where it is thought to have represented [[wealth]]. The Minoans put the pulp into [[settling tank]]s and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the water from the bottom.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Olive tree growing reached [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] cities well before the 8th century BC through trade with the [[Phoenicians]] and [[Carthage]], then spread into Southern [[Gaul]] by the [[Celt]]ic tribes during the 7th century BC.
The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during [[the Exodus]] from Egypt, during the 13th century BC.{{Dubious|date=March 2008}} During this time, the oil was derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal Confederation and later the [[Kingdom of Israel]] c. 1000 BC. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron), where the Biblical [[Philistines]] also produced oil. These presses are estimated to have had output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season.
Olive trees were planted in the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the [[Roman republic]] and [[Roman empire|empire]]. According to the historian [[Pliny]], Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the first century AD, "the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained, a claim probably disputed by many ancient olive growers. Thus olive oil was very common in [[Hellene]] and [[Latin]] cuisine. According to legend, the city of [[Athens]] obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess [[Athena]] (an olive tree) over the offering of [[Poseidon]] (a spring of [[salt]] water gushing out of a cliff).
The [[Sparta]]ns were the Hellenes who used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]]. The practice served to [[Spartan pederasty|eroticise]] and highlight the beauty of the male body. From its beginnings early in the seventh century BC, the decorative use of olive oil quickly spread to all of Hellenic city states, together with naked appearance of athletes, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.<ref>Thomas F. Scanlon, "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in sixth-century BC Greece", in ''Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West,'' ed. B. C. Verstraete and V. Provencal, Harrington Park Press, 2005</ref><ref>Nigel M. Kennell, "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its By-products in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.), ''In Altum: Seventy-Five Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland,'' 2001; pp119–33</ref>
===Religious use===
In [[Jewish]] observance, olive oil is the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] (not a [[candelabrum]] since the use of [[candle]]s was not allowed) in the [[Mishkan]] service during [[the Exodus]] of the tribes of [[Israel]] from [[Egypt]], and later in the permanent [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests, which is where the expression ''pure olive oil'' originates, stored in special containers. A copy of the Menorah is now used during the [[Jewish holiday|holiday]] of [[Hanukkah]] that celebrates the miracle of the last of such containers being found during the re-dedication of the Temple (163 BC), when its contents lasted for far longer then they were expected to, allowing more time for more oil to be made. Although candles can be used to light the Hanukkiah, oil containers are preferred, to imitate the original Menorah. Another use of oil in Jewish religion is for anointing the kings of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David. [[Tzidkiyahu]] was the last anointed King of Israel. One unusual use of olive oil in the [[Talmud]] is for bad breath, by creating a water-oil-salt mouthwash.
Olive oil also has religious symbolism for healing and strength and to consecration — God's setting a person or place apart for special work. This may be related to its ancient use as a medicinal agent and for cleansing athletes by slathering them in oil then scraping them. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches use olive oil for the [[Oil of Catechumens]] (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for Baptism) and Oil of the Sick (used to confer the Sacrament of [[Anointing of the Sick]]). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent like [[Balsam of Mecca|balsam]] is [[consecrated]] by [[bishop]]s as Sacred [[Chrism]], which is used to confer the sacrament of [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]] (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of [[Baptism]] and the [[Holy Orders|ordination]] of [[priest]]s and bishops, in the consecration of [[altar]]s and [[church]]es, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their [[coronation]]. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ([[Mormons]]) and a number of other religions use olive oil when they need to consecrate an oil for anointings.
[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]] still use oil lamps in their churches and home prayer corners. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass containing a half-inch of water and filled the rest with olive oil. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with lit a wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil.
In [[Islam]], olive oil is mentioned in the [[Quran]]ic verse: "God is the light of heavens and earth. An example of His light is like a [[lantern]] inside which there is a tourch, the tourch is in a glass bulb, the glass bulb is like a bright planet lit by a blessed olive tree, neither Eastern nor Western, its oil almost glows, even without fire touching it, light upon light." The Qur’an also mentions olives as a sacred plant: "By the fig and the olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this secure city."[http://www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/tafsir/syed_qutb/Surah_95.htm] Olive oil is also reported to have been recommended by the Muslim Prophet [[Muhammad]] in the following terms: "Consume olive oil and anoint it upon your bodies since it is of the blessed tree." He also stated that it cures 70 diseases.
== See also ==
{{cookbook}}
* [[Mediterranean diet]]
* [[Olive leaf]]
* [[Cuisine of the Mediterranean]]
* [[Italian cuisine]]
* [[Lebanese cuisine]]
* [[Greek cuisine]]
* [[Palestinian cuisine]]
* [[Portuguese cuisine]]
* [[Spanish cuisine]]
* [[French cuisine]]
* [[Turkish cuisine]]
* [[Amurca]], the byproduct in olive oil extraction, historically used for many purposes
* [[Olive oil extraction]]
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
* Alan Davidson, ''The Oxford Companion to Food'', Oxford, 1999. ISBN 0-19-211579-0.
* Jean Pagnol, ''L'Olivier'', Aubanel, 1975. ISBN 2-7006-0064-9.
* Mort Rosenblum, ''Olives: The Life and Lore of a Noble Fruit'', North Point Press, 1996. ISBN 0-86547-503-2.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Olive oil}}
* [http://www.chabad.org/449771 A video showing the production of olive oil]
{{fatsandoils}}
[[Category:Cooking oils]]
[[Category:Mediterranean cuisine]]
[[Category:Vegetable oils]]
[[ar:زيت زيتون]]
[[bg:Зехтин]]
[[ca:Oli d'oliva]]
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[[de:Olivenöl]]
[[et:Oliiviõli]]
[[el:Ελαιόλαδο]]
[[es:Aceite de oliva]]
[[eo:Oliv-oleo]]
[[fa:روغن زیتون]]
[[fr:Huile d'olive]]
[[ko:올리브기름]]
[[hr:Maslinovo ulje]]
[[id:Minyak zaitun]]
[[it:Olio di oliva]]
[[he:שמן זית]]
[[ka:ზეითუნის ზეთი]]
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[[ja:オリーブ・オイル]]
[[no:Olivenolje]]
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[[simple:Olive oil]]
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