Ornithology
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{{otheruses4|the field of zoology|the song|Ornithology (composition)}}
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'''Ornithology''' (from Greek: όρνις, όρνιθος, ''ornis'', ''ornithos'', "bird"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of [[bird]]s. Several aspects of the study of ornithology differ from closely related disciplines, possibly due to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of field studies undertaken by amateur volunteers working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology.
The science of ornithology has a long history and studies on birds aided the introduction and refinement of key concepts in evolution, behaviour and ecology such as those of [[species]], [[speciation]], [[instinct]], [[learning]], [[ecological niche]]s, [[guild (ecology)|guilds]], [[island biogeography]], [[phylogeography]] and [[bird conservation|conservation]].<ref name=mayr>{{cite journal|author=Mayr, E.|year=1984|title=Commentary: The Contributions of Ornithology to Biology|journal=BioScience|volume=34|issue=4|pages=:250–255|doi=10.2307/1309464}}</ref> While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today concern themselves with answering specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses and predictions based on theory. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology and innovations are constantly made.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sutherland, W. J., Ian Newton, Rhys Green|year=2004|title=Bird ecology and conservation : a handbook of techniques|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198520867}}</ref>
==History==
{{seealso|Timeline of ornithology}}
===Early studies===
[[Image:BelonBirdSkel.jpg|thumb|Belon's comparison of birds and humans in ''Book of Birds'', 1555]]
Humans must have observed birds from the earliest times, and [[stone age]] drawings are among the oldest indications of interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a food source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early [[Stone Age]] settlements.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nadel, K. D., Ehud Weiss, Orit Simchoni, Alexander Tsatskin, Avinoam Danin, and Mordechai|year=2004|title=Stone Age hut in Israel yields world's oldest evidence of bedding|journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.|volume=101|issue=17|pages=6821–6826|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0308557101v1.pdf|doi=10.1073/pnas.0308557101|pmid=15090648|format=PDF}}</ref>
Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdinghawaii.co.uk/Hawaiianbirdnames2.htm|title=Hawaiian bird names|accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref> Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being [[onomatopoeic]], many still in use.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gill, Frank & M. Wright|year=2006|title=Birds of the world: Recommended English Names|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/principles.html}}</ref> Traditional knowledge continues to be of importance especially due to their relevance in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mahawar, M. M. & D. P. Jaroli|year=2007|title=Traditional knowledge on zootherapeutic uses by the Saharia tribe of Rajasthan, India|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=3|pages=25|url=http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/3/1/25|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-3-25}}</ref> Most of this information is passed on through oral traditions (see [[Ethnoornithology|ethno-ornithology]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cvco.org/science/audubon/Sep2004article.html|author=Shapiro, M.|title=Native bird names|publisher=Richmond Audubon Society|accessdate=2007-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hohn, E.O.|year=1973|title=Mammal and bird names in the Indian languages of the Lake Athabasca area|journal=Arctic|volume=26|pages=163–171|url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic26-2-163.pdf }}</ref> Hunting of birds would also have required considerable knowledge of their habits. [[Poultry]] farming and [[falconry]] were practised from early times in many parts of the world. Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China (246 BC) and Egypt (at least 400 BC).<ref>{{cite book|author=Funk, E. M. & M. R. Irwin|year=1955|title=Hatching Operation and Management|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> The Egyptians also showed a great deal of knowledge of birds through their use of bird symbols in hieroglyphs, many of which, though stylized, are still recognizable.
[[Image:AldrovandiOrnithology.jpg|thumb|left|Cover of [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]]'s Ornithology, 1599]]
Some of the early written records provide valuable information on past distributions of species. For instance [[Xenophon]] records the abundance of the [[Ostrich]] in [[Assyria]] (Anabasis, i. 5), the subspecies there is extinct with the remaining Ostrich races being found only in [[Africa]]. The ''[[Vedas]]'' (1500-800 BC) mention the habit of [[brood parasite|brood parasitism]] by the [[Asian Koel]] (''Eudynamys scolopacea'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Ali, S.|year=1979|title=Bird study in India : its history and its importance|publisher=ICCR, New Delhi. Azad Memorial Lectures}}</ref> The early art of China, Japan, Persia and India included illustrations of birds made with great accuracy, a field that developed later in other parts of the world. [[David Lack]] wrote in his ''Review of Fine Bird Books, 1700-1900'' (reprinted in ''Enjoying Ornithology'', 1965):
{{quote|It must be remembered that, while [John] [[John Gould|Gould]] himself was a skilled craftsman, many of the books that bear his name were illustrated by others, including [[Henry Constantine Richter|H. C. Richter]], [[Edward Lear]] and [[Joseph Wolf]]. Indeed, some would regard the last-named as the greatest bird illustrator, particularly in his birds of prey, which combine accuracy with power. One must, I think, qualify this statement by 'of the western world', because the paintings from India and China surpass anything that the West has yet produced, and only these, perhaps, come in the category of great art.}}
[[Aristotle]] in 350 BC in his ''Historia Animalium''<ref>{{cite book|author=Aristotle|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.6.vi.html|title=Historia Animalium. Translated by [[D'Arcy Thompson]]}}</ref> noted the habit of [[bird migration]], moulting, egg laying and life spans. He also introduced several incorrect concepts such as the idea that [[swallows]] [[hibernated]] in winter. He however noted that [[Common Crane|cranes]] travelled from the steppes of [[Scythia]] to the marshes at the headwaters of the [[Nile]]. The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that, in 1878, the nineteenth-century American ornithologist, Dr. [[Elliott Coues]] was able to list as many as 182 publications dealings with the hibernation of swallows.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman|year=1998|title=Migration of birds|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Circular 16. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online.|url=http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/migratio/index.htm}}</ref> Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of Barnacle geese. Their nests had not been seen and it was believed that they grew by transformations of [[goose barnacles]], an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales) in ''Topographia Hiberniae'' (1187).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Payne, S.|year=1929|title=The Myth of the Barnacle Goose|journal=Int. J. Psycho-Anal.|volume=10|pages=218–227}}</ref>
The origins of falconry have been traced to [[Mesopotamia]] and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC). Falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] of Hohenstaufen (1194 – 1250) learnt about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and obtained an Arabic treatise on falconry by Moamyn. He had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his [[menagerie]]. By sealing the eyes of vultures and placing food nearby, he concluded that they found food by sight, and not by smell. He also developed methods to keep and train falcons. The studies that he undertook over nearly 30 years, were published in 1240 as ''De Arte Venandi cum Avibus'' (The Art of Hunting with Birds), considered one of the earliest studies on bird behaviour.<ref name=egerton>{{cite journal|author=Egerton, F.|year=2003|title=A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 8: Fredrick II of Hohenstaufen: Amateur Avian Ecologist and Behaviorist|journal= Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America|volume=84|issue=1|pages=40–44|url=http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history_part8.pdf|doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2003)84[40:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2|doilabel=10.1890/0012-9623(2003)84[40:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2 |format=PDF}}</ref>
Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included [[Guillaume Rondelet]] who described his observations in the Mediterranean and [[Pierre Belon]] who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some two hundred species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in [[comparative anatomy]].<ref name=miall>{{cite book|author=Miall, L. C.|year=1911|title=History of Biology|publisher=Watts and Co. url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbiology00mialrich}}</ref> [[Volcher Coiter]] (1534-1576), a Dutch anatomist made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced a classification of birds, ''De Diferentiis Avium'' (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits.<ref name=egallen>{{cite journal|author=Allen, Elsa G.|year=1951|title=The History of American Ornithology before Audubon|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Ser.|volume=41|issue=3|pages=387–591|doi=10.2307/1005629}}</ref> [[Konrad Gesner]] wrote the ''Vogelbuch'' and ''Icones avium omnium'' around 1557. Like Gesner, [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]], an encyclopedic naturalist began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ''ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII'' which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants and animals, published in 363 volumes. His ''Ornithology'' alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as the [[chicken]] and poultry techniques.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lind, L. R.|year=1963|Aldrovandi on Chickens: The Ornithology of Ulisse Aldrovandi, vol. 2, Bk xiv, translated and edited by L. R. Lind|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Aldrovandi, Ulisse|year=1599|title=Ornithologiae|url=http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/228/}}</ref>[[William Turner]]'s ''Historia Avium'' ("History of Birds"), published at [[Cologne]] in 1544, was another early ornithological work. He notes that the [[Red Kite|kite]] in cities of England would snatch the meat out of the hands of children. In his day the [[Osprey]] was well known but disliked for it was believed to empty their fishponds; anglers used to mix their bait with its fat. Turner's work was written in a tone that reflected violent times; quite unlike [[Gilbert White]]'s ''[[The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne]]'' which was written in a more tranquil era.<ref name="miall"/><ref name= gilbertwhite>{{cite book | last = White | first = Gilbert |title = The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne | year = 1887 |origyear=1789 |location=London | publisher =Cassell & Company| oclc=3423785 |page=pp. 38-39 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20933/20933-h/20933-h.htm}}</ref>
In the 17th century [[Francis Willughby]] (1635-1672) and [[John Ray]] (1627-1705) came up with the first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behavior. Willughby's ''Ornithologiae libri tres'' (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on ''Ornithologia'' which was published post-humously in 1713 as ''Synopsis methodica avium et piscium''.<ref name=white>{{cite web|author=White, Jeanne A.|year=1999|title=Ornithology Collections in the Libraries at Cornell University: A Descriptive Guide|url=http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide.htm|accessdate=2007-12-01}}</ref> The earliest list of British birds, ''Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum'' was written by [[Christopher Merrett]] in 1667, however it was not considered of value by many including John Ray.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Koinm, Albert J.|year=2000|title=Christopher Merret's Use of Experiment|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London|volume=54|issue=1|pages=23–32|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2000.0093}}</ref>
[[Image:An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768.jpg|thumb|[[An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump]], 1768]]
Towards the late 1700s, [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] (1723-1806) and [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Comte de Buffon]] (1707-1788) began new works on birds. Brisson produced a six-volume work ''Ornithologie'' in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16-24) on birds ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux'' (1770-1785) in his work on science ''Histoire naturelle générale et particulière'' (1749-1804). [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck]] (1778 - 1858) sponsored [[François Le Vaillant]] [1753-1824] to collect bird specimens in Africa and this resulted in Le Vaillant's six-volume ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique'' (1796-1808). [[Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot]] (1748-1831) spent ten years studying North American birds and wrote the ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale'' (1807-1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life-histories and habits in classification.<ref>{{cite web|author=White, Jeanne A.|title=Hill Collection — 18th c. French authors & artists|url=http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide10.htm|accessdate=2007-12-01}}</ref>
===Scientific studies===
[[Image:Bird eggs.jpg|thumb|left|Early bird study focused on collectibles such as eggs and nests]]
It was not until the Victorian era—with the emergence of the gun, the concept of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins—that ornithology emerged as a specialized science.<ref name="allen">{{cite book|author=Allen, David E.|year=1994|title=The naturalist in Britain: a social history|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Farber, Paul L.|year=1982|title=The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientzfic Discipline, 1760-1850|publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company, Boston}}</ref> This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] in 1858. In 1859 the members founded its journal ''The Ibis''. The sudden spurt in ornithology was also due in part to colonization. A hundred years later, in 1959, [[Reginald Ernest Moreau|R. E. Moreau]] noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds.<ref name="ibis-history">{{cite journal|author=Johnson, Kristin|year=2004|title=''The Ibis'': Transformations in a Twentieth Century British Natural History Journal|journal=Journal of the History of Biology|volume=37|pages=515–555|doi=10.1007/s10739-004-1499-3}}</ref>
{{quote|No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards.|Moreau<ref>{{cite journal|author=Moreau, R. E.|year=1959|title=The Centenarian Ibis|journal=The Ibis|volume=101|pages=19–38}}</ref>
The bird collectors of the Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical region caused the introduction of trinomial names.
The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. Early ornithologists like [[William Swainson]] followed the [[Quinarian system]] and this was replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by [[Hugh Edwin Strickland]] and [[Alfred Russell Wallace]].<ref name=ohara>{{cite journal|author=O’Hara, Robert J.|year=1988|title=Diagrammatic classifications of birds, 1819–1901: views of the natural system in 19th-century British ornithology|pages=2746–2759|journal=Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici|url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1988-ioc}}</ref>
The [[Galapagos]] [[finch]]es were especially influential in the development of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution. His contemporary [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of [[biogeography]]. Wallace was influenced by the work of [[Philip Lutley Sclater]] on the distribution patterns of birds.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sclater, P. L.|year=1858|title=On the general geographical distribution of the members of the class Aves|journal=Journ. and Proc. Linn. Soc., London|volume=9|pages=150–145}}</ref>
[[Image:SwainsonQuinarian.jpg|thumb|right|[[Quinarian system]] of bird classification by Swainson]]
For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The [[species problem]], was tackled by the ornithologist [[Ernst Mayr]]. Mayr was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the splitting of species.<ref name=konishi>{{cite journal|author=Konishi, Masakazu , Stephen T. Emlen, Robert E. Ricklefs & John C. Wingfield|year=1989|title=Contributions of Bird Studies to Biology|journal=Science|volume=246|issue=4929|pages=465–472|doi=10.1126/science.2683069|pmid=2683069}}</ref>
Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. In 1901 [[Robert Ridgway]] wrote in the introduction to ''The Birds of North and Middle America'' that:
{{quote|There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories.}}
This early idea that the study of ''living birds'' was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories were developed and became the predominant focus of ornithological studies.<ref name=mayr/><ref name="ibis-history"/> The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with [[bird ringing]] stations established as early as 1903. By the 1920s the ''Journal für Ornithologie'' included many papers on the behavior, ecology, anatomy and physiology, many written by [[Erwin Stresemann]]. Ornithology in the United States continued to dominated by studies of morphological variations, species identities and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr.<ref name="barrow">{{cite book|author=Barrow, Mark V.|year=1998|title=A passion for birds: American ornithology after Audubon|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used the word ecology appeared in 1915.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alexander, H. G.|year=1915|title=A Practical Study of Bird Ecology|journal=British Birds|volume=8|issue=9}}</ref> ''The Ibis'' however resisted the introduction of these new methods of study and it was not until 1943 that any paper on ecology appeared.<ref name="ibis-history"/> The work of [[David Lack]] on population ecology was pioneering. Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behavior and this was not readily accepted. For instance, [[Claud Ticehurst]] wrote:
{{quote|Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles.|Ticehurst<ref name="ibis-history"/>}}
David Lack's studies on population ecology included the mechanism involved in the regulation of population including the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls, and also suggested that natural selection leads to life history traits that maximize the fitness of individuals. Others like Wynne-Edwards interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the "species". This led to widespread debate on what constituted the "unit of selection".<ref name=konishi/> Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for research including the idea of using radar to study bird migration.
Birds were also widely used in studies of the niche hypothesis and [[Georgii Gause]]'s [[competitive exclusion]] principle. Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by [[Robert MacArthur]]. Patterns of [[biodiversity]] also became a topic interest. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of [[Island biogeography]] was pioneered by [[E. O. Wilson]] and [[Robert MacArthur]].<ref name=konishi/> These studies led to the development of the discipline of [[landscape ecology]].
[[Image:Red-footed Falcon.jpeg|thumb|left|A mounted specimen of a [[Red-footed Falcon]].]]
[[John Hurrell Crook]] studied the behaviour of [[weaverbird]]s and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour and social systems.<ref name=konishi/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Crook, J. H.|year=1964|title=The evolution of social organization and visual communication in the weaver birds (Ploceinae)|journal=Behaviour Suppl.|volume=10|pages=1–178}}</ref> Principles from economics were introduced into the study of biology by J. L. Brown. This led to the study of behaviour using cost-benefit analyses.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Brown, J. L.|year=1964|title=The evolution of diversity in avian territorial systems|journal=Wilson Bull.|volume=76|pages=160–169}}</ref> The rising interest in [[sociobiology]] also led to a spurt of bird studies in this area.<ref name=konishi/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v098n02/|title=Contents of The Auk 1981 Volume 98 Number 2}}</ref>
The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by [[Konrad Lorenz]] and the studies of instinct in [[Herring Gull]]s by [[Nicolaas Tinbergen]], led to the establishment of the field of [[ethology]]. The study of learning became particularly of interest and the study of [[bird song]] has been a model for studies in neuro-ethology. The role of hormones and physiology in the control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in the study of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation and navigation.<ref name=konishi/>
The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology saw the new [[gene-centered view of evolution]]. Studies on kinship and altruism, such as [[helpers at the nest|helpers]], became of particular interest. The idea of [[inclusive fitness]] was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life-history and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by [[W. D. Hamilton]] and others.<ref name=konishi/>
The new tools of molecular-biology also led to new approaches to the study of bird systematics. The use of techniques such as [[DNA-DNA hybridization]] to study evolutionary relationships was pioneered by [[Charles Sibley]] and [[Jon Edward Ahlquist]] resulting in what is called the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]]. These early techniques have been replaced by newer techniques based on [[mitochondrial DNA]] sequences and [[molecular phylogenetics]] approaches that make use of computational procedures for [[sequence alignment]] and [[phylogenetic tree]] construction to infer the evolutionary relationships of birds.<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Hara, Robert J.|year=1991|title= Essay review of Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution by Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist|journal=Auk|volume=108|issue=4|pages=990–994|url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1991-auk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Slack, K.E, Delsuc, F., Mclenachan, P.A., Arnason, U. & D. Penny|year=2007|title=Resolving the root of the avian mitogenomic tree by breaking up long branches|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=42|pages=1–13|url=http://frederic.delsuc.neuf.fr/fd_fichiers/Slack-MolPhylogenetEvol07.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.002 |format=PDF}}</ref> Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian [[population biology]] and ecology.<ref>{{cite journal|auhtor=Sorensen, Michael & Robert B. Payne|year=2002|title=Molecular Genetic Perspectives on Avian Brood Parasitism|journal=Integr. Comp. Biol.|volume=42|pages=388–400|url=http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/42/2/388|doi=10.1093/icb/42.2.388|author=Sorenson, M. D.}}</ref>
===Rise to popularity===
The use of field glasses or telescopes for bird observation began in the 1820s and 1830s with pioneers like J. Dovaston (who also a pioneered in the use of bird-feeders), but it was not until the 1880s that instruction manuals began to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope or field glass."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Allen, D. E.|year=1967|title=J. Dovaston-a Pioneer of Field Ornithology|journal=J. Soc. Biblio. Nat. Hist.|volume=4|pages=280}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hollerbach, Anne Larsen|year=1996|title=Of Sangfroid and Sphinx Moths: Cruelty, Public Relations, and the Growth of Entomology in England, 1800-1840|journal=Osiris, 2nd Series|volume=11|pages=201–220|doi=10.1086/368760}}</ref>
[[Image:VillageBirdsFlorenceMerriam.jpg|thumb|Page from an early field guide by [[Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey]]]]
The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. The early guides were large and cumbersome and were mainly focussed on identifying specimens in the hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by [[Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey|Florence Merriam]], sister of [[Clinton Hart Merriam]], the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series ''Hints to Audubon Workers:Fifty Birds and How to Know Them'' in Grinnell's ''Audubon Magazine''.<ref name="barrow"/> These were followed by new field guides including classics by [[Roger Tory Peterson]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Dunlap, Tom|title=Tom Dunlap on Early Bird Guides. Environmental History January 2005|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/eh/10.1/gallery.html|accessdate=2007-11-24}}</ref>
The interest in [[birdwatching]] grew in popularity in many parts of the world and it was realized that there was a possibility for amateurs to contribute to professional biology. As early as 1916, [[Julian Huxley]] wrote a two part article in the ''Auk'', noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals and suggesting the possibility that the "vast army of bird-lovers and bird-watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Huxley, J.|year=1916|title=Bird-watching and biological science (part 1)|journal=Auk|volume=33|issue=2|pages=142–161|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v033n02/p0142-p0161.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Huxley, J.|year=1916|title=Bird-watching and biological science (part 2)|journal=Auk|volume=33|issue=3|pages=256–270|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v033n03/p0256-p0270.pdf}}</ref>
The formation of popular organizations with large member bases grew in many countries, notably the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] (RSPB) in Britain and the [[Audubon Society]] in the US. The Audubon Society started in 1885. Both these organization were started with the primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small group of women in [[Croydon]] who met regularly and called themselves the ''Fur, Fin and Feather Folk'' and who took a pledge 'to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the Ostrich only exempted.' The organization initially did not allow men as members, avenging a policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women.<ref name="allen"/> Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological study. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bibby, C.J.|year=2003|title=Fifty years of Bird Study: Capsule Field ornithology is alive and well, and in the future can contribute much more in Britain and elsewhere|journal=Bird Study|volume=50|issue=3|pages=194–210|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bto/bird/2003/00000050/00000003/art00001 }}</ref> In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys, conducted by the US Geological Survey have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were established in many other parts of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBS/|title=North American Breeding Bird Survey}}</ref>
==Techniques==
The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under the categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, however the classification is imperfect as many of the newer non-destructive sampling and analysis techniques are applicable in both the laboratory and field.
===Collections===
{{main|Bird collections}}
[[Image:Godwit prep.jpg|thumb|left|Bird preservation techniques]]
The early approaches to bird study involved the collection of eggs. While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs, the labels associated with these egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. In order to preserve eggs, a tiny hole was pierced and the contents were extracted out. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830.<ref name=allen /> Historic museum collections have however been of value in determining the effect of modern [[pesticide]]s such as [[DDT]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Newton, I.|year=1979|title=Population ecology of raptors|publisher=T. & A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Green, Rhys E. & Jörn P. W. Scharlemann|year=2003|title=Egg and skin collections as a resource for long-term ecological studies|journal=Bull. B.O.C.|volume=123A|pages=165–176|url=http://www.boc-online.org/PDF/124GreenEggAndSkin.pdf}} </ref> Museum [[bird collections]] continue to act as a resource for taxonomic studies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Winker, K.|year=2004|title=Natural history museums in a postbiodiversity era|journal=Bioscience|volume=54|pages=455–459|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0455:NHMIAP]2.0.CO;2|doilabel=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0455:NHMIAP]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
[[Image:BirdMorpho.svg|thumb|Morphometric measurements of birds are important in systematics]]
The use of bird skins for documenting species has been central to systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, leg and skull along with the skin and feathers. They were treated with [[arsenic]] to prevent fungal and insect (mostly [[Dermestidae]]) attack. Arsenic being toxic was later replaced by [[borax]]. Sportsmen became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from far away locations. This led to the formation of huge collections of bird skins in Museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also held. These became references for comparison of species and the ornithologists at these museums were able to document species from locations that they never visited. [[Morphometrics]] of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail and wing became important in bird systematics. These historic skin collections have also been utilized in more recent studies on [[molecular phylogenetics]] by the extraction of [[ancient DNA]]. The importance of [[biological type|type specimens]] in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, it has now become possible to establish the species status of rare discoveries such as the [[Bulo Burti Boubou]] ''Laniarius liberatus'' and the [[Bugun Liocichla]] ''Liocichla bugunorum'' using blood, DNA and feather samples as the [[holotype]] material.
Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet-specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Livezey, Bradley C.|year=2003|title=Avian spirit collections: attitudes, importance and prospects|journal=Bull. B. O. C.|volume=123A|pages=35–51 |url=http://www.carnegiemnh.net/birds/Livezey%20(2003).pdf}}</ref> [[Freeze drying]] of specimens has also been attempted in more recent times. While the technique has advantages in that it preserves stomach contents and anatomy, it may have the same problems as dry skins in that shrinkage can occur leading to errors in morphometrics.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Winker, K.|year=1993|title=Specimen shrinkage in Tennessee warblers and Traill's flycatchers|journal=J. Field Ornithol.|volume=64|issue=3|pages=331–336|url=http://www.uaf.edu/museum/bird/personnel/KWinker/Winker%20shrinkage%20JFO%201993.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bjordal, H.|year=1983|title=Effects of deep freezing, freeze-drying and skinning on body dimensions of House Sparrows (''Passer domesticus'')|journal=Cinclus|volume=6|pages=105–108}}</ref>
===In the field ===
The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of the specimen ''in the hand''.<ref name="shorebirds">{{cite book|author=Hayman, Peter, John Marchant & Tony Prater|year=1986|title=Shorebirds: An Identification Guide to the Waders of the World|publisher=Croom Helm, London}}</ref>
[[Image:Mist net kinglet.jpg|thumb|left|A bird caught in a [[mist net]]]]
The capture and marking of birds enables detailed studies of life-history. Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of [[birdlime|bird liming]] for perching birds, [[mist net]]s for woodland birds, [[cannon netting]] for open area flocking birds, the ''Bal chattri'' for raptors,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Berger D. D. & H. C. Mueller|year=1959|title=The Bal-Chatri: a trap for the birds of prey|journal=Bird-Banding|volume=30|pages=19–27|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/JFO/v030n01/p0018-p0026.pdf}}</ref> decoys and [[Heligoland trap|funnel traps]] for water birds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/resshow/perry/scoters/CaptureTechniques.htm|publisher=USGS|title=Techniques to capture Seaducks in the Chesapeake Bay and Restigouche River|accessdate=2007-12-01}}</ref>
[[Image:Condor in flight.JPG|thumb|A [[Californian Condor]] marked with wing tags]]
The bird in the hand may be examined for [[morphometrics|measurements]] including standard lengths and weight. Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually non-dimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to pathogens and [[arthropod borne virus]]es. [[Ectoparasite]]s may be collected for studies of coevolution and [[zoonoses]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Walther, B. A. & D. H. Clayton|year=1997|title=Dust-ruffling: A simple method for quantifying ectoparasite loads of live birds|journal=J. Field Ornithol.|volume=68|issue=4|pages=509–518|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/JFO/v068n04/p0509-p0518.pdf }}</ref> In many of cryptic species, measurements (such as the relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establshing identity.
Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. [[bird ringing|Rings or bands]] provide long-lasting identification but require capture for the information on them to be read. Field identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. [[Mark and recapture]] techniques make [[demographic]] studies possible. Ringing has traditionally been used in the study of migration. In recent times satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near real-time.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Marion, W. R., & J. D. Shamis|year=1977|title=An annotated bibliography of bird marking techniques|journal=Bird-Banding|volume=48|pages=42–61|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/JFO/v048n01/p0042-p0061.pdf}} </ref>
Techniques for estimating [[population density]] include [[point count]]s, [[transect]]s and territory mapping. Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the results may analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance or absolute population densities.<ref name="bibby">{{cite book|author=Bibby C., M. Jones M. & S. Marsden|year=1998|title=Expedition Field Techniques. - Bird Surveys|publisher=Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society, London.|url=http://conservation.bp.com/advice/field.asp}}</ref>
===In the laboratory===
[[Image:EmlenFunnel.svg|thumb|An Emlen funnel is used to study the orientation behaviour in migratory birds]]
Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behaviour and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Field studies are often augmented by laboratory studies of samples such as blood or feathers. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes it possible to roughly establish the origins of migrant birds using [[mass spectroscopy|mass spectroscopic]] analysis of feather samples.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hobson, K. A. Hobson, Steven Van Wilgenburg, Leonard I. Wassenaar, Helen Hands, William P. Johnson, Mike O'Meilia & Philip Taylor|year=2006|title=Using Stable Hydrogen Isotope Analysis of Feathers to Delineate Origins of Harvested Sandhill Cranes in the Central Flyway of North America|journal= Waterbirds|volume=29|issue=2|pages=137–147|url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1675%2F1524-4695%282006%2929%5B137%3AUSHIAO%5D2.0.CO%3B2|doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[137:USHIAO]2.0.CO;2|doilabel=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[137:USHIAO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing.<ref>{{cite book|author=Berthold, P. Eberhard Gwinner & Edith Sonnenschein|year=2003|title=Avian Migration|publisher=Springer}}</ref>
Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds. Studies on [[bird intelligence]] and [[bird vocalization#learning|song learning]] have mainly been laboratory based. Field studies make use of a wide range of techniques including the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, dummy males to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish the boundaries of bird territories and the use of call playback.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Slater, P. J. B.|year=2003|title=Fifty years of bird song research: a case study in animal behaviour|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=65|pages=633–639|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2051}}</ref>
Studies of [[bird migration]] including aspects of navigation, orientation and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Emlen, S. T. & J. T. Emlen|year=1966|title= A technique for recording migratory orientation of captive birds|journal=Auk|volume=83|pages=361–367}}</ref>
===Collaborative studies===
[[Image:CanadaGooseSummer19942003.png|thumb|left|Summer distribution and abundance of [[Canada Goose]] using data from the North American Breeding Bird Surveys 1994-2003]]
With the widespread interest in birds, it has been possible to use a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cooper, C. B., J. Dickinson, T. Phillips & R. Bonney|year=2007|title=Citizen science as a tool for conservation in residential ecosystems|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=12|issue=2|pages=11|url=http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art11/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Greenwood, J.J.D.|year=2007|title=Citizens, science and bird conservation|journal=Journal of Ornithology|volume=148|issue=1|pages=77–124|doi=10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9}}</ref> These [[citizen science]] projects include nation-wide projects such as the ''[[Christmas Bird Count]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author=Wing, L.|year=1947|title=Christmas census summary 1900-1939|publisher=State College of Washington, Pullman. Mimeograph.}}</ref> ''Backyard Bird Count'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc|title=Great Backyard Bird Count}}</ref> the North American ''[[Breeding Bird Survey]]'', the Canadian EPOQ<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oiseauxqc.org/epoq.html|title=EPOQ}}</ref> or regional projects such as the ''Asian Waterfowl Census''. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality and even population genetics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/programs/urbanbirds/ubs_PIWMainEN.html|title=Project PigeonWatch}}</ref> The results of many of these projects are published as [[bird atlas]]es. Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve the cooperation of people and organizations in different countries.<ref>[http://www.euring.org/ EURING Coordinated bird-ringing in Europe]</ref>
==Applications==
Wild birds impact many human activities while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species.
[[Image:Red-billed quelea flocking at waterhole.jpg|thumb|[[Red-billed Quelea]] are a major agricultural pest in parts of Africa.]]
The role of some species of birds as [[Pest (organism)|pest]]s has been well known, particularly in agriculture. Granivorous birds such as the [[Quelea]]s in Africa have been among the most numerous birds in the world and foraging flocks can cause devastation.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Clive C.H. Elliott|year=2006|title=Bird population explosions in agroecosystems — the quelea, ''Quelea quelea'', case history|journal=Acta Zoologica Sinica|volume=52|pages=554–560|url=http://www.actazool.org/pdftemp/%7B14724209-A6A1-4075-9861-ED5203430D9F%7D.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Jaegar, Michael & William A. Erickson|year=1980|title=Levels of bird damage to Sorghum in the Awash basin of Ethiopia and the effects of the control of Quelea nesting colonies|journal=Proceedings of the 9th Vertebrate Pest conference|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=vpc9 }}</ref> Many insectivorous birds are also noted as beneficial in agriculture. Many early studies on the benefits or damages caused by birds in fields were made by analysis of stomach contents and observation of feeding behaviour.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kalmbach, E. R.|year=1934|title=Field observation in economic ornithology|journal=The Wilson Bulletin|volume=46|issue=2|pages=73–90|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v046n02/p0073-p0090.pdf }}</ref> Modern studies aimed to manage birds in agriculture make use of a wide range of principles from ecology.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ormerod, S. J. & A. R. Watkinson|year=2000|title=Editors' Introduction: Birds and Agriculture|journal=The Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=37|issue=5|pages=699–705|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00576.x}}</ref> Intensive [[aquaculture]] has brought humans in conflict with fish-eating birds such as [[cormorant]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Glahn, James F.; Kristin E. Brugger|year=1995|title=The Impact of Double-Crested Cormorants on the Mississippi Delta Catfish Industry: A Bioenergetics Model|journal=Colonial Waterbirds|volume=18|issue=1|pages=168–175|doi=10.2307/1521537}}</ref>
Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities are often considered as a nuisance and techniques to reduce their populations or their impacts are constantly innovated.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Geis, Aelred D.|year=1976|title=Effect of building design and quality on nuisance bird problems. Proceedings of the 7th Vertebrate Pest Conference|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=vpc7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Belant, Jerrold L., Paul P. Woronecki, Richard A. Dolbeer & Thomas W. Seamans|year=1998|title=Ineffectiveness of Five Commercial Deterrents for Nesting Starlings|journal= Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=26|issue=2|pages=264–268}}</ref> Birds are also of medical importance and their role as carriers of human diseases such as [[Japanese Encephalitis]], [[West Nile Virus]] and [[H5N1]] have been widely recognised.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm|publisher=CDC|title=Factsheet on Avian Influenza}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Reed, K. D., Jennifer K. Meece, James S. Henkel & Sanjay K. Shukla|year=2003|title=Birds, Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and Enteropathogens|journal=Clin. Med. Res.|volume=1|issue=1|pages=5–12 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1069015|pmid=15931279}}</ref> [[Bird strike]]s and the damage they cause in [[aviation]] are of particularly great importance, due to the fatal consequences and the level of economic losses caused. It has been estimated that the airline industry incurs worldwide damages of US $ 1.2 billion each year.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Allan, J., Orosz, A.|year=2001|title=The Costs of Birdstrikes to Commercial Aviation|journal=Proceedings of
Birdstrike 2001, Joint Meeting of Birdstrike Committee USA/Canada. Calgary, Alberta}}</ref>
Many species of birds have been driven to [[Extinct birds|extinction]] by human activities. [[Bird conservation]] requires specialized knowledge in aspects of biology, ecology and may require the use of very location specific approaches. Ornithologists contribute to [[conservation biology]] by studying the ecology of birds in the wild and identifying the key threats and ways of enhancing the survival of species.<ref>{{cite journal|author=BirdLife International|year=2000|title=Threatened Birds of the World: The official source for birds on the IUCN Red List|publisher=Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, and BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK}}</ref> Critically endangered species such as the [[California Condor]] have had to be captured and bred in captivity. Such [[ex-situ conservation]] measures may be followed by re-introduction of the species into the wild.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Whitfort, Harriet L. & Robert J. Young|year=2004|title=Trends in the captive breeding of threatened and endangered birds in British zoos, 1988-1997|journal=Zoo Biology|volume=23|issue=1|pages=85–89|doi=10.1002/zoo.10122}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[List of ornithological societies]]
* [[List of ornithology journals]]
* [[List of famous ornithologists]]
* [[Bird observatory]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
*''[http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/NHRareBooks/Martinet/martinet.htm Ornithologie]'' (1773-1792) Francois Nicholas Martinet Digital Edition Smithsonian Digital Libraries
*[http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/club/older.htm List of oldest ornithological organisations in the world]
*[http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/bierregaard/ornith__in_na.htm History of ornithology in North America]
*[http://www.scricciolo.com/cina01.htm History of ornithology in China]
*[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide07.htm Hill ornithology collections]
*[http://www.scricciolo.com/Nuovo_Neornithes/cronologia.htm History of ornithology (in Italian)]
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