Pain (philosophy) 477012 219483351 2008-06-15T13:12:41Z Lightbot 7178666 Units/dates/other '''Pain''' is often referred to in philosophical discussions concerning [[qualia]] and the fundamental nature of human experience. The meanings and consequences of pain have been a topic of writing by philosophers and [[theologians]] alike. The experience of pain is, due to its seeming universality, a very good portal through which to view various diverse aspects of human life. ==Historical views of pain== Two near contemporaries in the 18th and 19th centuries, [[Jeremy Bentham]] and the [[Marquis de Sade]] had very different views on these matters. Bentham saw pain and pleasure as objective phenomena, and defined [[utilitarianism]] on that principle. However the [[Marquis de Sade]] offered a wholly different view - which is that pain itself has an [[ethics]], and that pursuit of pain, or imposing it, may be just as useful and just as pleasurable, and that this indeed is the purpose of the [[state]] - to indulge the desire to inflict pain in [[revenge]], for instance, via the [[law]] (in his time most [[punishment]] was in fact the dealing out of pain). The 19th century view in Europe was that Bentham's view had to be promoted, de Sade's (which it found painful) suppressed so intensely that it - as de Sade predicted - became a pleasure in itself to indulge. The [[Victorian morality|Victorian culture]] is often cited as the best example of this [[hypocrisy]]. Various 20th century philosophers (viz. [[J.J.C. Smart]], [[David Kellogg Lewis]], [[D.M. Armstrong]]) have commented upon the meaning of pain and what it can tell us about the nature of human experiences. Pain has also been the subject of various [[Social philosophy|socio-philosophical]] treatises. [[Michel Foucault]], for example, observed that the biomedical model of pain, and the shift away from pain-inducing punishments, was part of a general [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] invention of Man. The idea of species-wide [[empathy]], he asserts, was created, in which the pain of the punished is itself a pain to the punisher{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. ==The individuality of pain== It is often accepted as [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] principle that one has inherent knowledge of one's own consciousness simply by virtue of dwelling within an "inner world" of the [[mind]]. This drastic distinction between inner world and outer world was most popularized by [[René Descartes]] when he solidified his principle of [[Cartesian dualism]]. From the centrality of one's own consciousness springs a fundamental [[problem of other minds]], the discussion of which has often centered around pain. ==Pain and meaning== The philosopher [[Nietzsche]] experienced long bouts of illness and pain in his life, and wrote much about the meaning of pain as it relates to the [[Meaning of life (philosophy)|meaning of life]] in general. Among his more famous quotes, are ones specifically related to pain: :"Did you ever say yes to a pleasure? :Oh my friends, then you also said yes to all pain. :All things are linked, entwined, in love with one another." :"What does not kill me, makes me stronger." ==Pain and theories of mind== The experience of pain has been used by various philosophers to analyze various types of [[philosophy of mind]]. [[David Kellogg Lewis|David Lewis]], in his article '[[Mad pain and Martian pain]]', gives examples of various types of pain to support his own flavor of [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]]. He defines mad pain to be pain which occurs in a madman who has somehow gotten his "wires crossed" in such a way such that what we usually call "pain" does not cause him to cry or roll in agony, but instead to, for example, become very concentrated and good at mathematics. [[Martian]] pain is, to him, pain which occupies the same [[causal]] role as our pain, but has a very different physical realization (eg the Martian feels pain due to the activation of an elaborate internal [[hydraulic]] system rather than, for example, the firing of [[C fiber|C-fibers]]). Both of these phenomena, Lewis claims, are pain, and must be accounted for in any coherent theory of mind. == See also == * [[Gate control theory of pain]] * [[Nociception]] * [[Pain]] * [[Perception]] * [[Suffering]] ==Further reading== *{{cite book | first=Nikola| last=Grahek| title=Feeling Pain and Being in Pain| year=2007 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-07283-0}} ==External links== *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pain/ Pain (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)] *[http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/maydede/pain/PainBib.htm Bibliography—Philosophy of Pain] *[http://www.philosophyonline.co.uk/pom/pom_behaviourism_wittgenstein.htm Wittgenstein's Beetle] - Philosophy Online [[Category:Pain]] [[Category:Philosophical terminology]] [[ja:痛み]]