Papermaking 142475 219289279 2008-06-14T14:30:14Z Iridescent 937705 Cleanup/[[WP:AWB/T|typo fixing]], typos fixed: transfered → transferred, folowing → following using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] [[Image:Jingangjing.gif|thumb|230px|right|The Diamond Sutra of the [[China|Chinese]] [[Tang Dynasty]], the oldest dated printed book in the world, found at [[Dunhuang]], from 868 AD.]] '''Papermaking''' is the process of making [[paper]], a material which is ubiquitous today for writing and packaging. '''Papermaking''', regardless of the scale on which it is done, involves making a dilute suspension of [[fiber]]s in water and allowing this suspension to drain through a screen such that a mat of randomly interwoven fibers is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibers by pressing and drying to make paper. Most paper is made from [[wood pulp]], but other fiber sources such as [[cotton]] and [[textile]]s may be used. The word "paper" derives from the Egyptian use of [[papyrus]]. [[Amate]] paper, resembling papyrus, was also invented independently by the [[Maya civilization|Mayas]] around the 5th century AD. True paper, made from pulped fibres, is traditionally ascribed to the [[China|Chinese]] court official [[Cai Lun]], at around 100AD. However, excavated examples of paper from China have been dated to the [[2nd century BC]]. Modern '''papermaking''' began in the early 1800s in Europe with the development of the [[Fourdrinier machine]], which produces a continuous roll of paper rather than individual sheets. These machines have become very large, up to 500&nbsp;feet (~150&nbsp;m) in length, producing a sheet 400&nbsp;inches (~10&nbsp;m) wide, and operating at speeds of over 60&nbsp;mph (100&nbsp;km/h).<ref name=metso>{{cite web|url=http://www.metsoautomation.com/News/newsdocuments.nsf/Web2NewsDoc/CAC7C79ED6B6E117C22572A00048448C?OpenDocument&ch=ChMetsoPaperWebEng&id=CAC7C79ED6B6E117C22572A00048448C&|title=Metso supplied SC paper machine line sets a new world speed record at Stora Enso Kvarnsveden|accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref> ==History== ===Papyrus=== The word ''paper'' derives from its mistaken identity by Greek-speaking scholars to the ancient [[Egypt]]ian writing material called papyrus, which was woven from [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus plants]]. The Egyptians invented papyrus around 3000 BC. It is made by crisscrossing thin sections of the papyrus reed, which grows in the [[delta]] of the [[Nile river]] and is held together by natural [[glue]]s within the reeds. Papyrus was smoothed on one side by rubbing it against a flat stone surface.<ref name=bier>{{cite book | last = Biermann | first = Christopher J. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking | publisher = Academic Press | date = 1993 | location = San Diego | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-12-097360-X}}</ref> A shortage of papyrus occurred because of the development of the great library of Alexandria, which pushed Attalus of Pergamum (who was building his own rival library) to search for substitute for papyrus.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ===Parchment=== Around 200 B.C. [[parchment]], the split skin of sheep or goat, was developed.<ref>''Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking'', Second Edition (Hardcover) by Christopher J. Biermann (Author). Page number 1. Hardcover: 754 pages. Publisher: Academic Press; 2 edition (July 22, 1996)</ref> Parchment, or [[vellum]], which is the best quality, has the great benefit over papyrus of extreme longevity, but was always expensive. The ancient world continued to use papyrus, thus accounting for much of the loss of classical literature, as outside the very dry conditions of Egypt it has a short life, but parchment became increasingly important, and by Late Antiquity had very largely superseded papyrus. ===True paper=== [[Image:Chinese hemp paper western han.jpg|thumb|Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC]] Papermaking has traditionally been traced to [[China]] about 105 AD, when [[Cai Lun]], an official attached to the Imperial court during the [[Han Dynasty]] ([[202 BC]]-[[220 AD]]), created a sheet of paper using [[mulberry]] and other [[bast]] fibres along with [[fishnets]], old rags, and [[hemp]] waste. <ref>papermaking. (2007). In: ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online</ref> However a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from near [[Dunhuang]] of paper with writing on it dating to 8 BC.<ref>World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter 11 August 2006 [http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/newsletters_11.php]</ref>, while paper used for wrapping and padding was used in [[China]] since the 2nd century BC.<ref name="needham volume 5 122">Needham, Volume 5, 122.</ref> Paper used as a writing medium became widespread by the 3rd century,<ref name="needham volume 5 1">Needham, Volume 5, 1.</ref> and by the 6th century sheets of paper in China were beginning to be used for [[toilet paper]] as well.<ref name="needham volume 5 123">Needham, Volume 5, 123.</ref> During the [[Tang Dynasty]] ([[618]]-[[907]] AD) paper was folded and sewn into square [[tea bag|bags]] to preserve the flavor of tea,<ref name="needham volume 5 122"/> while the later [[Song Dynasty]] ([[960]]-[[1279]] AD) was the first government on Earth to issue paper-printed money (see [[banknote]]). ===Diffusion of paper=== The technology was first transferred to [[Korea]] in [[600]] and then imported to [[Japan]] by a Buddhist priest, [[Dam Jing]] (曇徴) from [[Goguryeo]], around [[610]], where fibers (called ''[[Bast (biology)|bast]]'') from the [[mulberry]] tree were used. Printing seems to have been invented in Japan with 1000 prayers being made for temples in 760Ad from stone 'blocks' and the idea went back to China, where the widespread use of paper also enhanced the innovations of [[printing]] in with [[woodblock printing]] by at least the 9th century (see the ''[[Diamond Sutra]]'') and [[movable type]] printing first invented by [[Bi Sheng]] ([[990]]-[[1051]] AD) during the Song Dynasty. Water was the problem for papermakers in the dry western part of China, and in its slow travel westward reflects the experiments with different raw materials. Western paper was made from old clothes. In [[751]], the secret of papermaking reached [[Samarkand]], in [[Central Asia]], after papermakers were captured by the Arabs at the [[Battle of Talas]]. The method spread through the Arabic empire, and paper was first made in [[Baghdad]] during the time of [[Harun]] in [[793]]. <ref>papermaking. (2007). In: ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online</ref> The secret of paper and silk manufacture had by then diffused to [[Damascus]], and from there to the rest of the Muslim world, reaching India via Persia. It reached Western Europe via [[Islamic Spain]], with earliest Christian book, or document, on paper being the 11th century [[Mozarab]] [[Missal of Silos]], no doubt on Muslim-made paper. Production of paper moved to [[Italy]] in the [[13th century]]. They used [[hemp]] and [[linen]] rags as a source of fiber. Rags from old clothing, etc. were commonly bought by rag collectors and sold to paper makers. Bones were collected to make glue size to seal the paper with The use of paper became increasingly common during the fourteenth century, and is documented as being manufactured in both Italy and Germany by 1400. It then spread rapidly for letters, records, [[old master print]]s and [[popular prints]] and [[manuscript]] books. Prints were initially in [[woodcut]] , and from the 1430s in [[engraving]] also. [[Image:Gutenberg Bible.jpg|thumb|260px|A copy of the [[Gutenberg Bible]], in the U.S. [[Library of Congress]]]] But it was not until printing with movable type was invented, that rag paper became more popular. Parchment was not ideal for printing, being expensive and susceptible to humidity. Paper on the other hand was ideal. But as the demand for books rose, the supply of rags became more and more inadequate and other sources of fiber were actively sought. By the invention of [[movable type]] [[printing]] in [[Germany]] about 1450, paper was readily accessible, although still expensive. [[Vellum]] remained in use as well, and it was on this that the most expensive copies of the [[Gutenberg Bible]] were first printed. In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayas no later than the 5th century AD.<ref>[http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~tobin/maya/ The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization] Maya Codex and Paper Making</ref> Called [[Amate]], it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today. The [[Batak alphabet|Batak]]s, living in [[Sumatra]], sometimes use as writing material long strips of bamboo, welded by "beating" them together, then folded together, accordion-like, between wooden covers, and bound together with a string of woven rushes. Often long strips of the thin bark of trees -- such books being known as pustakas -- are used. <ref name=Diringer>David Diringer. ''The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval, and Oriental'' by David Diringer. Originally published in 1953 as: ''The Hand-Produced Book''. (London: Hutchinson). Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1982. ISBN 0486242439 (page 37). </ref> Specimens of writing on bark from [[India]] are preserved in the [[British Museum]]. The people of the [[Malabar coast]] also frequently wrote upon bark with a stylus.<ref name=Diringer/> Ancient books of the Bataks were written in ink on paper made of bark. The Lampong and Rendjang tribes, also inhabiting Sumatra, scratch their message and books on bamboo, tree bark, or certain kind of leaves. <ref name=Diringer/> ===Significance=== [[Image:Making Paper.gif|thumb|180px|Five major steps in ancient [[China|Chinese]] papermaking, outlined by [[Cai Lun]] in [[105 AD]].]] Some historians speculate that paper was the key element in global cultural advancement. According to this theory, [[Chinese culture]] was less developed than the West in early ancient times because [[bamboo]], while abundant, was a clumsier writing material than papyrus (although [[silk]] was used as a writing medium, yet was often too expensive). [[Chinese culture]] advanced during the [[Han Dynasty]] and preceding centuries due to the Chinese invention of paper; and Europe advanced during the [[Renaissance]] due to the introduction of paper and the [[printing press]]. In the very small quantities needed for [[popular prints]] , paper was affordable by the European urban working class and many peasants even in the 1400s, but books remained expensive until the nineteenth century. However even poor families could often afford a few by the 1700s in England, if they so chose. Paper remained relatively expensive, at least in book-sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with [[fibres]] from [[wood pulp]]. Although older machines predated it, the [[Fourdrinier Machine|Fourdrinier]] paper making machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. Together with the invention of the practical [[fountain pen]] and the mass produced [[pencil]] of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary [[printing press]], wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available to all the members of an industrial society by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became universal. The [[clerk]], or writer, ceased to be a high-status job, and by 1850 had nearly become an office worker or [[white-collar worker]] , which transformation can be considered as a part of the [[industrial revolution]]. The demand for paper has increased steadily. For example, in 1900, the U.S. papermaking industry produced approximately 5,000,000 tons of paper per year. A century later that industry produced over 90,000,000 tons of paper and paperboard per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tappi.org/paperu/all_about_paper/paperClips.htm|title= Paper Clips: Online Slide Show|publisher =[[TAPPI]]| accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref> Predictions that electronic storage of data would lead to a decline in the demand for paper have not been realized. It has been estimated that by 2020 paper mills will produce almost 500,000,000 tons of paper and paperboard per year <ref> {{cite web|url=http://seekingalpha.com/article/55553-kadant-inc-pulp-and-papermaking-non-fiction|title=Pulp (and Papermaking) Non-Fiction |publisher=Kadant Inc|accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref> ==Method== '''Papermaking''', regardless of the scale on which it is done, involves making a dilute suspension of [[fiber]]s in water and allowing this suspension to drain through a screen such that a mat of randomly interwoven fibers is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibers by pressing and drying to make paper. ===Manual preparation=== [[Image:Monselice z22.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The art of papermaking. Medieval festival at [[Monselice]].]] Fibers are suspended in water to form a slurry in a large vat. The mold is a wire screen in a wooden frame (somewhat similar to an old window screen), which is used to scoop some of the slurry out of the vat. The slurry in the screen mold is sloshed around the mold until it forms a uniform thin coating. The fibers are allowed to settle and the water to drain. When the fibers have stabilized in place but are still damp, they are turned out onto a felt sheet which was generally made of an animal product such as wool or rabbit fur, and the screen mold immediately reused. Layers of paper and felt build up in a pile (called a 'post') then a weight is placed on top to press out excess water and keep the paper fibers flat and tight. The sheets are then removed from the post and hung or laid out to dry. A step-by-step procedure for making paper with readily available materials can be found online.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tappi.org/paperu/art_class/makingPaper.htm|title=Making Paper By Hand|publisher=[[TAPPI]]|accessdate=2008-04-16}}</ref> When the paper pages are dry, they are frequently run between rollers ([[calender]]ed) to produce a harder writing surface. Papers may be [[sizing|sized]] with [[gelatin]] or similar to bind the fibres into the sheet. Papers are made of different surfaces depending on their intended purpose. Paper intended for printing or writing with ink is fairly hard, while paper to be used for water color, for instance, are heavily sized, can be fairly soft. The wooden frame is called a "deckle." The wooden frame or deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavy, called "deckle edges", one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury. The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, unusually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the other wires together are called "chain lines." [[Watermark]]s are created by weaving a name into the wires in the mould. This is essentially true of Oriental moulds made of other substances, such as bamboo. Hand-made paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines. ====Laboratory-made paper==== Hand-made paper is also prepared in laboratories studying papermaking and in [[paper mill]] quality labs. The "handsheets" made according to [[TAPPI]] Standard T 205<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tappi.org/s_tappi/doc_bookstore.asp?CID=7370&DID=519870|title=Forming Handsheets for Physical Tests of Pulp, Test Method|publisher= [[TAPPI]]|accessdate=2008-04-15}}</ref> are circular sheets 15.9 cm (6.25 in) in diameter and are used to measure paper brightness, strength, degree of [[sizing]] and so on.<ref name=bier/> ===Industrial papermaking=== [[Image:Papermaking2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Paper pulp in process How to make paper]] The following section is a simple overview of a complex industrial process. There are variants of the basic equipment and processes which are best described in numerous books on papermaking.<ref name=bier/><ref name=clark>{{cite book | last = Clark | first = James d'A | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pulp Technology and Treatment for Paper | publisher =Miller Freeman | date = 1985 | location = San Francisco | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-87930-164-3}}</ref> A modern paper mill is divided into several sections, roughly corresponding to the process involven in making hand-made paper. Pulp is refined and mixed in water with other additives to make a pulp slurry, the headbox distributes the slurry onto a moving, continuous screen, water drains from the slurry (by gravity or under vacuum), the wet paper sheet goes through presses and driers and is finally rolled into large rolls, often weighing several tonnes. ====Refining==== The fibers in the pulp must be separated and made pliable. This process is known as "beating" and is usually accomplished by passing the fibers between a rotating drum and a fixed plate. Ideally the fibers are not shortened or broken during beating. Beating fibrillates or "roughens' the surface of the fibers so that the fiber surface becomes frayed. This helps in bonding the fibers when the paper sheet is formed. One measure of how well a pulp has been beaten is how quickly water drains from a pulp slurry. A well beaten pulp will retain water longer and remain in suspension to allow good sheet formation. ====Wet end chemistry==== After the pulp has been beaten various additives are introduced to the slurry to give the paper desired properties. Internal sizing agents like alkylketene dimer (AKD) or alkylsuccinic anhydride (ASA) are added to control the hydrophobicity of the paper to control how much water the paper will absorb. For example toilet paper needs to absorb water quickly, printing paper needs carefully controlled uptake so that water-based inks can be used and paper used for disposable paper cups must be very resistant to water uptake. Fillers such as [[clay]], [[talc]], [[calcium carbonate]] and [[titanium dioxide]] are added to increase the opacity of the paper. Materials to increase the strength of the paper when it is wet, dyes, and so on are also added to the pulp slurry. It was common practice to add [[alum]] to the pulp slurry to assist in paper sizing with [[rosin]]. One side effect of the use of alum was to make the paper slightly acidic. Acidic paper degades faster than in a process known as [[slow fires]]. ====Headbox==== The pulp slurry prepared in the wet end contains between 0.1 and 1% pulp fibers by weight.<ref name=paperonline>{{cite web|url=http://www.paperonline.org/cycle/paperboard/paperboard_frame.html|title=Paper and board: The production process|publisher=PaperOnLine|accessdate=2008-06-07}}</ref> The slurry passes through a slit 2-6 mm wide and is spread onto a moving mesh belt called the "wire" which is the full width of the paper machine. The key function of the headbox is to distribute the slurry very uniformly and consistently across its full width. ====The wire==== The following description is for one type of papermachine called a single wire machine. Other configurations such as twin wire are also used. The wire is a continuous mesh belt, usually made of woven metal wire. The speed of the papermachine, currently up to 60&nbsp;mph (100&nbsp;km/h),<ref name=metso/> is governed by the speed at which the wire moves. Water drains from the pulp slurry through the open mesh of the wire, either by gravity or under a slight vacuum leaving a wet mat or web of pulp fibers. At the end of the wire section the wet web of fibers has lost enough water so that it can be transferred from the wire into the next section of the paper machine. This is accomplished by the couch (pronounced "cooch") roll.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www4.ncsu.edu/~hubbe/EqipUnit/Couch.htm|title=Mini-Encyclopedia of Papermaking Wet-End Chemistry:Couch|publisher=North Carolina State University|accessdate=2008-06-07}}</ref> Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Both rag and woodpulp paper will develop tan spots called "foxing" caused by impurities or fungi reacting with humidity. The majority of modern book publishers now use [[acid-free paper]]. Modern newspapers are commonly printed on cheaper high-acid paper which turns tan and disintegrates rather rapidly, especially in the presence of strong light and humidity. Woodfree paper most often made from cellulose fibre extracted from wood in a chemical pulping process that removes the lignin. This results in a more stable paper, similar to rag paper. Archival paper is lignin-free and [[acid]]-free (between [[pH]]&nbsp;6.0 and 8 is considered acid-free, between pH 7.1 and 8.0 is called alkaline buffered, this delays the gradual deterioration of the sheet). ==Paper sizes== [[Image:Paper sheet.jpg|right|150px|thumb|A blank sheet of paper]] {{seealso|bookbinding}} In the beginning of Western papermaking, the paper size was fairly standard. A page of paper is referred to as a "leaf." When a leaf was printed on without being folded, the size was referred to as "folio." It was roughly equal to the size of a newspaper sheet. When it was folded once, it produced four sides or pages, and the size of the pages or a book made of such pages was referred to as "quarto" (4to). If the original sheet was folded in half again, the result was eight sides, referred to as "octavo" (8vo), which is the size that most books, such as the average novel, used to this day. An "octavo" folding produces four leaves, the first two and the second two will be joined at the top by the second fold. The top edge is usually "trimmed" to make it possible to look freely at each side of the leaf. However, many books are found that have not been trimmed on the top, and these pages are referred to as "unopened." Many people reading "unopened" books will use their finger, a pencil, or some other inadequate instrument to rip open the top of the pages, leaving an irregular tear. A letter opener or a knife carefully used is a more appropriate tool. An octavo book produces a printing puzzle. Pieces of paper are printed when they are folio size. To provide for the proper alignment of numbered pages, pages 8 and 1 are printed right-side-up on the bottom of the sheet, and pages 4 and 5 are printed up-side-down on the top of the same sheet. On the opposite side, pages 2 and 7 are printed right-side-up on the bottom of the sheet, and pages 6 and 3 are printed up-side-down on the top of the sheet. When the paper is folded twice and the folds trimmed, the pages fall into proper order. Smaller books are produced by folding the leaves again to produce 16 pages, known as a "sixteen-mo" (16mo). Other folding arrangements produce yet smaller books such as the thirty-two-mo (32mo). When a standard-sized octavo book is produced by a large leaf folded two times, two leaves joined at the top will be contained in the resulting fold (which ends up in the gulley between the pages). This group of 8 numberable pages is called a "signature" or a "gathering." Traditionally, printed signatures were stacked on top of each other in a "sewing frame" and each signature was sewn through the inner fold to the signature on top of it. The sewing ran around leather bands or fabric tapes along the backs of the signatures to stabilize the growing pile of signatures. The leather bands originally used in the West to stabilize the backs of sewn books appear as a number of ridges under the leather on the spine of leather books. The ends of the leather strips or fabric bands were sewn or glued onto the cover boards and reinforced the hinging of the book in its covers. ===Vatmen Paper=== ''Vatmen Paper'' was a type of paper made in [[The Netherlands]] that was 17 inches wide and 44 inches long. 44 inches was (reputedly) chosen because that is how far the papermaker could stretch his arm.{cite} The reason for 17 inches is unknown. A single vatman can generally handle a mould and deckle which produce up to a 25" wide sheet.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} ==See also== * [[Bleaching of wood pulp]] * [[Bookbinding]] * [[Kraft process]] * [[Paper]] * [[Printing]] * [[Movable type]] * [[Woodblock printing]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. * Cropper, Mark (2004). ''The Leaves We Write On''. London: Ellergreen Press * Westerlund, Leslie C "Science and Practice of Handmade Paper" ISBN 1876141-131: 2004 * Westerlund Leslie C. "How to Make a Papermaking Hydropulper" ISBN 1876141-441: 2007 * Westerlund Leslie C. "How to Make a Papermaking Press" ISBN 1876141-44X: 2007 * Westerlund Leslie C. "Dictionary of Papermaking" ISBN 1876141-247: 2005 [[Category:Papermaking| ]] [[Category:book arts]] [[ru:Целлюлозно-бумажное производство]] [[zh:造纸术]]