Pacific War
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.29.79.31|24.29.79.31]] ([[User talk:24.29.79.31|talk]]) to last version by Jerzy
{{Dablink|This is about warfare in the Pacific and eastern Asia, 1937-'45. For other uses see [[Pacific War (disambiguation)]].}}
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{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Pacific War
|partof=[[World War II]]
|image=[[Image:US landings.jpg|300px]] <!-- This map used again lower down. Delete/replace one? -->
|caption=A map showing the main areas of the conflict and Allied landings in the Pacific, 1942–45.
|date=[[7 July]] [[1937]] – [[9 September]] [[1945]]
|place=[[Asia]], [[Pacific Ocean]], its islands and neighbouring countries.
|territory=
|result=[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory, fall of the [[Japanese Empire]]
<!-- Check the discussion page before modifying the combatants -->
|combatant1='''[[Allies of World War II|Major Allied combatants]]'''
{{flag|ROC|name=China}}<br/>
{{UK}}<br/>
* {{flagicon|India|British}} [[British Raj|British India]]
{{flag|United States|1912}}<br/>
{{flag|Australia}}<br/>
{{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
|combatant2= '''[[Axis powers|Major Axis combatants]]'''
{{flag|Empire of Japan|name=Empire of Japan}}<br/>
{{flag|Thailand}}
|commander1={{flagicon|ROC}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]]</br>{{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]</br>{{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Harry S. Truman]]</br>{{flagicon|UK}} [[Winston Churchill]]</br> {{flagicon|Australia}} [[John Curtin]] <br />{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Josef Stalin]]
|commander2= {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Hirohito]]</br>
* {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Hideki Tojo]]</br>
* {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Kuniaki Koiso]]</br>
* {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Kantarō Suzuki]]</br>
{{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Plaek Pibulsonggram]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1='''USA:''' 106,207 killed, 248,316 wounded and missing<ref>[http://www.nationalww2museum.org/education/education_numbers.html The National World War II Museum, New Orleans]</ref><br>
'''China:''' 3.8 million soldiers killed, 17+ million civilians killed{{Fact|date=October 2007}}<br>
'''Australia''': 17,501 killed {{Fact|date=October 2007}}<br>
'''Soviet Union''': 12,031 killed and missing, 24,425 wounded and sick<ref>{{citeweb|title=Russia and USSR in Wars of XX century|url=http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter5_10_1.html#5_10_51|accessdate=2008-07-11|publisher=И.И.Ивлев}}</ref><br>
'''United Kingdom & Crown Colonies''':<br>
* '''Indian Empire''': 86,838 killed
|casualties2= 1,740,955 military deaths<br>393,000 civilian deaths {{Fact|date=October 2007}}
}}
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{{Campaignbox World War II}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific War}}
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The '''Pacific War''' was the part of [[World War II]]—and preceding conflicts—that took place in the [[Pacific Ocean]], its islands, and in [[East Asia]], between [[July 7]], [[1937]] and [[August 14]], [[1945]]. The most decisive actions took place after the [[Empire of Japan]] attacked various countries, who together came to be known as the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] (or Allied powers), on or after [[December 7]], [[1941]], including an [[attack on Pearl Harbor]].
==Name==
In western countries during the war, it was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or it was known simply as the '''War with Japan'''. In the US, the term '''[[Pacific Theater of Operations|Pacific Theater]]''' was widely used, although technically this did not cover the China or Southeast Asia theaters.
During the war, Japanese sources used the name {{nihongo|'''Greater East Asia War'''|大東亜戦争|Dai Tō-A Sensō}}. This name was chosen by a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] decision on [[December 10]], [[1941]], to refer to both the war with the western Allies and the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|ongoing war in China]]. The name was released to the public two days later, on [[December 12]], with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving independence from the western powers through the [[Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere]]. Japanese officials distinguished between what they called the {{nihongo|'''Holy War'''|聖戦|Seisen}} in China, and the '''Greater East Asia War''' in the Pacific.
After the war, during the [[occupation of Japan]], these terms were prohibited in official documents, although informal usage continued. In Japan, after 1945, the war became known as {{nihongo|'''Pacific War'''|太平洋戦争|Taiheiyō Sensō}}. This latter term has been in use since that time. {{nihongo|'''Fifteen Year War'''|十五年戦争|Jūgonen Sensō}} is also used, referring to the period from the [[Mukden Incident]] of 1931 until 1945.
==Participants==
The [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] states which assisted [[Imperial Japan|Japan]] included the authoritarian government of [[Thailand]], which joined the Japanese side in 1942, and [[Phayap Army|sent forces]] to [[Burma Campaign#Thai Army enters Burma|invade and occupy northeastern Burma]]. The Japanese [[puppet state]]s of [[Manchukuo]] (parts of [[Manchuria]] and [[Inner Mongolia]]) and the [[Wang Jingwei Government]] (which controlled the coastal regions of China). Japan enlisted many soldiers from its [[colony|colonies]] of [[Korea]] and [[Taiwan|Formosa]] (later known as Taiwan). To a small extent, some [[Vichy French]], [[Indian National Army]], and [[Burmese National Army]] forces were active in the area. To an even smaller extent, [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italian]] naval forces (mainly [[armed merchantmen]] and [[submarines]]) also operated in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Indian Ocean]].
The major [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] participants were the [[United States]] (including forces of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]]), [[China]], the [[United Kingdom]], (including the forces of [[British India]]), [[Australia]], The [[Netherlands]] (as possessor of the [[Dutch East Indies]]), and [[New Zealand]]. [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[Free French Forces|Free France]] and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other [[Crown colony|British colonies]].
The [[Soviet Union]] fought two short, undeclared [[Soviet-Japanese Border Wars|border conflicts]] with Japan in 1938 and 1939, then remained neutral until August 1945, when it joined the Allies and invaded Manchuria in an operation known as [[Operation August Storm]].
==Theatres==
Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main [[theater (military)|areas of conflict]] in the Pacific War: '''[[Second Sino-Japanese War|China]]''', the '''[[Pacific Ocean Theater of World War II|Central Pacific]]''', '''[[South-East Asian Theater of World War II|South East Asia]]''' and the '''[[South West Pacific Theatre of World War II|South West Pacific]]'''.
U.S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War: the [[Pacific Theater of Operations]] (PTO) and the [[China Burma India Theater of World War II|China Burma India Theater]] (CBI). However these were not operational commands. In the PTO, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as [[Pacific Ocean Areas (command)|Pacific Ocean Areas]] and [[South West Pacific Area (command)|Southwest Pacific Area]].<ref>[http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/ww2%20pacific/ww2%20pacific%20%20maps/ww2%20asia%20map%2016.jpg] Map of the Pacific Theatre</ref>
In 1945, for a brief period just before the [[Japanese surrender]], the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[Mongolia]]n ally engaged Japanese forces in [[Manchuria]] and northeast China.
== Conflict between China and Japan ==
===Background===
[[Image:US landings.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Map showing Allied landings in the Pacific, 1942–1945.]]
The roots of the war began in the late 19th century with China in political chaos and [[History of Japan#Meiji Restoration|Japan]] rapidly modernising. Over the course of the late 19th century and early 20th century, Japan intervened and finally annexed Korea and expanded its political and economic influence into China, particularly [[Manchuria]]. This expansion of power was aided because by the 1910s, China had fragmented into [[warlord era (China)|warlordism]] with only a weak and ineffective central government.
However, the situation of a weak China unable to resist Japanese demands appeared to be changing toward the end of the 1920s. In 1927, Generalissimo [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and the [[National Revolutionary Army]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) led the [[Northern Expedition (1926–1927)|Northern Expedition]]. Chiang was able to defeat the warlords in southern and central China, and was in the process of securing the nominal allegiance of the warlords in northern China. Fearing that [[Zhang Xueliang]], the warlord controlling Manchuria, was about to declare his allegiance to Chiang, the Japanese staged the [[Mukden Incident]] in 1931 and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo. The nominal Emperor of this puppet state was better known as [[Henry Pu Yi]] of the defunct [[Qing Dynasty]].
Japan's imperialist goals in China were to maintain a secure supply of [[natural resource]]s and to have puppet governments in China that would not act against Japanese interests. Although Japanese actions would not have seemed out of place among European colonial powers in the 19th century, by 1930, notions of [[Fourteen Points|Wilsonian self-determination]] meant military force in support of [[colonialism]] was no longer seen as appropriate behavior by the international community.
Hence Japanese actions in Manchuria were roundly criticized and led to Japan's withdrawal from the [[League of Nations]]. During the 1930s, China and Japan reached a stalemate with Chiang focusing his efforts at eliminating the [[Communist Party of China]], whom he considered to be a more fundamental danger than the Japanese. The influence of [[Chinese nationalism]] on opinion both in the political elite and the general population rendered this strategy increasingly untenable.
Though they had at first cooperated in the Northern Expedition, during the period of 1930–34, the nationalist KMT and the Chinese Communist Party entered into direct conflict.<ref name=CHINA-WWII-DATABASE>{{cite web
|title=World War II Database: China
|url=http://worldwar2database.com/html/china.htm
|accessdate=2007-03-05 }}</ref> The Japanese capitalized on the infighting between Chinese factions to make greater inroads, forcing a landing at [[January 28 Incident|Shanghai in 1932]].<ref name=WWII-1930-1937>{{cite web
|title=World War II: 1930–1937
|url=http://www.leesaunders.co.uk/html/world_war_II/year/ww2_1930-1937.php
|accessdate=2007-03-05 }}</ref>
Meanwhile, in Japan, a policy of assassination by secret societies and the effects of the [[Great Depression]] had caused the civilian government to lose [[civilian control of the military|control of the military]]. In addition, the military high command had limited control over the [[Army|field armies]] who acted in their own interest, often in contradiction to the overall national interest, but in keeping with [[Emperor Hirohito|Hirohito]]'s wishes.<ref>The Emperor was using the Army to keep the ''Diet'' off-balance and shore up Imperial prestige, so he did not use his authority to rein in "cowboy generals" in China, even as the China war dragged on. Bix, ''Hirohito''.</ref> [[Pan-Asianism]] was also used as a justification for expansion. This is perhaps best summarized by the "Amo Doctrine" of 1934, issued by Eiji Amo, head of information department of the Japanese Foreign Ministry. Known as the "[[Monroe Doctrine]] of Asia," it announced Japan's intention for European countries to adopt a "hands off" policy in China, thereby negating the [[Open Door Policy]]. It stated that Japan was to be the sole leader in security in East Asia, including the task of defeating communism. Economics was also a very important factor leading to the invasion of China. During the Depression, Japanese exports to American and European markets were severely curtailed, and Japan turned to completely dominating China politically and economically to provide a stable market. In the period leading up to full-scale war in 1937, Japan used force in localised conflicts to threaten China unless the latter reduced its [[protective tariff]] and suppressed anti-Japanese activities and [[boycotts]].
=== Second Sino-Japanese War ===
{{main|Second Sino-Japanese War}}
[[Image:Shanghai1937IJA streets.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese soldiers fighting in the streets of Shanghai, in 1937]]
In 1936, [[Xian Incident|Chiang was kidnapped]] by [[Zhang Xueliang]]. As a condition of his release, Chiang agreed to form a united front with the communists and fight the Japanese. Soon after, the [[Marco Polo Bridge Incident]] took place on [[July 7]], [[1937]], which succeeded in provoking a war between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. Though the Nationalist and Communist Chinese would cooperate in military campaigns against Japan and sought to create a united national front, [[Mao Zedong]] refused Chiang's wish to directly control his forces, and the aim of the Communists remained social revolution. In 1939, the Chinese Communist Red Army consisted of 500,000 troops independent of the KMT.<ref name=GEORGI-DIMITROV>{{cite web
|title=Georgi Dimitrov and the United National Front in China 1936-1944 (See: ''No. 22 New Soviet Aid for Chinese'')
|url=http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv5n2/dimitrov.htm
|accessdate=2007-03-05 }}</ref>
In addition, throughout the 1930s Japan succeeded in alienating public opinion in the West, particularly the United States and Britain. During the early 1930s, public opinion in the United States had been neutral. However, news reports of the [[Panay incident]] caused American public opinion to swing against Japan.
In 1939 Japanese forces tried to push into the [[Russian Far East|Soviet Far East]] from Manchuria. They were soundly defeated in the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]] by a mixed Soviet and Mongolian force led by [[Georgy Zhukov]]. This stopped Japanese expansion to the north, and Japan and the Soviet Union kept an uneasy peace until 1945.
In September 1940, Japan attempted to cut Chinese links with other countries by obtaining approval for bases in [[French Indochina]], which was controlled at the time by [[Vichy France]]. Japanese forces broke the terms of their agreement with the Vichy administration and [[Invasion of French Indochina|fighting broke out]], ending in a Japanese victory. On September 27, Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy.
By 1941, the conflict had become a stalemate. Although Japan had occupied much of north and central China, the [[Kuomintang]] had retreated to the interior with a provisional capital set up at [[Chongqing|Chungking]] while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in [[Shaanxi]]. In addition, Japanese control of north and central China was somewhat tenuous, in that Japan was usually able to control railroads and the major cities ("points and lines"), but did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside. The Japanese found its aggression against the retreating and regrouping Chinese army was stalled by the mountainous terrain in southwestern China while the Communists organised widespread [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and saboteur activities in eastern and central China behind the Japanese front line.
Japan sponsored several [[puppet government]]s, one of which was headed by [[Wang Jingwei]]. However, its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population, of not yielding any real power to the governments, and of supporting several rival governments failed to make any of them a popular alternative to Chiang's government. Japan was also unwilling to negotiate directly with Chiang, nor was it willing to attempt to create splits in the Chinese united front.
== Tensions between Japan and the western powers ==
In an effort to discourage Japanese militarism, western powers including Australia, the United States, Britain, and the [[Dutch government in exile]], which controlled the [[petroleum]]-rich [[Netherlands East Indies]], stopped selling iron ore, steel and oil to Japan, denying it the raw materials needed to continue its activities in China and French Indochina. In Japan, the government and [[Japanese nationalism|nationalists]] viewed these [[embargo]]s as acts of aggression; imported oil made up about 80% of domestic consumption, without which Japan's economy, let alone its military, would grind to a halt. The Japanese media, influenced by military propagandists,<ref>''Kokushi Daijiten'' ("Historical Dictionary"), 1980: "It was not an official term, but a term of incitement used by the Japanese media, under the guidance of the military, in order to stir up the Japanese people's sense of crisis..." (Cited by Christopher Barnard, 2003, ''Language, Ideology and Japanese History Textbooks'', London & New York, Routledge Curzon, p.85.)</ref> began to refer to the embargos as the "ABCD ("American-British-Chinese-Dutch") [[encirclement]]" or "ABCD line".
Faced with a choice between economic collapse and withdrawal from its recent conquests (with its attendant loss of face), the Japanese [[Imperial General Headquarters]] began planning for a war with the western powers in April or May 1941.
The key objective was for the [[Southern Expeditionary Army Group]] to seize economic resources under the control of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, most notably those in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the Netherlands East Indies, known as the "Southern Plan". It was also decided—because of the close relationship between the UK and United States, and the (mistaken)<ref>Peattie & Evans, ''Kaigun''; Willmott, ''Barrier and the Javelin'' (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1983).</ref> belief the US would inevitably become involved<ref>Peattie & Evans, ''Kaigun''.</ref>—Japan would also require an "eastern plan".
The eastern plan required
* initial attacks on the [[US Pacific Fleet]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], with [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-based [[aircraft]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Combined Fleet]], and
* following this attack with
** seizure of the [[Philippines]], and
** cutting the U.S. lines of communication by seizing [[Guam]] and [[Wake Island|Wake]].
The southern plans called for:
* attacking Malaya and [[Hong Kong]], and
* following with attacks against
** the [[Bismarck Archipelago]],
** [[Java (island)|Java]], and
** [[Sumatra]].
* isolating [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]
Following completion of these objectives, the strategy would turn defensive, primarily holding their newly acquired territory while hoping for a negotiated peace.
By November these plans were essentially complete, and were modified only slightly over the next month. Japanese military planners' expectation of success rested on the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]] being unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack because of the threat posed to each by [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]; the Soviet Union was even seen as unlikely to commence hostilities.
There is no evidence the Japanese planned to defeat the United States; the alternative would be negotiating for peace after their initial victories. In fact, the Imperial GHQ noted, should acceptable negotiations be reached with the Americans, the attacks were to be canceled—even if the order to attack had already been given.
They also planned, should the U.S. transfer its Pacific Fleet to the Philippines, to intercept and attack this fleet ''en route'' with the Combined Fleet, in keeping with all Japanese Navy prewar planning and doctrine.
Should the United States or Britain attack first, the plans further stipulated the military were to hold their positions and wait for orders from GHQ. The planners noted attacking the Philippines and Malaya still had possibilities of success, even in the worst case of a combined preemptive attack including Soviet forces.
===German and Italian involvement===
[[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German Navy (''[[Kriegsmarine]]'') and the Italian Royal Navy (''[[Regia Marina]]'') operated [[submarines]] and [[armed merchantmen|raiding ships]] in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Both navies had access to "[[Concession (territory)|concession territory]]" naval bases in [[China]]. After Japan's [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] and the subsequent declarations of war, both navies had access to Japanese naval facilities.
==Japan attacks the Western Powers==
{{Cquote2|''I shall run wild considerably for the first six months or a year, but I have utterly no confidence for the second and third years.''<ref>{{cite web | title=Pearl Harbor to Midway|url=http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/articles/pearlharbormidway.aspx| work=http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/ Military History Online| accessdate=May 27| accessyear=2007}}</ref>|[[Isoroku Yamamoto]]}}
On [[December 8]], [[1941]], Japanese forces attacked the British [[crown colony]] of Hong Kong, the [[Dutch East Indies]], and the US-controlled [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]]. Japan also used its bases in French Indochina to [[Japanese Invasion of Thailand|invade Thailand]], then using the gained Thai territory to launch [[Battle of Malaya|an assault against Malaya]].
===Attack on Pearl Harbor===
[[Image:USSArizona PearlHarbor 2.jpg|thumb|[[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] burned for two days after being hit by a Japanese bomb in the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]].]]
On [[December 7]], Japan (December 8 in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]) launched a [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-based air [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], knocking eight American battleships out of action. The Japanese had gambled that the United States, when faced with such a sudden and massive defeat, would agree to a negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in China. This gamble did not pay off. American losses were less serious than initially thought: the American [[aircraft carrier]]s, far more important than battleships, were out to sea, and vital naval infrastructure ([[fuel oil]] tanks and the shipyard facilities), [[submarine]]s and [[OP-20-G|signals intelligence]] units were unscathed. Japan's fallback strategy, relying on a [[war of attrition]] to make the US come to terms, was beyond the IJN's capabilities.<ref>Peattie, Mark R., & Evans, David C. ''Kaigun'' (United States Naval Institute Press, 1997); Parillo, Mark P. ''Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II''. (United States Naval Institute Press, 1993).</ref>
When the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred, the United States was not at war anywhere in the world. The [[America First Committee]], 800,000 members strong, had vehemently opposed any American intervention in the foreign conflict, even as America provided military aid to Britain and the Soviet Union, through the [[Lend-Lease]] program. Opposition to war in the United States vanished after the attack. Four days after Pearl Harbor, in a massive strategic blunder {{Fact|date=July 2008}}, [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] declared war on the [[United States]], drawing America into a two-theater war.
==Japanese offensives, 1941–42==
{{Cquote2|''I praise the Army for cutting down like weeds large numbers of the enemy...''|[[Hirohito]]<ref> H. Bix, "The Shōwa Emperor's Monologue and the Problem of War Responsibility", ''Journal of Japanese Studies'', Vol. 18, No. 2, 1992, p. 344.</ref>}}
[[Image:Prince of Wales and Repulse.jpg|thumb|right|[[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|''Prince of Wales'']] (left, front) and [[HMS Repulse (1916)|''Repulse'']] (left, rear) under attack by Japanese aircraft. A destroyer is in the foreground.]]
British, Australian and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and [[matériel]] by two years of war with Germany, and heavily committed in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]] and elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. Two major British warships, [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS ''Repulse'']] and [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']] were [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sunk by a Japanese air attack]] off Malaya on [[December 10]], [[1941]].
Thailand, with its territory already serving as a springboard for the Malayan campaign, surrendered within 24 hours of the [[Japanese Invasion of Thailand|Japanese invasion]]. The government of Thailand formally allied itself with Japan on [[December 21]].
Hong Kong fell on [[December 25]], and U.S. bases on [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]] and [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake Island]] were lost at around the same time.
Following the [[January 1]], [[1942]] ''[[Declaration by United Nations]]'' (the first official use of the term United Nations), the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir [[Archibald Wavell]] to the [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command]] (ABDACOM), a supreme command for Allied forces in [[South East Asia]]. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge force, albeit thinly-spread over an area from Burma to the Philippines to northern Australia. Other areas, including India, Hawaii and the rest of Australia remained under separate local commands. On [[January 15]], Wavell moved to [[Bandung]] in [[Java (island)|Java]] to assume control of ABDA Command (ABDACOM).
[[Image:Japanese battleships Yamashiro, Fuso and Haruna.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamashiro|''Yamashiro'']], [[Japanese battleship Fuso|''Fuso'']] and [[Japanese battleship Haruna|''Haruna'']] (more distant).]]
In January, Japan invaded [[Burma]], the [[Dutch East Indies]], [[New Guinea]], the [[Solomon Islands]] and they captured [[Manila]], [[Kuala Lumpur]] and [[Rabaul]]. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the [[battle of Singapore]] but surrendered to the Japanese on [[February 15]] [[1942]]; about 130,000 Indian, British, Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/singapore/transcript.htm Remembering 1942, The fall of Singapore, 15 February 1942]</ref> The pace of conquest was rapid: [[Bali]] and [[Timor]] also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance had left the "ABDA area" split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on [[February 25]], handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of [[Commander-in-Chief, India]].
Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in South-East Asia and were making [[Japanese air attacks on Australia, 1942–43|attacks on northern Australia]], beginning with a psychologically devastating (but militarily insignificant) [[Bombing of Darwin (February 1942)|attack on the city of Darwin]] on [[February 19]], which killed at least 243 people.
At the [[battle of the Java Sea]] in late February and early March, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral [[Karel Doorman]]. The [[Netherlands East Indies campaign]] subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java.
In March and April, a [[Indian Ocean Raid|raid into the Indian Ocean]] by a powerful Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier force resulted in a wave of major air raids against [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] and the sinking of a British aircraft carrier, [[HMS Hermes (95)|HMS ''Hermes'']] as well as other Allied ships and driving the British fleet out of the Indian Ocean. This paved the way for a Japanese assault on Burma and India.
The British, under intense pressure, made a fighting retreat from [[Yangon|Rangoon]] to the Indo-Burmese border. This cut the [[Burma Road]] which was the western Allies' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists. Cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists had waned from its zenith at the [[Battle of Wuhan]], and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their area of operations in occupied territories. Most of the Nationalist guerrilla areas were eventually overtaken by the Communists. On the other hand, some Nationalist units were deployed to blockade the Communists and not the Japanese. Furthermore, many of the forces of the Chinese Nationalists were warlords allied to Chiang Kai-Shek, but not directly under his command. "Of the 1,200,000 troops under Chiang's control, only 650,000 were directly controlled by his generals, and another 550,000 controlled by warlords who claimed loyalty to his government; the strongest force was the Szechuan army of 320,000 men. The defeat of this army would do much to end Chiang's power."<ref name=JAPANS-WAR>{{cite book
|first=Edwin P.
|last=Hoyt
|title=Japan's War
|publisher=Da Capo
|date=1986
|isbn=0-306-80348-8
|pages=262–263 }}</ref> The Japanese used these divisions to press ahead in their offenses.
Filipino and U.S. forces put up a fierce resistance in the Philippines until [[May 8]] [[1942]], when more than 80,000 soldiers were ordered to surrender. By this time, General [[Douglas MacArthur]], who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific, had retreated to the safer confines of Australia. The U.S. Navy, under Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]], had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean. This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the [[convoy|commerce war]],<ref>Blair, Silent Victory</ref> and consequently, the war itself.
==Allies re-group==
{{cquote2|''For every advance that the Japanese have made since they started their frenzied career of conquest, they have had to pay a very heavy toll in warships, in transports, in planes, and in men. They are feeling the effects of those losses.''<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420428a.html</ref>|Franklin D. Roosevelt, 28 April 1942}}
In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in [[Washington D.C.]]. A council was established in [[London]], with a subsidiary body in Washington. However the smaller powers continued to push for a U.S.-based body. The [[Pacific War Council]] was formed in Washington on [[April 1]], [[1942]], with President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]], his key advisor [[Harry Hopkins]], and representatives from Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]]. Representatives from [[British India|India]] and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the U.S.-British [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]], which was also in Washington.
Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged [[Battle of Timor (1942-43)|guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor]]. The [[Doolittle Raid]] did minimal damage but was a huge morale booster for the Allies, especially the United States, and it caused repercussions throughout the Japanese military because they were sworn to protect the [[Japanese emperor]] and homeland but did not intercept, down, or damage a single bomber[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/misc-42/dooltl.htm].
===Coral Sea and Midway: the turning point===
{{main|Battle of the Coral Sea|Battle of Midway}}
[[Image:Uss lexington cv2 coral.jpg|thumb|right|''Lexington'' on fire at the [[battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]].]]
By mid-1942, the [[Japanese Combined Fleet]] found itself holding a vast area, even though it lacked the aircraft carriers, aircraft, and aircrew to defend it, and the freighters, tankers, and destroyers necessary to sustain it. Moreover, Fleet doctrine was inadequate to execute the proposed "barrier" defence.<ref>Parillo, ''Japanese Merchant Marine''; Peattie & Evans, '''Kaigun'''.</ref> Instead, they decided on additional attacks in both the south and central Pacific. While Yamamoto had used the element of surprise at Pearl Harbor, Allied [[codebreaker]]s now turned the tables. They discovered an attack against [[Port Moresby]], New Guinea, was imminent with intent to invade and conquer all of New Guinea. If Port Moresby fell, it would give Japan control of the seas to the immediate north of Australia. Nimitz rushed the carrier [[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']], under Admiral [[Frank Jack Fletcher|Fletcher]], to join [[USS Yorktown (CV-5)|USS ''Yorktown'']] and a U.S.-Australian task force, with orders to contest the Japanese advance. The resulting [[Battle of Coral Sea]] was the first naval battle in which ships involved never sighted each other and aircraft were solely used to attack opposing forces. Although ''Lexington'' was sunk and ''Yorktown'' seriously damaged, the Japanese lost the aircraft carrier ''[[Shōhō]]'', suffered extensive damage to ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Shōkaku|Shōkaku]]'', took heavy losses to the air wing of ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku|Zuikaku]]'' (both missed the operation against Midway the following month), and saw the Moresby invasion force turn back. Even though losses were almost even, the Japanese attack on Port Moresby was thwarted and their invasion forces turned back, yielding a strategic victory for the Allies.
Destruction of U.S. carriers was Yamamoto's main objective, and he planned an operation to lure them to battle. After Coral Sea, he had four fleet carriers operational — [[Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū|''Sōryū'']], [[Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga|''Kaga'']], [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']] and [[Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū|''Hiryū'']] — and believed Nimitz had a maximum of two: [[USS Enterprise (CV-6)|''Enterprise'']] and/or [[USS Hornet (CV-8)|''Hornet'']]. [[USS Saratoga (CV-3)|''Saratoga'']] was out of action, undergoing repair after a torpedo attack, and ''Yorktown'' sailed after three days' work to repair her [[flight deck]] and make essential repairs, with civilian work crews still aboard.
A large Japanese force was sent north to [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands|attack the Aleutian Islands]], off [[Alaska]]. The next stage of Yamamoto's plan called for the capture of [[Midway Atoll]], which would give him an opportunity to destroy Nimitz's remaining carriers; afterward, it would be turned into a major Japanese airbase, giving them control of the central Pacific. In May, Allied codebreakers discovered his intentions. Nagumo was again in tactical command but was focused on the invasion of Midway; Yamamoto's complex plan had no provision for intervention by Nimitz before the Japanese expected him. Planned surveillance of the U.S. fleet by long range seaplane did not happen (as a result of an abortive identical operation in March), so U.S. carriers were able to proceed to a [[flanking maneuver|flanking position]] on the approaching Japanese fleet without being detected. Nagumo had 272 planes operating from his four carriers, the U.S. 348 (of which 115 were land-based).
[[Image:Hiryu f075712.jpg|thumb|[[Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū|''Hiryū'']] under attack by [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] heavy bombers.]]
As anticipated by U.S. commanders, the Japanese fleet arrived off Midway on [[June 4]] and was spotted by [[PBY]] patrol aircraft[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/midway/mid-1m.htm]. Nagumo executed a first strike against Midway, while Fletcher launched his aircraft, bound for Nagumo's carriers. At 09:20 the first U.S carrier aircraft arrived, [[TBD Devastator]] [[torpedo bomber]]s from ''Hornet''', and their attacks were poorly coordinated and ineffectual;<ref>Thanks in part to terrible aircraft [[torpedo]]es.</ref> they failed to score a single hit, and [[A6M Zero|Zero]] fighters shot down all 15. At 09:35, 15 TBDs from ''Enterprise'' skimmed in over the water; 14 were shot down by Zeroes. Fletcher's attacks had been disorganized, yet succeeded in distracting Nagumo's defensive fighters. When U.S. dive bombers arrived, the Zeros could not offer any protection. In addition, Nagumo's four carriers had drifted out of formation, reducing the concentration of their anti-aircraft fire. His most-criticized error was twice changing his arming orders: he first held aircraft for shipping attack as a hedge against discovery of U.S. carriers, changed this based on reports an additional strike was needed against Midway, then again after sighting the ''Yorktown'', wasting time and leaving his hangar decks crowded with refueling and rearming aircraft, and ordnance stowed outside the magazines. Yamamoto's dispositions, which left Nagumo with inadequate reconnaissance to detect (and therefore attack) Fletcher before he launched, are often ignored.<ref>Willmott, ''Barrier and the Javelin''.</ref>
When [[SBD]] [[Dauntless]]es from ''Enterprise'' and ''Yorktown'' appeared at an altitude of {{convert|10000|ft|m}}, the Zeroes at sea level were unable to respond before the bombers pushed over. They scored a small number of significant hits; ''Sōryū'', ''Kaga'', and ''Akagi'' all caught fire. ''Hiryū'' survived this wave of attacks and launched an attack against the American carriers which caused severe damage to ''Yorktown'' (which was later finished off by a Japanese submarine). A second attack from the U.S. carriers a few hours later found and destroyed ''Hiryū''. Yamamoto had four additional small carriers, assigned to his scattered surface forces, all too slow to keep up with the ''Kido Butai'' and therefore never in action. Yamamoto's enormous superiority in gun power was irrelevant as the U.S. had air superiority at Midway and could refuse a surface gunfight (and, by remarkable good fortune, Spruance moved to avoid, based on a faulty submarine report<ref>By [[John Murpy]] in [[USS Tambor (SS-198)|''Tambor'']]. Blair, ''Silent Victory'', p.246.</ref>); Yamamoto's flawed dispositions had made closing to engage after dark on [[June 4]] impossible.<ref>Willmott, ''op. cit.''</ref> Midway was a decisive victory for the U.S. Navy and the high point in Japanese aspirations in the Pacific.
=== New Guinea and the Solomons ===
{{main|New Guinea campaign|Solomon Islands campaign}}
Japanese land forces continued to advance in the [[Solomon Islands]] and [[New Guinea]]. From July 1942, a few Australian [[Australian Army Reserve|reserve]] [[battalion]]s, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea, against a Japanese advance along the [[Kokoda Track Campaign|Kokoda Track]], towards Port Moresby, over the rugged [[Owen Stanley Ranges]]. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]], returning from action in the [[Mediterranean theatre of World War II|Mediterranean theatre]].
[[Image:Pacific Theater Areas;map1.JPG|250px|thumb|right|The Pacific Theater in August, 1942.]]
In early September 1942, [[Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces|Japanese marines]] attacked a strategic [[Royal Australian Air Force]] base at [[Battle of Milne Bay|Milne Bay]], near the eastern tip of New Guinea. They were beaten back by the [[Australian Army]], which inflicted the first outright defeat on Japanese land forces since 1939.
====Guadalcanal====
{{main|Guadalcanal campaign}}
At the same time as major battles raged in New Guinea, Allied forces identified a Japanese airfield under construction at Guadalcanal. In August, 16,000 Allied infantry — primarily [[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]] — made an amphibious landing, to capture the airfield.
Japanese and Allied forces occupied various parts of the island. Over the following six months, both sides fed resources into an escalating battle of attrition on the island, at sea, and in the sky. Most of the Japanese aircraft in the South Pacific were drafted into the Japanese defence of Guadalcanal, facing [[Cactus Air Force|Allied air forces]] based at [[Honiara International Airport|Henderson Field]]. Japanese ground forces launched attacks on US positions around Henderson Field, suffering high casualties. These offensives were resupplied by Japanese convoys known to the Allies as the "[[Tokyo Express]]", which often faced night battles with the Allied navies, and expended [[destroyer]]s IJN could ill-afford to lose. Later fleet battles involving heavier ships and even daytime carrier battles resulted in a stretch of water near Guadalcanal becoming known as "[[Ironbottom Sound]]", from the severe losses to both sides. However, only the US Navy could quickly replace and repair its losses. The Allies were victorious on Guadalcanal in February 1943.
===Allied advances in New Guinea and the Solomons===
[[Image:Awm 127976.jpg salamaua.jpg|thumb|Australian commandos in New Guinea during July 1943]]
By late 1942, the Japanese were also retreating along the Kokoda Track in the highlands of New Guinea. Australian and U.S. counteroffensives culminated in the capture of the key Japanese beachhead in eastern New Guinea, the [[Battle of Buna-Gona|Buna-Gona area]], in early 1943.
In June 1943, the Allies launched [[Operation Cartwheel]], which defined their offensive strategy in the South Pacific. The operation was aimed at isolating the major Japanese forward base, at [[Rabaul]], and cutting its supply and communication lines. This prepared the way for Nimitz's [[island-hopping]] campaign towards Japan.
==Stalemate in China and South-East Asia==
{{main|Second Sino-Japanese War|South-East Asian Theatre of World War II}}
[[Image:Changde battle.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese troops during the [[Battle of Changde]] in November, 1943.]]
British Commonwealth forces were also [[Burma Campaign#Allied setbacks.2C 1942 - 1943|counter-attacking in Burma]], albeit with limited success.
In August 1943, the western Allies formed a new [[South East Asia Command]] (SEAC) to take over strategic responsibilities for Burma and India from the [[British India Command]], under Wavell. In October 1943, [[Winston Churchill]] appointed Admiral Lord [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Louis Mountbatten]] as Supreme Allied Commander, SEAC. General [[William Slim]] was commander of Commonwealth land forces and directed the Burma Campaign. General [[Joseph Warren Stilwell|Joseph Stilwell]] commanded [[China Burma India Theater|U.S. forces in the CBI Theater]], directed aid to China and assisted in the coordination of Chinese operations.
On [[November 22]], [[1943]], U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and ROC leader Chiang Kai-Shek met in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], to discuss a strategy to defeat Japan. The meeting was also known as [[Cairo Conference]] and concluded with the [[Cairo Declaration]].
==Allied offensives, 1943–44==
[[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|250px|The Allied leaders of the Asian and Pacific Theaters: Generalissimo [[Chiang Kai-shek]], Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill meeting at the [[Cairo Conference]] in 1943.]]
Midway proved to be the last great naval battle for two years. The United States used the ensuing period to turn her vast industrial potential into actual ships, planes, and trained aircrew. At the same time, Japan, lacking an adequate industrial base or technological strategy, a good aircrew training program, and adequate naval resources and doctrine for [[convoy|commerce defense]], fell further and further behind. In strategic terms the Allies began a long movement across the Pacific, seizing one island base after another. Not every Japanese stronghold had to be captured; some, like Truk, Rabaul, and Formosa, were neutralized by air attack and bypassed. The goal was to get close to Japan herself, then launch massive strategic air attacks, improve the submarine blockade, and finally (only if necessary) execute an invasion.
In November 1943, U.S. Marines sustained high casualties when they overwhelmed the 4,500-strong garrison at [[Battle of Tarawa|Tarawa]]. This helped the Allies to improve the techniques of amphibious landings, learning from their mistakes and implementing changes such as thorough pre-emptive bombings and bombardment, more careful planning regarding tides and landing craft schedules, and better overall coordination.
The U.S. Navy did not seek out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle, as [[Alfred Thayer Mahan|Mahanian]] doctrine would suggest (and as Japan hoped); the Allied advance could only be stopped by a Japanese naval attack, which oil shortages (induced by submarine attack) made impossible.<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory''; Parillo, ''Japanese Merchant Marine''</ref>
===Submarine warfare===
{{main|Allied submarines in the Pacific War}}
US submarines, as well as some British and Dutch vessels, operating from bases at [[Cavite]], in the Philippines (1941-42) [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] and [[Brisbane]] in [[Australia]]; Pearl Harbor; [[Trincomalee]], Ceylon; [[Midway]]; and later [[Guam]], [[Allied submarines in the Pacific War|played a major role in defeating Japan]]. This was the case even though submarines made up a small proportion of the Allied navies — less than two percent in the case of the US Navy.<ref>Clay Blair, ''Silent Victory: The U. S. Submarine War Against Japan'' (Lippincott, 1975) and Theodore Roscoe, ''United States Submarine Operations in World War II'' (US Naval Institute Press, 1949).</ref> Submarines strangled Japan by sinking its merchant fleet, intercepting many troop transports, and cutting off nearly all the oil imports essential to weapons production and military operations. By early 1945 the oil tanks were dry. The Japanese military claimed its defenses sank 468 Allied subs.<ref>Prange ''et al''. ''Pearl Harbor Papers''</ref> Only 42 US submarines were sunk in the Pacific, with 10 others going down in accidents, the [[Atlantic Ocean]], or as the result of [[friendly fire]].<ref>Roscoe, Theodore. ''Pig Boats'' (Bantam Books, 1958); Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.991-2.</ref>
[[Image:Torpedoed Japanese destroyer HD-SN-99-02974.JPEG|thumb|right|A torpedoed Japanese destroyer, [[Japanese destroyer Yamakaze|''Yamakaze'']], as seen through the periscope of an American submarine, [[USS Nautilus (SS-168)|''Nautilus'']], in June, 1942.]]
US submarines accounted for 56% of the Japanese merchantmen sunk; most of the rest were destroyed by mines or aircraft.<ref>Roscoe, Theodore. ''Pig Boats'' Bantam Books, 1958.</ref> US submariners also claimed 28% of Japanese warships destroyed.<ref name="UsSubs">Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis, [http://www.navpublishing.com/subtour1.htm U.S. Submarines in World War II]</ref> Furthermore, they played important reconnaissance roles, as at the battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf (and, coincidentally, at Midway), when they gave accurate and timely warning of the approach of the Japanese fleet. Submarines also rescued hundreds of downed fliers.
The Allied submarines did not adopt a defensive posture and wait for the enemy to attack. Within hours of Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt ordered a new doctrine into effect: unrestricted [[submarine warfare]] against Japan. This meant sinking any warship, commercial vessel, or passenger ship in Axis controlled waters, without warning and without help to survivors.<ref> The US thereby reversed its opposition to unrestricted submarine warfare. After the war, when moralistic doubts about Hiroshima and other raids on civilian targets were loudly voiced, no-one criticized Roosevelt's submarine policy. (Two German admirals, [[Erich Raeder]] and [[Karl Dönitz]], were charged at the [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg War Crimes Trials]] with violating international law through unrestricted submarine warfare; they were acquitted after proving Allied merchant ships were legitimate military targets, under the rules in force at the time.</ref> Allied submarine bases were well-protected by surface fleets and aircraft.
While Japan had a large number of submarines, they did not make a significant impact on the war. In 1942, the Japanese fleet subs performed well, knocking out or damaging many Allied warships. However, Imperial Japanese Navy (and pre-war US) [[doctrine]] stipulated naval campaigns are won only by fleet battles, not ''[[guerre de course]]'' (commerce raiding). So, while the US had an unusually long supply line between its west coast and frontline areas, and was vulnerable to submarine attack, Japan's submarines were instead primarily used for long range reconnaissance and only occasionally attacked US supply lines. The Japanese [[Axis naval activity in Australian waters|submarine offensive against Australia]] in 1942 and 1943 also achieved little.<ref>David Stevens. ''[http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/AJRP2.nsf/437f72f8ac2c07238525661a00063aa6/225b90b97196e29bca256a1d00130203?OpenDocument Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942-1944]''. Accessed 18 June 2007.</ref> As the war turned against Japan, IJN submarines were increasingly used to resupply strongholds which had been cut off, such as [[Truk]] and [[Rabaul]]. In addition, Japan honored its neutrality treaty with the Soviet Union and ignored US freighters shipping millions of tons of war supplies from [[San Francisco]] to [[Vladivostok]].<ref>Carl Boyd, "The Japanese Submarine Force and the Legacy of Strategic and Operational Doctrine Developed Between the World Wars," in Larry Addington ed. ''Selected Papers from the Citadel Conference on War and Diplomacy: 1978'' (Charleston, 1979) 27–40; Clark G. Reynolds, ''Command of the Sea: The History and Strategy of Maritime Empires'' (1974) 512.</ref>
[[Image:I400 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Japanese submarine I-400|Japanese submarine ''I-400'']]. The ''Sen Toku I-400'' class were the largest non-nuclear submarines ever constructed. Japanese submarines were not used to their full potential during the Pacific War.]]
The US Navy, by contrast, relied on commerce raiding from the outset. However, the problem of Allied forces surrounded in the [[Philippines]], during the early part of 1942, led to diversion of boats to "guerrilla submarine" missions. As well, basing in Australia placed boats under Japanese aerial threat while ''en route'' to patrol areas, inhibiting effectiveness, and Nimitz relied on submarines for close surveillance of enemy bases. Furthermore, the standard issue [[Mark 14 torpedo]] and its Mark VI exploder were both defective, problems not corrected until September 1943. Worst of all, before the war, an uninformed [[United States Customs Service|US Customs]] officer had seized a copy of the Japanese merchant marine code (called the [[Japanese naval codes#JN-167|"''maru'' code"]] in the USN), not knowing [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) had broken it;<ref>Farago, Ladislas. ''Broken Seal''.</ref> The Japanese government promptly changed it, and the new code was not broken again until 1943.
Thus, it was not until 1944 the US Navy began to use its 150 submarines to maximum effect: effective shipboard radar was installed, commanders lacking in aggression were replaced, and faults in torpedoes were fixed. Japanese commerce protection was "shiftless beyond description,"<ref>Chihaya Masataka, in ''Pearl Harbor Papers'', p.323. Chihaya went on to note, when IJN belatedly improved its ASW methods, the US submarine force responded by increasing Japanese losses.</ref> and convoys were poorly organised and defended compared to Allied ones, a product of flawed IJN doctrine and training — errors concealed by American faults as much as Japanese overconfidence. The number of U.S. submarines patrols (and sinkings) rose steeply: 350 patrols (180 ships sunk) in 1942, 350 (335) in 1943, and 520 (603) in 1944.<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.359-60, 551-2, & 816.</ref> By 1945, sinkings had decreased because so few targets dared to move on the high seas. In all, Allied submarines destroyed 1,200 merchant ships for about five million tons of shipping. Most were small cargo carriers, but 124 were tankers bringing desperately needed oil from the East Indies. Another 320 were passenger ships and troop transports. At critical stages of the Guadalcanal, Saipan, and Leyte campaigns, thousands of Japanese troops were killed or diverted before they arrived where they were needed. Over 200 warships were sunk, ranging from many auxiliaries and destroyers to one battleship and no fewer than eight carriers. Underwater warfare was especially dangerous; of the 16,000 Americans who went out on patrol, 3,500 (22%) never returned, the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II.<ref>Roscoe, ''op. cit.''</ref> The Japanese losses, 130 submarines in all,<ref>Blair, p.877.</ref> were even higher.
A single German submarine, [[Unterseeboot 862|''U-862'']], operated in the Pacific Ocean during the war, patrolling off the Australian east coast and New Zealand in December 1944 and January 1945. It sank one ship in the Pacific before it was recalled to [[Jakarta|Batavia]].<ref>Uboat.net [http://www.uboat.net/ops/monsun3.htm ''The Monsun boats'']. Accessed 18 June 2007.</ref>
Japanese Naval and Merchant Marine losses 1941-1945 can be found here at <ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/JANAC-Losses/index.html#contents]</ref>
US Submarine claims of sunk/damaged ships 1941-1945 can be found here at <ref>[http://www.pigboats.com/ww2/ww2sinkings.html]</ref>
== Japanese counteroffensives in China, 1944==
{{main|Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi}}
In mid-1944, Japan launched a massive invasion across China, under the code name [[Operation Ichigo]]. These attacks, the biggest in several years, gained much ground for Japan before they were stopped in [[Guangxi]].
{{Expand-section|date=May 2008}}
==The beginning of the end in the Pacific, 1944==
===Saipan and Philippine Sea: ===
{{main|Battle of Saipan|Battle of the Philippine Sea}}
On [[June 15]], [[1944]], 535 ships began landing 128,000 U.S. Army and Marine personnel on the island of [[Saipan]]. The Allied objective was the creation of airfields within [[B-29]] range of Tokyo. The ability to plan and execute such a complex operation in the space of 90 days was indicative of Allied logistical superiority.
It was imperative for Japanese commanders to hold Saipan. The only way to do this was to destroy the [[U.S. Fifth Fleet]], which had 15 fleet carriers and 956 planes, 28 battleships and cruisers <!--how many each?-->, and 69 destroyers. Vice Admiral [[Jisaburo Ozawa]] attacked with nine-tenths of Japan's fighting fleet, which included nine carriers with 473 planes, 18 battleships and cruisers <!--how many each?-->, and 28 destroyers. Ozawa's pilots were outnumbered 2-1 and their aircraft were becoming obsolete. The Japanese had substantial [[anti-aircraft gun|anitiaircraft defense]]s but lacked [[proximity fuze]]s or good [[radar]]. With the odds against him, Ozawa devised an appropriate strategy. His planes had greater range because they were not weighed down with protective armor; they could attack at about 480 km (300 mi){{Fact|date=February 2008}} <!--nm?-->, and could search a radius of 900 km{{Fact|date=February 2008}} (560 mi<!--nm?-->). U.S. Navy [[Grumman Hellcat|Hellcat]] fighters could only attack within {{convert|200|mi|km}} and only search within a {{convert|325|mi|km|sing=on}}{{Fact|date=February 2008}} <!--nm?--> radius. Ozawa planned to use this advantage by positioning his fleet {{convert|300|mi|km}}{{Fact|date=February 2008}} <!--nm?--> out. The Japanese planes would hit the U.S. carriers, land at Guam to refuel, then hit the enemy again, when returning to their carriers. Ozawa also counted on about 500 land-based planes at Guam and other islands.
[[Image:P-sea.jpg|thumb|The Japanese aircraft carrier ''Zuikaku'' and two destroyers under attack in the Battle of Philippine Sea.]]
Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]] was in overall command of the Fifth Fleet. The Japanese plan would have failed if the much larger U.S. fleet had closed on Ozawa and attacked aggressively; Ozawa had the correct insight that the unaggressive Spruance would not attack. U.S. Admiral [[Marc Mitscher]], in tactical command of Task Force 58, with its 15 carriers, was aggressive but Spruance vetoed Mitscher's plan to hunt down Ozawa because Spruance's orders made protecting the landings on Saipan his first priority. This has led to postwar criticism of Spruance for lack of aggressiveness.
The forces converged in the largest sea battle of World War II up to that point. Over the previous month American destroyers had destroyed 17 of 25 submarines out of Ozawa's screening force. Repeated U.S. raids destroyed the Japanese land-based planes. Ozawa's main attack lacked coordination, with the Japanese planes arriving at their targets in a staggered sequence. Following a directive from Nimitz, the U.S. carriers all had combat information centers, which interpreted the flow of radar data and radioed interception orders to the Hellcats. The result was later dubbed the ''Great Marianas Turkey Shoot''. The few attackers to reach the U.S. fleet encountered massive AA fire with proximity fuzes. Only one American warship was slightly damaged.
On the second day U.S. reconnaissance planes finally located Ozawa's fleet, {{convert|275|mi|km}}{{Fact|date=February 2008}} <!--nm?--> away and submarines sank two Japanese carriers. Mitscher launched 230 torpedo planes and dive bombers. He then discovered that the enemy was actually another {{convert|60|mi|km}}{{Fact|date=February 2008}} <!--nm?--> further off, out of aircraft range. Mitscher decided that this chance to destroy the Japanese fleet was worth the risk of aircraft losses. Overall, the U.S. lost 130 planes and 76 aircrew. However, Japan lost 450 planes, three carriers, and 445 aircrew. The Imperial Japanese Navy's carrier force was effectively destroyed.
===Leyte Gulf 1944===
{{main|Battle of Leyte Gulf}}
The Battle of Leyte Gulf was arguably the [[largest naval battle in history]]. It was a series of four distinct engagements fought off the Philippine island of [[Leyte (island)|Leyte]] from [[October 23]] to [[October 26]] [[1944]]. Leyte Gulf featured the largest [[battleship]]s ever built, it was the last time in history that battleships engaged each other, and was also notable as the first time that [[kamikaze]] aircraft were used. Allied victory in the Philippine Sea established Allied air and sea superiority in the western Pacific. Nimitz favored blockading the Philippines and landing on Formosa. This would give the Allies control of the sea routes to Japan from southern Asia, cutting off substantial Japanese garrisons. MacArthur favoured an invasion of the Philippines, which also lay across the supply lines to Japan. Roosevelt adjudicated in favor of the Philippines. Meanwhile, Japanese Combined Fleet Chief [[Toyoda Soemu]] prepared four plans to cover all Allied offensive scenarios. On [[October 12]], Nimitz launched a carrier raid against Formosa to make sure that planes based there could not intervene in the landings on Leyte. Soemu put Plan ''Sho-2'' into effect, launching a series of air attacks against the U.S. carriers. However the Japanese lost 600 planes in three days, leaving them without air cover. [[Image:Leyte map annotated.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|The four engagements in the battle of Leyte Gulf.]]
''Sho-1'' called for [[Vice Admiral|V. Adm.]] [[Jisaburo Ozawa]]'s force to use an apparently vulnerable carrier force to lure the [[U.S. 3rd Fleet]] away from Leyte and remove air cover from the Allied landing forces, which would then be attacked from the west by three Japanese forces: V. Adm. [[Takeo Kurita]]'s force would enter [[Leyte Gulf]] and attack the landing forces; [[Rear Admiral|R. Adm.]] [[Shoji Nishimura]]'s force and V. Adm. [[Kiyohide Shima]]'s force would act as mobile strike forces. The plan was likely to result in the destruction of one or more of the Japanese forces, but Toyoda justified it by saying that there would be no sense in saving the fleet and losing the Philippines.
Kurita's "Center Force" consisted of five battleships, 12 cruisers and 13 destroyers. It included the two largest battleships ever built: [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']]. As they passed [[Palawan]] Island after midnight on [[October 23]], the force was spotted, and U.S. submarines sank two cruisers. On [[October 24]], as Kurita's force entered the [[Sibuyan Sea]], [[USS Intrepid (CV-11)|USS ''Intrepid'']] and [[USS Cabot (CVL-28)|USS ''Cabot '']] launched 260 planes, which scored hits on several ships. A second wave of planes scored many direct hits on ''Musashi''. A third wave, from [[USS Enterprise (CV-6)|USS ''Enterprise'']] and [[USS Franklin (CV-13)|USS ''Franklin'']] hit ''Musashi'' with 11 bombs and eight torpedoes. Kurita retreated but in the evening turned around to head for San Bernardino Strait. ''Musashi'' sank at about 19:30.
Meanwhile, V. Adm. [[Onishi Takijiro]] had directed his [[Japanese First Air Fleet|First Air Fleet]], 80 land-based planes, against U.S. carriers, whose planes were attacking airfields on Luzon. [[USS Princeton (CVL-23)|USS ''Princeton'']] was hit by an armour-piercing bomb and suffered a major explosion which killed 200 crew and 80 on a cruiser which was alongside. ''Princeton'' sank, and the cruiser was forced to retire.
Nishimura's force consisted of two battleships, one cruiser and four destroyers. Because they were observing radio silence, Nishimura was unable to synchronise with Shima and Kurita. Nishimura and Shima had failed to even coordinate their plans before the attacks — they were long time rivals and neither wished to have anything to do with the other. When he entered the narrow [[Surigao Strait]] at about 02:00, Shima was 22 miles (40 km) behind him, and Kurita was still in the Sibuyan Sea, several hours from the beaches at Leyte. As they passed [[Panaon Island]], Nishimura's force ran into a trap set for them by the U.S.-Australian [[U.S. 7th Fleet|7th Fleet]] Support Force. R. Adm. [[Jesse Oldendorf]] had six battleships, four [[heavy cruiser]]s, four [[light cruiser]]s, 29 destroyers and 39 [[PT boat]]s. To pass the strait and reach the landings, Nishimura had to run the gauntlet. At about 03:00 the Japanese battleship [[Japanese battleship Fuso|''Fuso'']] and three destroyers were hit by torpedoes and ''Fuso'' broke in two. At 03:50 the U.S. battleships opened fire. Radar fire control meant they could hit targets from a much greater distance than the Japanese. The battleship [[Japanese battleship Yamashiro|''Yamashiro'']], a cruiser and a destroyer were crippled by 16-inch (406mm) shells; ''Yamashiro'' sank at 04:19. Only one of Nishimura's force of seven ships survived the engagement. At 04:25 Shima's force of two cruisers and eight destroyers reached the battle. Seeing ''Fuso'' and believing her to be the wrecks of two battleships, Shima ordered a retreat.
Ozawa's "Northern Force" had four aircraft carriers, two obsolete battleships partly converted to carriers, three cruisers and nine destroyers. The carriers had only 108 planes. The force was not spotted by the Allies until 16:40 on [[October 24]]. At 20:00 Soemu ordered all remaining Japanese forces to attack. Halsey saw an opportunity to destroy the remnants of the Japanese carrier force. The U.S. Third Fleet was formidable — nine large carriers, eight light carriers, six battleships, 17 cruisers, 63 destroyers and 1,000 planes — and completely outgunned Ozawa's force. Halsey's ships set out in pursuit of Ozawa just after midnight. U.S. commanders ignored reports that Kurita had turned back towards San Bernardino Strait. They had taken the bait set by Ozawa. On the morning of [[October 25]], Ozawa launched 75 planes. Most were shot down by U.S. fighter patrols. By 08:00 U.S. fighters had destroyed the screen of Japanese fighters and were hitting ships. By evening, they had sunk the carriers [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku|''Zuikaku'']], [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuiho|''Zuiho'']], and [[Japanese aircraft carrier Chiyoda|''Chiyoda'']], and a destroyer. The fourth carrier, [[Japanese aircraft carrier Chitose|''Chitose'']] and a cruiser were disabled and later sank.
[[Image:Zuikaku at Cape Engano.jpg|thumb|The Japanese aircraft carriers [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku|''Zuikaku'']], left, and (probably) [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuiho|''Zuiho'']] come under attack by dive bombers early in the battle off Cape Engaño.]]
Kurita passed through [[San Bernardino Strait]] at 03:00 on [[25 October]] and headed along the coast of [[Samar (island)|Samar]]. The only thing standing in his path was three groups (Taffy 1, 2 and 3) of the Seventh Fleet, commanded by Admiral [[Thomas Kinkaid]]. Each group had six [[escort aircraft carrier|escort carrier]]s, with a total of more than 500 planes, and seven or eight destroyers or [[destroyer escort]]s (DE). Kinkaid still believed that Lee's force was guarding the north, so the Japanese had the element of surprise when they attacked Taffy 3 at 06:45. Kurita mistook the Taffy carriers for large fleet carriers and thought he had the whole Third Fleet in his sights. Since escort carriers stood little chance against a battleship, Adm. [[Clifton Sprague]] directed the carriers of Taffy 3 to turn and flee eastward, hoping that bad visibility would reduce the accuracy of Japanese gunfire, and used his destroyers in to divert the Japanese battleships. The destroyers made harassing torpedo attacks against the Japanese. For ten minutes ''Yamato'' was caught up in evasive action. Two U.S. destroyers and a DE were sunk, but they had bought enough time for the Taffy groups to launch planes. Taffy 3 turned and fled south, with shells scoring hits on some of its carriers and sinking one of them. The superior speed of the Japanese force allowed it to draw closer and fire on the other two Taffy groups. However, at 09:20 Kurita suddenly turned and retreated north. Signals had disabused him of the notion that he was attacking the Third Fleet, and the longer Kurita continued to engage, the greater the risk of major air strikes. Destroyer attacks had broken the Japanese formations, shattering tactical control, and two of Kurita's heavy cruisers had been sunk. The Japanese retreated through the San Bernardino Strait, under continuous air attack. The Battle of Leyte Gulf was over.
The battle secured the beachheads of the [[U.S. Sixth Army]] on Leyte against attack from the sea, broke the back of Japanese naval power and opened the way for an advance to the [[Ryukyu Islands]] in 1945. The only significant Japanese naval operation afterwards was the disastrous [[Operation Ten-Go]], in April 1945. Kurita's force had begun the battle with five battleships; when he returned to Japan, only ''Yamato'' was combat-worthy. Nishimura's sunken ''Yamashiro'' was the last battleship to engage another in combat.
===Philippines, 1944–45===
[[Image:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|General Douglas MacArthur wading ashore at Leyte]]
{{main|Philippines campaign (1944–45)}}
On [[October 20]] [[1944]], the [[Sixth United States Army|U.S. Sixth Army]], supported by naval and air bombardment, landed on the favorable eastern shore of [[Leyte]], north of [[Mindanao]]. The U.S. Sixth Army continued its advance from the east, as the Japanese rushed reinforcements to the [[Ormoc Bay]] area on the western side of the island. While the Sixth Army was reinforced successfully, the [[Fifth Air Force|U.S. Fifth Air Force]] was able to devastate the Japanese attempts to resupply. In torrential rains and over difficult terrain, the advance continued across Leyte and the neighboring island of Samar to the north. On [[December 7]], U.S. Army units landed at Ormoc Bay and, after a major land and air battle, cut off the Japanese ability to reinforce and supply Leyte. Although fierce fighting continued on Leyte for months, the U.S. Army was in control.
On [[December 15]] [[1944]], landings against minimal resistance were made on the southern beaches of the island of [[Mindoro]], a key location in the planned [[Lingayen Gulf]] operations, in support of major landings scheduled on [[Luzon]]. On [[January 9]] [[1945]], on the south shore of Lingayen Gulf on the western coast of Luzon, [[Walter Krueger|General Krueger]]'s Sixth Army landed his first units. Almost 175,000 men followed across the twenty-mile (32 km) beachhead within a few days. With heavy air support, Army units pushed inland, taking [[Clark Air Base|Clark Field]], {{convert|40|mi|km}} northwest of [[Manila]], in the last week of January.
Two more major landings followed, one to cut off the [[Bataan Peninsula]], and another, that included a parachute drop, south of Manila. Pincers closed on the city and, on [[February 3]] [[1945]], elements of the [[1st Cavalry Division (United States)|1st Cavalry Division]] pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and the 8th Cavalry passed through the northern suburbs and into the city itself.
As the advance on Manila continued from the north and the south, the Bataan Peninsula was rapidly secured. On [[February 16]], paratroopers and amphibious units assaulted [[Corregidor]], and resistance ended there on [[February 27]].
In all, ten U.S. divisions and five independent regiments battled on Luzon, making it the largest campaign of the Pacific war, involving more troops than the United States had used in North Africa, Italy, or southern France.
[[Palawan Island]], between [[Borneo]] and Mindoro, the fifth largest and western-most Philippine Island, was invaded on [[February 28]], with landings of the [[Eighth United States Army|Eighth Army]] at [[Puerto Princesa City|Puerto Princesa]]. The Japanese put up little direct defence of Palawan, but cleaning up pockets of Japanese resistance lasted until late April, as the Japanese used their common tactic of withdrawing into the mountain jungles, dispersed as small units. Throughout the Philippines, U.S. forces were aided by Filipino guerrillas to find and dispatch the holdouts.
The U.S. Eighth Army then moved on to its first landing on Mindanao ([[17 April]]), the last of the major Philippine Islands to be taken. Mindanao was followed by invasion and occupation of [[Panay]], [[Cebu]], [[Negros]] and several islands in the [[Sulu Archipelago]]. These islands provided bases for the U.S. Fifth and [[Thirteenth Air Force]]s to attack targets throughout the Philippines and the [[South China Sea]].
==Final stages==
===Allied offensives in Burma, 1944–45===
{{main|Burma Campaign}}
[[Image:Royal Marines land Ramree Burma.jpg|right|thumb|British [[Royal Marines]] land at Ramree]]
The British launched a series of offensive operations back into Burma during late 1944 and the first half of 1945. Command of the British formations on the front was rearranged in November 1944; the 11th Army Group was replaced with Allied Land Forces South East Asia.
The Japanese Burma Area Army withdrew the 15th Army behind the [[Irrawaddy River]] (Operation BAN). 28th Army was to continue to defend the [[Rakhine State|Arakan]] and lower Irrawaddy valley (Operation KAN), while 33rd Army would attempt to prevent the completion of the new [[Ledo Road]] between India and China by defending [[Bhamo]] and [[Lashio]], and mounting guerrilla raids (Operation DAN).
In Arakan, as the monsoon ended, the British Commonwealth [[XV Corps (India)|XV Corps]] resumed its advance on Akyab Island for the third year in succession. This time the Japanese were numerically far weaker, and had already lost the most favorable defensive positions. The Indian 25th Infantry Division advanced on Foul Point and Rathedaung at the end of the Mayu Peninsula, while the West African 81st Division and [[British 82nd (West Africa) Division|West African 82nd Division]] converged on Myohaung at the mouth of the Kaladan River. The Japanese evacuated Akyab Island on [[December 31]], [[1944]]. It was occupied by XV Corps without resistance two days later.
Following the incursion into western Burma, XV Corps operations were halted in order to transfer transport aircraft to support [[Fourteenth Army (United Kingdom)|Fourteenth Army]]. With the coastal area secured the Allies were free to build sea-supplied airbases on the two offshore islands, [[Ramree Island]] and [[Cheduba Island|Cheduba]]. Cheduba, the smaller of the two islands, had no Japanese garrison, but the [[Battle of Ramree Island|clearing]] of the small but typically tenacious Japanese garrison on Ramree took about six weeks
[[Northern Combat Area Command|NCAC's]] operations were limited from late 1944 onwards by the need for Chinese troops on the main front in China. The American and British commanders attacked the Chinese leadership's decision to focus their limited resources on the defensive of Chinese cities rather than the defeat of the Japanese in Burma. In spite of these limitations, General Sultan was still able to resume his advance against the Japanese 33rd Army.
On his right, the British [[36th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|36th Infantry Division]], brought in to replace the [[Chindits]], made contact with the Indian [[19th Infantry Division (India)|19th Infantry Division]] near Indaw on [[December 10]], [[1944]], and Fourteenth Army and NCAC now had a continuous front. Meanwhile, three Chinese divisions and a US Force known as the "Mars Brigade" (which had replaced [[Merrill's Marauders]]) advanced slowly from [[Myitkyina]] to Bhamo. The Japanese resisted for several weeks, but Bhamo fell on [[December 15]].
[[Image:Chinese troops on Stuart tanks Ledo road.jpg|left|thumb|Chinese forces on [[Stuart tank|M3 light]] tanks on the Ledo Road]]
Sultan's forces made contact with Chiang's Yunnan armies on [[January 21]], [[1945]], and the Ledo road could finally be completed, although it was not yet secure. The Ledo road by this point in the war was also of uncertain value. It would not be completed soon enough to change the overall military situation in China. Chiang, to the annoyance of the British and Americans, ordered Sultan to halt his advance at Lashio, which was captured on [[March 7]]. In April, [[OSS Detachment 101]] took over control of American forces from the NCAC, which had withdrawn to China, while the 36th Division withdrew to India.
Fourteenth Army made the main thrust into central Burma. It had IV Corps and XXXIII Corps under its command, with six infantry divisions, two armoured brigades and three independent infantry brigades. Logistics were the primary problem the advance faced. A carefully designed system involving large amounts of supply by air was introduced as well endless construction projects designed to improve the land route from India into Burma.
[[Image:Royal Indian Army.jpg|thumb|right|The [[British Indian Army]]'s [[Gorkha regiments (India)|Gurkha Rifles]] crossing the [[Irrawaddy River]] on [[January 27]], [[1945]]. The Gurkhas were involved in hard fought actions with the Japanese during the early months of 1945.]]
When it was realised that the Japanese had fallen back behind the Irrawaddy River, the plan was modified. Initially both corps had been attacking into the Shwebo Plain between the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers. Now, only XXXIII Corps would continue this attack, while IV Corps changed its axis of advance to the Gangaw Valley west of the Chindwin, aiming to cross the Irrawaddy close to Pakokku and then capture the main Japanese line of communication centre of [[Meiktila]]. Diversionary measures (such as dummy radio traffic) would persuade the Japanese that both corps were aimed at [[Mandalay]].
The plan was completely successful. Allied air superiority and the thin Japanese presence on the ground meant that the Japanese were unaware of the strength of the force moving on Pakokku. During January and February, XXXIII Corps seized crossings over the Irrawaddy River near Mandalay. There was heavy fighting, which attracted Japanese reserves and fixed their attention. Late in February, Indian 7th Division, leading IV Corps, seized crossings at Nyaungu, near Pakokku. Indian 17th Division and 255th Indian Armoured brigade followed them across and struck for Meiktila.
While the Japanese were distracted by events at Meiktila, XXXIII Corps had renewed its attack on Mandalay. It fell to Indian 19th Division on [[March 20]], though the Japanese held the former citadel of Fort Dufferin for another week. The battle was extremely costly in that much of the historically and culturally significant portions of Mandalay, including the old royal palace, were burned to the ground. With the fall of Mandalay (and of Maymyo to its east), communications to the Japanese front in the north of Burma were cut. The Japanese 15th Army was completely scattered, leaving only small detachments and parties of stragglers making their way east.
The Allied armies continued their southward drive towards [[Yangon|Rangoon]], with the goal of capturing the vital port before the monsoon season cut the overland supply routes. IV Corps made the main attack, down the "Railway Valley" by striking at the delaying position held by the remnants of Japanese 33rd Army at Pyawbwe. The Indian 17th Division and 255th Armoured Brigade were initially halted by a strong defensive position behind a dry chaung, but a flanking move by tanks and mechanized infantry struck the Japanese from the rear and shattered them. Following the route of the 33rd Army, organised resistance along the route to Rangoon all but ceased.
A general uprising delayed the Japanese 15th Division long enough for the Allied forces to reach the city of [[Toungoo]], only 136 miles (219 km) from Rangoon. The Indian 17th Division reached [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]], 40 miles (65 km) north of Rangoon by [[April 25]]. Kimura had formed the various service troops, naval personnel and even Japanese civilians in Rangoon into the Japanese 105 Independent Mixed Brigade. This scratch formation used buried aircraft bombs, anti-aircraft guns and suicide attacks with pole charges to delay the British advance, holding the British off until [[April 30]], and covered the evacuation of the Rangoon area.
General Slim feared that the Japanese would defend Rangoon to the last man through the monsoon, which would put Fourteenth Army in a disastrous supply situation. His lines of communication by land were impossibly long, and the troops relied on supplies ferried by aircraft to airfields close behind the leading troops. Heavy rain would make these airfields unusable, and curtail flying. However, Kimura had ordered Rangoon to be evacuated, starting on [[April 22]]. Many troops were evacuated by sea, although British submarines claimed several ships. Kimura's own HQ left by land. The Japanese 105 Independent Mixed Brigade, by holding Pegu, covered this evacuation.
On [[May 1]], a Gurkha parachute battalion was [[Operation Dracula|dropped on Elephant Point]], which cleared Japanese rearguards from the mouth of the Rangoon River. The Indian 26th Infantry Division landed the next day and took over Rangoon, which had seen an orgy of looting and lawlessness similar to the last days of the British in the city in 1942. Following the capture of Rangoon, there were still Japanese forces to take care of in Burma, but it was largely a mopping up operation.
===Liberation of Borneo===
[[Image:Balikpapan landing (AWM 018812).jpg|thumb|US LVTs land Australian soldiers at Balikpapan on [[July 7]] [[1945]]]]
{{main|Borneo Campaign (1945)}}
The Borneo Campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the [[South West Pacific Area]]. In a series of amphibious assaults between [[May 1]] and [[July 21]], the [[I Corps (Australia)|Australian I Corps]], under General [[Leslie Morshead]], attacked [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the [[U.S. 7th Fleet]] under Admiral [[Thomas Kinkaid]], the [[Australian First Tactical Air Force]] and the U.S. [[Thirteenth Air Force]] also played important roles in the campaign.
The campaign opened with a landing on the small island of [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|Tarakan]] on [[May 1]]. This was followed on [[June 1]] by simultaneous assaults in the north west, on the island of [[Operation Oboe Six|Labuan]] and the coast of [[Brunei]]. A week later the Australians attacked Japanese positions in [[Battle of North Borneo|North Borneo]]. The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, with the last major amphibious assault of World War II, at [[Battle of Balikpapan|Balikpapan]] on [[July 1]].
Although the campaign was criticised in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years, as pointless or a "waste" of the lives of soldiers, it did achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the [[Dutch East Indies]], capturing major [[petroleum|oil]] supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A Military History of Australia |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521644836 }}. Pages 184-186.</ref>
===Landings in the Japanese home islands===
{{main|Japan campaign}}
[[Image:nagasakibomb.jpg|thumbnail|left|A mushroom cloud from the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|nuclear explosion over Nagasaki]] rising 60,000 feet (18 km) into the air on the morning of [[August 9]], [[1945]].]]
Hard-fought battles on the [[Japanese Archipelago|Japanese home islands]] of [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]], [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]], and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides but finally produced a Japanese defeat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of kamikaze tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the Allies. The U.S. Navy proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade and air raids.<ref>Skates, James. ''Invasion of Japan''.</ref>
Towards the end of the war as the role of strategic bombing became more important, a new command for the [[U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific]] was created to oversee all U.S. strategic bombing in the hemisphere, under [[United States Army Air Forces]] General [[Curtis LeMay]]. Japanese industrial production plunged as nearly half of the built-up areas of 64 cities were destroyed by [[B-29]] [[Incendiary bomb|firebombing]] raids. On [[March 9]]-[[March 10]], [[1945]] alone, about 100,000 people were killed in a [[fire storm]] caused by an [[Bombing of Tokyo in World War II|attack on Tokyo]]. In addition, LeMay also oversaw [[Operation Starvation]], in which the inland waterways of Japan were extensively mined by air, which disrupted the small amount of remaining Japanese coastal sea traffic.
===Atomic bomb and the Soviet invasion===
{{main|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}
On [[August 6]], [[1945]], a B-29, the [[Enola Gay]], dropped an [[nuclear weapon|atom bomb]] on the Japanese city of [[Hiroshima]], in the first [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear attack]] in history. On [[August 9]], another was dropped on [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. This was the last ever nuclear attack. More than 240,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings.<ref> Professor Duncan Anderson, 2005,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_02.shtml "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"] (''World War Two'', BBC History website) Access date: September 11, 2007.</ref> The necessity of the atomic bombings has long been debated, with detractors claiming that a naval [[blockade]] and [[strategic bombing|bombing campaign]] had already made invasion, and hence the atomic bomb, unnecessary.<ref>See, for example, Alperowitz, G., ''The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb'' (1995; New York, Knopf; ISBN 0-6794-4331-2) for this argument.</ref> However, other scholars have argued that the bombings did obviate invasion, including a [[Proposed Soviet invasion of Japan in World War II|planned Soviet invasion]] of [[Hokkaidō]], or a prolonged blockade and bombing campaign, any of which may have exacted even higher casualties among Japanese civilians.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_05.shtml Professor Duncan Anderson, "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"] (''World War Two'', BBC History website) Access date: September 11, 2007.</ref>
[[Image:Douglas MacArthur signs formal surrender.jpg|thumb|right|[[Douglas MacArthur]] signs the formal [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender (1945)|surrender of Japanese forces]] on the [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']], [[September 2]] [[1945]].]]
On [[February 3]] [[1945]], the Soviet Union agreed with Roosevelt to enter the Pacific conflict. It promised to act 90 days after the war ended in Europe and did so exactly on schedule on [[August 9]], by launching [[Operation August Storm]]. A battle-hardened, one million-strong Soviet force, transferred from Europe attacked Japanese forces in [[Manchuria]] and quickly defeated the Japanese ''[[Kwantung Army|Kantōgun]]'' (Kwantung Army group).
In Japan, [[August 14]] is considered to be the day that the Pacific War ended. However, Imperial Japan actually surrendered on [[August 15]], and this day became known in the English-speaking countries as "[[V-J Day]]" (Victory in Japan).<ref>[http://www.wanpela.com/holdouts/list.html Chronology of Japanese Holdouts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The formal [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender (1945)|Instrument of Surrender]] was signed on [[September 2]], [[1945]], on the battleship [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']], in [[Tokyo Bay]]. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as "[[Supreme Commander Allied Powers|Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]]", with representatives of several Allied nations, from a Japanese delegation led by [[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] and [[Yoshijiro Umezu]].
Following this period, MacArthur went to Tokyo to oversee the postwar development of the country. This period in Japanese history is known as the [[Occupied Japan Post WWII|occupation]].
==Pacific War campaigns==
<!-- the dates are in ISO 8601 format so this list can easily be sorted for the purposes of "battle before/after" in battlesboxes. -->
{{flagicon|Republic of China|size=20px}} '''[[Second Sino-Japanese war]]'''
* [[7 July]] [[1937]] – [[9 September]] [[1945]]
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} '''[[Soviet-Japanese Border Wars]]'''
* [[1938]]-[[07-29]] – [[1938]]-[[08-11]] [[Battle of Lake Khasan]]
* [[1938]]-[[05-11]] – [[1938]]-[[09-16]] [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]]
* [[1945]]-[[08-08]] – [[1945]]-[[09-02]] [[Operation August Storm]]
=== '''Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia and Pacific''' ===
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-07]] (12-08 [[Japan Standard Time|Asian Time]]) [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-08]] [[Japanese Invasion of Thailand]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-08]] [[Battle of Guam (1941)]]
* [[1941]]-[[12-08]] United States declares war on Japan
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-08]] – [[1941]]-[[12-25]] [[Battle of Hong Kong]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-08]] – [[1942]]-[[01-31]] [[Battle of Malaya]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-10]] [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|Sinking]] of [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']] and [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS ''Repulse'']]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-11]] – [[1941]]-[[12-24]] [[Battle of Wake Island]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-16]] – [[1942]]-[[04-01]] [[Borneo campaign (1942)]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1941]]-[[12-22]] – [[1942]]-[[05-06]] [[Battle of the Philippines (1941-42)|Battle of the Philippines]]
* [[1942]]-[[01-01]] – [[1945]]-[[10-25]] Transport of POWs via [[hell ship]]s
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-11]] – [[1942]]-[[01-12]] [[Battle of Tarakan (1942)|Battle of Tarakan]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-23]] [[Battle of Rabaul (1942)]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-24]] [[Naval Battle of Balikpapan]]
* [[1942]]-[[01-25]] [[Thailand]] declares war on the Allies
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-30]] – [[1942]]-[[02-03]] [[Battle of Ambon]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-30]] – [[1942]]-[[02-15]] [[Battle of Singapore]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-04]] [[Battle of Makassar Strait]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-14]] – [[1942]]-[[02-15]] [[Battle of Palembang]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-19]] [[Bombing of Darwin (February 1942)|Air raids on Darwin]], Australia
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-19]] – [[1942]]-[[02-20]] [[Battle of Badung Strait]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-19]] – [[1943]]-[[02-10]] [[Battle of Timor (1942-43)]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[02-27]] – [[1942]]-[[03-01]] [[Battle of the Java Sea]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[03-01]] [[Battle of Sunda Strait]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[03-01]] – [[1942]]-[[03-09]] [[Battle of Java (1942)|Battle of Java]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[03-31]] [[Battle of Christmas Island]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[03-31]] – [[1942]]-[[04-10]] [[Indian Ocean raid]]
* [[1942]]-[[04-09]] [[Bataan Death March]] begins
* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[04-18]] [[Doolittle Raid]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[05-03]] [[invasion of Tulagi (May 1942)|Japanese invasion of Tulagi]]
*{{flagicon|Australia|size=20px}} {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[05-04]] – [[1942]]-[[05-08]] [[Battle of the Coral Sea]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[05-31]] – [[1942]]-[[06-08]] [[Attack on Sydney Harbour|Attacks on Sydney Harbour area]], Australia
* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[06-04]] – [[1942]]-[[06-06]] [[Battle of Midway]]
===Allied offensives===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Atlas of the World Battle Fronts|See Atlas of Battle Fronts from July 1943 to August 1945 at Half-Month intervals]]
|-
| {{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-6}}
[[Image:1943-07-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-2-of-6}}
[[Image:1943-12-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-3-of-6}}
[[Image:1944-05-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-4-of-6}}
[[Image:1944-11-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-5-of-6}}
[[Image:1945-03-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-6-of-6}}
[[Image:1945-08-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg|left|110px]]
{{Col-end}}
|}
'''[[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South East Asian campaigns]]''': [[1941]]-[[12-08]] – [[1945]]-[[08-15]]
* {{flagicon|Republic of China|size=20px}} {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} {{flagicon|India|British}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Burma Campaign]]: [[1941]]-[[12-16]] – [[1945]]-[[08-15]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[1945]]-[[05-15]] – [[1945]]-[[05-16]] [[Battle of the Malacca Strait]]
'''[[New Guinea campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[01-23]] – [[Battle of Rabaul (1942)|Battle of Rabaul]]
* [[1942]]-[[03-07]] – [[Operation Mo]] (Japanese invasion of mainland [[New Guinea]])
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[05-04]] – [[1942]]-[[05-08]] [[Battle of the Coral Sea]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[1942]]-[[07-01]] – [[1943]]-[[01-31]] [[Kokoda Track Campaign]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[08-25]] – [[1942]]-[[09-05]] [[Battle of Milne Bay]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[11-19]] – [[1942]]-[[01-23]] [[Battle of Buna-Gona]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[01-28]] – [[1943]]-[[01-30]] [[Battle of Wau]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[03-02]] – [[1943]]-[[03-04]] [[Battle of the Bismarck Sea]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[06-29]] – [[1943]]-[[09-16]] [[Battle of Lae]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[06-30]] – [[1944]]-[[03-25]] [[Operation Cartwheel]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[09-19]] – [[1944]]-[[04-24]] [[Finisterre Range campaign]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[09-22]] – [[1944]]-[[01-15]] [[Huon Peninsula campaign]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[11-01]] – [[1943]]-[[11-11]] [[Attack on Rabaul]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[12-15]] – [[1945]]-[[08-15]] [[New Britain campaign]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[02-29]] – [[1944]]-[[03-25]] [[Admiralty Islands campaign]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[04-22]] – [[1945]]-[[08-15]] [[Western New Guinea campaign]]
'''[[Aleutian Islands]] campaign'''
* {{flagicon|Canada|1957}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[06-06]] – [[1943]]-[[08-15]] [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands]]
* {{flagicon|Canada|1957}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[06-07]] – [[1943]]-[[08-15]] [[Battle of Kiska]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[03-26]] – [[Battle of the Komandorski Islands]]
'''[[Guadalcanal]] campaign'''
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} {{flagicon|Tonga}} [[1942]]-[[08-07]] – [[1943]]-[[02-09]] [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[08-09]] [[Battle of Savo Island]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[08-24]] – [[1942]]-[[08-25]] [[Battle of the Eastern Solomons]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[10-11]] – [[1942]]-[[10-12]] [[Battle of Cape Esperance]]
* [[1942]]-[[10-25]] – [[1942]]-[[10-27]] [[Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1942]]-[[11-13]] – [[1942]]-[[11-15]] [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1942]]-[[11-30]] [[Battle of Tassafaronga]]
'''[[Solomon Islands campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1943]]-[[01-29]] – [[1943]]-[[01-30]] [[Battle of Rennell Island]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[03-06]] [[Battle of Blackett Strait]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} {{flagicon|Fiji}} [[1943]]-[[06-10]] – [[1943]]-[[08-25]] [[Battle of New Georgia]]
* [[1943]]-[[07-06]] [[Battle of Kula Gulf]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1943]]-[[07-12]] – [[1943]]-[[07-13]] [[Battle of Kolombangara]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[08-06]] – [[1943]]-[[08-07]] [[Battle of Vella Gulf]]
* {{flagicon|Japan|size=20px}} [[1943]]-[[08-17]] – [[1943]]-[[08-18]] [[Battle off Horaniu]]
* {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} {{flagicon|Fiji}} [[1943]]-[[08-15]] – [[1943]]-[[10-09]] [[Land Battle of Vella Lavella]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=20px}} [[1943]]-[[10-06]] [[Naval Battle of Vella Lavella]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} {{flagicon|Fiji}} [[1943]]-[[11-01]] – [[1945]]-[[08-21]] [[Battle of Bougainville]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[11-01]] – [[1943]]-[[11-02]] [[Battle of Empress Augusta Bay]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[11-26]] [[Battle of Cape St. George]]
'''[[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[11-20]] – [[1943]]-[[11-23]] [[Battle of Tarawa]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1943]]-[[11-20]] – [[1943]]-[[11-24]] [[Battle of Makin]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[01-31]] – [[1944]]-[[02-07]] [[Battle of Kwajalein]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[02-16]] – [[1944]]-[[02-17]] [[Operation Hailstone|Attack on Truk]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[02-16]] – [[1944]]-[[02-23]] [[Battle of Eniwetok]]
'''[[Bombing of South East Asia, 1944-45]]'''
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Operation Cockpit]] [[1944]]-[[04-19]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Operation Transom]] [[1944]]-[[05-17]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Operation Matterhorn]] [[1944]]-[[06-05]] – May 1945
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Operation Meridian]] [[1945]]-[[01-24]] – [[1945]]-[[01-29]]
'''[[Mariana and Palau Islands campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[06-15]] – [[1944]]-[[07-09]] [[Battle of Saipan]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[06-19]] – [[1944]]-[[06-20]] [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[07-21]] – [[1944]]-[[08-10]] [[Battle of Guam (1944)|Battle of Guam]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[07-24]] – [[1944]]-[[08-01]] [[Battle of Tinian]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[09-15]] – [[1944]]-[[11-25]] [[Battle of Peleliu]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[09-17]] – [[1944]]-[[09-30]] [[Battle of Angaur]]
'''[[Philippines campaign (1944-45)|Philippines campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[10-20]] – [[1944]]-[[12-10]] [[Battle of Leyte]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[10-24]] – [[1944]]-[[10-25]] [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[11-11]] – [[1944]]-[[12-21]] [[Battle of Ormoc Bay]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1944]]-[[12-15]] – [[1945]]-[[07-04]] [[Battle of Luzon]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[01-09]] [[Invasion of Lingayen Gulf]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[02-27]] – [[1945]]-[[07-04]] [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|Southern Philippines campaign]]
'''[[Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[02-16]] – [[1945]]-[[03-26]] [[Battle of Iwo Jima]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|Canada|1957}} {{flagicon|New Zealand}} {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[04-01]] – [[1945]]-[[06-21]] [[Battle of Okinawa]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[04-07]] [[Operation Ten-Go]]
'''[[Borneo campaign (1945)|Borneo campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|Netherlands}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[05-01]] – [[1945]]-[[05-25]] [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|Battle of Tarakan]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[1945]]-[[06-10]] – [[1945]]-[[06-15]] [[Battle of Brunei]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[1945]]-[[06-10]] – [[1945]]-[[06-22]] [[Battle of Labuan]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[1945]]-[[06-17]] – [[1945]]-[[08-15]] [[Battle of North Borneo]]
* {{flagicon|Australia}} {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[07-07]] – [[1945]]-[[07-21]] [[Battle of Balikpapan (1945)|Battle of Balikpapan]]
'''[[Japan campaign]]'''
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[07-22]] [[Battle of Tokyo Bay]]
* {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[1945]]-[[08-06]] – [[1945]]-[[08-09]] [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]
==See also==
{{portal|World War II|Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg}}
{{portal|War|Bluetank.png|35}}
{{Historyportal}}
*[[Operation Downfall]]
*[[Pacific Theater of Operations]]
*[[Second Sino-Japanese War]]
*[[Japanese war crimes]]
*[[Allied war crimes during World War II]]
*[[South-East Asian Theater of World War II|South-East Asian Theater]]
*[[Template:Timeline WWII - Pacific Theater|Timeline WW II — Pacific Theater]]
*[[Japanese holdout]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}
==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82355094 Eric M. Bergerud, ''Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific'' (2000)]
* Clay Blair, Jr. ''Silent Victory''. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975 (submarine war).
* Thomas Buell, ''Master of Seapower: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King'' Naval Institute Press, 1976.
* Thomas Buell, ''The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond Spruance''. 1974.
* John Costello, ''The Pacific War''. 1982.
* Wesley Craven, and James Cate, eds. ''The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942''. University of Chicago Press, 1958. Official history; Vol. 4, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944''. 1950; Vol. 5, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki''. 1953.
* Dunnigan, James F., and Albert A. Nofi. ''The Pacific War Encyclopedia.'' Facts on File, 1998. 2 vols. 772p.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94432774 Harry A. Gailey.' 'The War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay'' (1995)]
* Gordon, David M. "The China-Japan War, 1931-1945" ''Journal of Military History'' (Jan 2006) v 70#1, pp 137-82. Historiographical overview of major books
* Seki, Eiji. (2006). ''Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940.'' London: [[Global Oriental]]. 10-ISBN 1-905-24628-5; 13- ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) [reprinted by [[University of Hawaii Press]], Honolulu, 2007. [http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?db_name=uhpress&page=shop/flypage&product_id=4475&PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150c42ead previously announced as ''Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation''].
* Saburo Hayashi and Alvin Coox. ''Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War''. Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Assoc., 1959.
* James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945'' M. E. Sharpe, 1992
* Ch'i Hsi-sheng, ''Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945'' University of Michigan Press, 1982
* Rikihei Inoguchi, Tadashi Nakajima, and Robert Pineau. ''The Divine Wind''. Ballantine, 1958. Kamikaze.
* S. Woodburn Kirby, ''The War Against Japan''. 4 vols. London: H.M.S.O., 1957-1965. Official Royal Navy history.
* William M. Leary, ''We Shall Return: MacArthur's Commanders and the Defeat of Japan''. University Press of Kentucky, 1988.
* Gavin Long, ''Australia in the War of 1939–45'', Army. Vol. 7, The Final Campaigns. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1963.
* Dudley McCarthy, ''Australia in the War of 1939–45, Army. Vol. 5, South-West Pacific Area—First Year: Kokoda to Wau''. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1959.
* D. Clayton James, ''The Years of MacArthur''. Vol. 2. Houghton Mifflin, 1972.
* Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/Sp1941-42/index.htm ''Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1941–1942''], Center of Military History United States Army Washington, D. C., 1990
* {{cite book
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| first = Edward S.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897-1945
| publisher = US Naval Institute Press
| location =
| id = ISBN 1591145007
}}
* Samuel Eliot Morison, ''History of United States Naval Operations in World War II''. Vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific. Boston: Little, Brown, 1961; Vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions. 1949; Vol. 5, The Struggle for Guadalcanal. 1949; Vol. 6, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. 1950; Vol. 7, Aleutians, Gilberts, and Marshalls. 1951; Vol. 8, New Guinea and the Marianas. 1962; Vol. 12, Leyte. 1958; vol. 13, The Liberation of the Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas. 1959; Vol. 14, Victory in the Pacific. 1961.
* Masatake Okumiya, and Mitso Fuchida. ''Midway: The Battle That Doomed Japan''. Naval Institute Press, 1955.
* E. B. Potter, and Chester W. Nimitz. ''Triumph in the Pacific''. Prentice Hall, 1963. Naval battles
* E. B. Potter, ''Bull Halsey'' Naval Institute Press, 1985.
* E. B. Potter, ''Nimitz''. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1976.
* John D. Potter, ''Yamamoto'' 1967.
* Gordon W. Prange, Donald Goldstein, and Katherine Dillon. ''At Dawn We Slept''. Penguin, 1982. Pearl Harbor
* ——, ''et al.'' ''Miracle at Midway''. Penguin, 1982.
* ——, ''et al.'' ''Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History''.
* {{cite book
| last = Seki
| first = Eiji
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Sinking of the SS Automedon And the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation
| publisher = University of Hawaii Press
| location =
| id = ISBN 1905246285
}}
* Henry Shaw, and Douglas Kane. ''History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 2, Isolation of Rabaul''. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, 1963
* Henry Shaw, Bernard Nalty, and Edwin Turnbladh. ''History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 3, Central Pacific Drive.'' Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953.
* E.B. Sledge, ''[[With the Old Breed]]: At Peleliu and Okinawa.'' Presidio, 1981. Memoir.
* J. Douglas Smith, and Richard Jensen. ''World War II on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites''. (2002)
* Ronald Spector, ''Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan'' Free Press, 1985.
* John Toland, ''The Rising Sun''. 2 vols. Random House, 1970. Japan's war.
* H. P. Willmott. ''Empires in the Balance''. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1982.
* ——. ''The Barrier and the Javelin''. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1983.
* Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II,'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44317-2. (2005).
* William Y'Blood, ''Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the Philippine Sea''. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980.
*{{cite book
| last = Harries
| first = Meirion
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Susie Harries
| year = 1994
| chapter =
| title = Soldiers of the Sun : The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army
| publisher = [[Random House]]
| location = New York
| id = ISBN 0-679-75303-6
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Hayashi
| first = Saburo
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Alvin D. Cox
| year = 1959
| chapter =
| title = Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War
| publisher = The Marine Corps Association
| location = Quantico, VA
| id =
}}
</div>
==External links==
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.stratisc.org/Strategique_81_10.htm La politique de la sphère de coprospérité de la grande Asie orientale au Japon]
* [http://www.historyanimated.com/PWindex.html Animated History of the Pacific War]
* [http://wwii.ca/index.php?page=Page&action=showpage&id=32 Canada at the Pacific War] — Canadians in Asia & the Pacific
* [http://www.wtj.com/wars/pacific_war/ The Pacific War Series] – at The War Times Journal
{{World War II}}
[[Category:World War II Pacific Theatre| ]]
[[Category:Military history of Oceania]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[bg:Тихоокеанска война]]
[[ca:Guerra del Pacífic]]
[[cs:Válka v Tichomoří]]
[[da:Stillehavskrigen]]
[[de:Pazifikkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra del Pacífico (1937-1945)]]
[[eu:Ozeano Bareko Frontea Bigarren Mundu Gerran]]
[[fr:Campagnes du Pacifique]]
[[ko:태평양 전쟁]]
[[id:Perang Pasifik]]
[[it:Guerra del Pacifico (seconda guerra mondiale)]]
[[he:המערכה באסיה ובאוקיינוס השקט]]
[[lb:Pazifikkrich]]
[[lt:Antrasis pasaulinis karas Ramiajame vandenyne]]
[[nl:Azië in de Tweede Wereldoorlog]]
[[ja:太平洋戦争]]
[[no:Stillehavskrigen (Andre verdenskrig)]]
[[pl:Wojna na Pacyfiku]]
[[pt:Guerra do Pacífico]]
[[ro:Războiul din Pacific (al doilea război mondial)]]
[[ru:Тихоокеанский театр военных действий Второй мировой войны]]
[[sl:Vojna za Tihi ocean]]
[[fi:Tyynenmeren sota toisessa maailmansodassa]]
[[sv:Stillahavskriget]]
[[tl:Digmaang Pasipiko]]
[[ta:பசிபிக் போர்]]
[[th:สงครามมหาสมุทรแปซิฟิก]]
[[vi:Chiến tranh Thái Bình Dương]]
[[tr:Pasifik Cephesi (İkinci Dünya Savaşı)]]
[[uk:Війна на Тихому океані]]
[[zh:太平洋战争]]