Paradigm shift
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/* See also */ I realize Liquid Tension Experiment wrote a song called Paradigm Shift, but that's not relevant to THIS article
'''''Paradigm shift''''', sometimes known as '''extraordinary science''' or '''revolutionary science''', is the term first used by [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]] in his influential [[1962]] book ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' to describe
a change in basic assumptions within the ruling [[theory]] of [[science]]. It is in contrast to his idea of [[normal science]].
It has since become widely applied to many other realms of human experience as well even though Kuhn himself restricted the use of the term to the hard sciences. According to Kuhn, "A paradigm is what members of a scientific community, and they alone, share.” (The Essential Tension, 1997). Unlike a normal scientist, Kuhn held, “a student in the humanities has constantly before him a number of competing and incommensurable solutions to these problems, solutions that he must ultimately examine for himself.” (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions). A scientist, however, once a paradigm shift is complete, is not allowed the luxury, for example, of positing the possibility that [[Miasma theory of disease|miasma]] causes the flu or that [[Aether (classical element)|ether]] carries light in the same way that a critic in the Humanities can choose to adopt a 19th century theory of poetics, for instance, or select Marxism as an explanation of economic behaviour. Thus, paradigms, in the sense that Kuhn used them, do not exist in Humanities or social sciences. Nonetheless, the term has been adopted since the 1960s and applied in non-scientific contexts.
==Kuhnian paradigm shifts==
[[Image:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Kuhn used the duck-rabbit [[optical illusion]] to demonstrate the way in which a paradigm shift could cause one to see the same information in an entirely different way.]]
An [[epistemology|epistemological]] '''paradigm shift''' was called a [[scientific revolution]] by epistemologist and [[history of science|historian of science]] [[Thomas Kuhn]] in his book ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]''.
A scientific revolution occurs, according to Kuhn, when scientists encounter anomalies which cannot be explained by the universally accepted [[paradigm]] within which scientific progress has thereto been made. The paradigm, in Kuhn's view, is not simply the current theory, but the entire [[worldview]] in which it exists, and all of the implications which come with it. There are anomalies for all paradigms, Kuhn maintained, that are brushed away as acceptable levels of error, or simply ignored and not dealt with (a principal argument Kuhn uses to reject [[Karl Popper]]'s model of [[falsifiability]] as the key force involved in scientific change). Rather, according to Kuhn, anomalies have various levels of significance to the practitioners of science at the time. To put it in the context of early 20th century physics, some scientists found the problems with calculating Mercury's [[perihelion]] more troubling than the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]] results, and some the other way around. Kuhn's model of scientific change differs here, and in many places, from that of the [[logical positivists]] in that it puts an enhanced emphasis on the individual humans involved as scientists, rather than abstracting science into a purely logical or philosophical venture.
When enough significant anomalies have accrued against a current paradigm, the scientific discipline is thrown into a state of ''crisis,'' according to Kuhn. During this crisis, new ideas, perhaps ones previously discarded, are tried. Eventually a ''new'' paradigm is formed, which gains its own new followers, and an intellectual "battle" takes place between the followers of the new paradigm and the hold-outs of the old paradigm. Again, for early 20th century physics, the transition between the [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwellian]] [[Maxwell's equations|electromagnetic worldview]] and the [[Albert Einstein|Einsteinian]] [[theory of relativity|Relativistic]] worldview was not instantaneous nor calm, and instead involved a protracted set of "attacks," both with empirical data as well as rhetorical or philosophical arguments, by both sides, with the Einsteinian theory winning out in the long-run. Again, the weighing of evidence and importance of new data was fit through the human sieve: some scientists found the simplicity of Einstein's equations to be most compelling, while some found them more complicated than the notion of Maxwell's aether which they banished. Some found [[Arthur Eddington|Eddington's]] photographs of light bending around the sun to be compelling, some questioned their accuracy and meaning. Sometimes the convincing force is just time itself and the human toll it takes, Kuhn said, using a quote from [[Max Planck]]: "a new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it."
After a given discipline has changed from one paradigm to another, this is called, in Kuhn's terminology, a ''scientific revolution'' or a ''paradigm shift''. It is often this final conclusion, the result of the long process, that is meant when the term ''paradigm shift'' is used colloquially: simply the (often radical) change of worldview, without reference to the specificities of Kuhn's historical argument.
==Science and paradigm shift==
A common misinterpretation of paradigms is the belief that the discovery of paradigm shifts and the dynamic nature of science (with its many opportunities for subjective judgments by scientists) is a case for [[relativism]]: the view that all kinds of belief systems are equal, such that [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[religion|religious concepts]] or [[pseudoscience]] would be of equal working value to true [[science]]. {{Fact|date=April 2008}} Kuhn vehemently denies this interpretation and states that when a scientific paradigm is replaced by a new one, albeit through a complex social process, the new one is ''always better'', not just different.
These claims of relativism are, however, tied to another claim that Kuhn does at least somewhat endorse: that the language and theories of different paradigms cannot be translated into one another or rationally evaluated against one another — that they are ''incommensurable''. This gave rise to much talk of different peoples and cultures having radically different worldviews or conceptual schemes — so different that whether or not one was better, they could not be understood by one another. However, the [[philosopher]] [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]] published a highly regarded essay in 1974, "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme," arguing that the notion that any languages or theories could be incommensurable with one another was itself incoherent. If this is correct, Kuhn's claims must be taken in a weaker sense than they often are. Furthermore, the hold of the Kuhnian analysis on [[social science]] has long been tenuous with the wide application of multi-paradigmatic approaches in order to understand complex human behaviour (see for example John Hassard, ''Sociology and Organisation Theory. Positivism, Paradigm and Postmodernity''. Cambridge University Press. 1993.)
Paradigm shifts tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at the end of the 19th century. At that time, physics seemed to be a discipline filling in the last few details of a largely worked-out system. In 1900, Lord Kelvin famously stated, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement." Five years later, Albert Einstein published his paper on special relativity, which challenged the very simple set of rules laid down by Newtonian mechanics, which had been used to describe force and motion for over three hundred years. In this case, the new paradigm reduces the old to a special case (Newtonian mechanics is an excellent approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light).
In ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'', Kuhn wrote, "Successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science." (p.12) Kuhn's idea was itself revolutionary in its time, as it caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science. Thus, it could be argued that it caused or was itself part of a "paradigm shift" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognise such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss the history of science.
Philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model is now generally seen as too limited.
== Examples of paradigm shifts in science ==
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Some of the "classical cases" of Kuhnian paradigm shifts in science are:
* The shift from [[Geocentric model]] to [[Heliocentric model]] in [[astronomy]].
* The shift from [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwellian]] [[Electromagnetism]] to [[Albert Einstein|Einsteinian]] [[Theory of relativity|Relativity]] in [[physics]].
* The shift from [[Classical mechanics]] to [[Quantum mechanics]] in physics.
* The acceptance of [[Plate tectonics]] as the explanation for large-scale geologic changes.
==Examples of paradigm shifts in complex systems and organizations==
* The English [[monarchy]] with the signing of [[Magna Carta]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
* The "[[Cambrian explosion|explosion of life]]" marking the beginning of the [[Cambrian]] period.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
* Society with the invention of any of several innovations ([[Fire#Controlling_fire|fire]], the [[wheel]], [[gunpowder]], the [[Integrated circuit|microchip]], etc.).{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
* Warfare with the development of the [[military aviation|airplane]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
*Communication after the invention of the World Wide Web. {{Fact|date=June 2008}}
==As marketing speak==
In the later part of the 1990s, 'paradigm shift' emerged as a [[buzzword]], popularized as [[marketing speak]] and appearing more frequently in print and publication.<ref>
Robert Fulford, Globe and Mail (June 5, 1999). 'http://www.robertfulford.com/Paradigm.html' Retrieved on 2008-04-25.</ref> In his book, ''Mind The Gaffe'', author [[Larry Trask]] advises readers to refrain from using it, and to use caution when reading anything that contains the phrase. It is referred to in several articles and books<ref name="cnet">[http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6275610-1.html Cnet.com's Top 10 Buzzwords]</ref><ref name="Complete Idiot's Guide to A Smart Vocabulary">[http://www.mcfedries.com/vocabulary/intro.asp "The Complete Idiot's Guide to a Smart Vocabulary" p142-143, author: Paul McFedries publisher: Alpha; 1st edition (May 7, 2001), ISBN-13: 978-0028639970]</ref> as abused and overused to the point of becoming meaningless.
==Other uses==
The term "paradigm shift" has found uses in other contexts, representing the notion of a major change in a certain thought-pattern — a radical change in personal beliefs, complex systems or organizations, replacing the former way of thinking or organizing with a radically different way of thinking or organizing:
* Handa, M. L., a professor of sociology in education at O.S.E. [[University of Toronto]], [[Canada]], developed the concept of a paradigm within the context of social sciences. He defines what he means by "paradigm" and introduces the idea of a "social paradigm". In addition, he identifies the basic component of any social paradigm. Like Kuhn, he addresses the issue of changing paradigms, the process popularly known as "paradigm shift." In this respect, he focuses on the social circumstances which precipitate such a shift. Relatedly, he addresses how that shift affects social institutions, including the institution of education.
*The concept has been developed in economics ([[Giovanni Dosi]]) in the identification of new techno-economic paradigms as changes in technological systems that have a major influence on the behaviour of the entire economy. This concept is linked to [[Schumpeter]]'s idea of "creative gales of destruction". Examples include the move to mass production, and the introduction of microelectronics.
*The mainstream availability in the U.S. of the female [[birth control]] pills in the 1960s, combined with effective new treatments for venereal diseases, led to the [[Sexual Revolution]] that accompanied many other shifts in attitudes and ideas during that period.
*A widely distributed picture of the Earth entitled "[[Earthrise]]" taken from the moon by astronauts is thought by some to have deeply affected the consciousness of humanity in helping to usher in the [[environmentalist]] movement which gained great prominence in the years immediately following distribution of that image.
* [[Margaret Mead]], noted anthropologist, shows a flashlight to the indigenous [[New Guinea]] people.
* Development of new techniques in [[genetics]] impact long-standing assumptions in [[anthropology]].
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Cognitive bias]]
* [[Confirmation bias]]
* [[Cultural bias]]
* [[Disruptive technology]]
* [[Gaston Bachelard]]
* [[Don Tapscott]] -- author of "Paradigm Shift"
* [[Infrastructure bias]]
* [[Innovation]]
* [[Inquiry]]
* [[Kondratiev wave]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Accelerating change]]
* [[Mindset]]
* [[Notational bias]]
* [[Weltanschauung]]
* [[Natural science]]
* [[Human history]]
{{col-end}}
==External links==
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/6-933JThe-Structure-of-Engineering-RevolutionsFall2001/CourseHome/index.htm MIT 6.933J - The Structure of Engineering Revolutions]. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhnian]] lens.
*[http://www.niquette.com/puzzles/housenp.htm] From Puzzles with a Purpose, A [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhnian]] illustration of a worrisome implication for technology.
== Footnotes ==
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[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Historiography of science]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]
[[Category:Theories of history]]
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