Parchment 23336 219483949 2008-06-15T13:16:31Z Lightbot 7178666 Units/dates/other <!--This article is in Commonwealth English--> [[Image:Parchment from goatskin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Central European (Northern) type of finished parchment made of [[goatskin (material)|goatskin]] stretched on a wooden frame]] [[Image:Permennter-1568.png|thumb|250px|German parchmenter, 1568]] '''Parchment''' is a thin material made from [[calfskin]], [[sheepskin]] or [[Goatskin (material)|goatskin]]. Its most common use is as the pages of a [[book]], [[codex]] or [[manuscript]]. It is distinct from [[leather]] in that parchment is not tanned, but stretched, scraped, and dried under tension, creating a stiff white, yellowish or translucent animal skin. The finer qualities of parchment are called [[vellum]]. It is very reactive with changes in [[relative humidity]] and is not waterproof. '''Plant-based parchment''' is used in baking and other applications as a substitute for animal parchment. ==History== According to the Roman [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], [[Pliny's Natural History]] records (xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes of [[Pergamum]],<ref>Either [[Eumenes I]] — who ruled 263–241 BC — or [[Eumenes II]] — who ruled 197–158).</ref> as a substitute for [[papyrus]], which was temporarily not being exported from Alexandria, its only source. [[Image:Torah and jad.jpg|thumb|left|A ''Sefer [[Torah]]'', the traditional form of the [[Hebrew Bible]], is a scroll of parchment.]] [[Herodotus]] mentions writing on skins as common in his time, the 5th century BC; and in his ''Histories'' (v.58) he states that the Ionians of Asia Minor had been accustomed to give the name of ''skins'' — ''diphtherai'' — to books; this word was adapted by Hellenized Jews to describe scrolls [http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/parchmen.html]. Parchment (''pergamenum'' in Latin), however, is named after the city where it was perfected. In the 2nd century B.C. a great library was set up in [[Pergamon]] that rivaled the famous [[Library of Alexandria]]. As prices rose for papyrus and the reed used for making it was overharvested towards local extinction in the two [[Nome (Egypt)|nomes]] of the [[Nile delta]] that produced it, Pergamon adapted by increasing use of parchment. Writing on prepared animal skins had a long history, however. Some Egyptian [[Old Kingdom|Fourth Dynasty]] texts were written on parchment. Though the Assyrians and the Babylonians impressed their cuneiform on clay tablets, they also wrote on parchment from the 6th century BC onward. Rabbinic culture equated a "book" with a parchment scroll. Early Islamic texts are also found on parchment. One sort of parchment is [[vellum parchment|vellum]], a word that is used loosely to mean parchment, and especially to mean fine parchment, but more strictly refers to parchment made from calf skin (although goat skin can be as fine in quality). The words "vellum" and "[[veal]]" come from Latin ''vitulus'', "calf", or its [[diminutive]] ''vitellus''. In the [[Middle Ages]] calfskin and split [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] were the most common materials for making parchment in [[England]] and [[France]], while goatskin was more common in [[Italy]]. Other skins such as those from large animals such as horse and smaller animals such as squirrel and rabbit were also used. Whether uterine vellum (vellum made from aborted calf fetuses) was ever really used during the medieval period is still a matter of great controversy. [[Image:1638vellumlarge.jpg|thumb|left|An English [[deed]] written on fine parchment or [[vellum]] with [[seal (device)|seal]] tag dated 1638.]] There was a short period during the introduction of printing where parchment and paper were used interchangeably: although most copies of the [[Gutenberg Bible]] are on paper, some were printed on parchment. In 1490, [[Johannes Trithemius]] preferred the older methods, because "handwriting placed on parchment will be able to endure a thousand years. But how long will printing last, which is dependent on paper? For if ...it lasts for two hundred years that is a long time." <ref> as quoted in David McKitterick, ''Print, Manuscript, and the Search for Order'' Cambridge University Press, 2003</ref> The heyday of parchment use was during the medieval period, but there has been a growing revival of its use among contemporary artists since the late 20th century. Although parchment never stopped being used (primarily for governmental documents and diplomas) it had ceased to be a primary choice for artist’s supports by the end of 15th century [[Renaissance]]. This was partly due to its expense and partly due to its unusual working properties. Parchment consists mostly of collagen. When the water in paint media touches parchment’s surface, the collagen melts slightly, forming a raised bed for the paint, a quality highly prized by some artists. Parchment is also extremely affected by its environment and changes in humidity, which can cause buckling. Some contemporary artists also prize this quality, noting that the parchment seems alive and like an active participant in making artwork. To support the needs of the revival of use by artists, a revival in the art of making individual skins is also underway. Handmade skins are usually better prepared for artists and have fewer oily spots which can cause long-term cracking of paint than mass-produced parchment. Mass-produced parchment is usually made for lamp shades, furniture, or other interior design purposes.<ref>For examples of contemporary artists using parchment see: *[http://www.manuscriptarts.net/sybil.htm Contemporary Illumination] *[http://www.saintjohnsbible.org The St. John's Bible], *[http://www.calligraphyonline.org/SSI%20Exhibitions/Words%20as%20Images/info.html More Contemporary Illumination]. For an example of a contemporary parchment maker see: *[http://www.pergamena.net Parchmenter].</ref> The [[radiocarbon dating]] techniques that are used on papyrus can be applied to parchment as well. They do not date the age of the writing but the preparation of the parchment itself. However, radiocarbon dating can often be used on the inks that make up the writing, since many of them contain organic compounds such as plant leachings, soot, and wine. == Manufacture == The first step in creating parchment was to wet or soak the recently [[flayed]] skin in water to remove the blood and dung and to allow easier penetration of the dehairing liquor.<ref name='reed75'>Reed, 1975.</ref> In early days the liquor bath was fermented vegetable matter but by the [[Middle Ages]] a lime bath was used to soften the epidermal layer thus allowing the hair to be removed more easily. It is possible that urine was sometimes used as a lime alternative. The liquor bath would have been in wooden or stone vats and the hides stirred with a long wooden pole to avoid getting the lime on human skin. The skins would stay in the bath for 8 or more days (longer in winter) being stirred two or three times a day. After being rinsed the skins would be given a second lime bath but care would be taken to not leave the skins in too long or they would be weakened and not able to stand the stretching required for parchment.<ref name='reed75'/> The stretching allowed the fibres to become aligned running parallel to the grain. Cords were attached and the skin was stretched on a wooden frame with both sides open so they could be scraped with a sharp, curved knife to remove the last of the hair and get the skin to the right thickness. The skins, which were made almost entirely of [[collagen]], would form a natural glue while drying and once taken off the frame they would keep their form. == Parchment treatments == To make the parchment more aesthetically pleasing or more suitable for the [[scribe]]s, special treatments were used. According to Reed there were a variety of these treatments. Rubbing [[pumice]] powder into the flesh side of parchment while it was still wet on the frame was used to make it smooth so inks would penetrate deep into the fibres. Powders and pastes of calcium compounds were also used to help remove grease so the ink would not run. To make the parchment smooth and white, thin pastes (starchgrain) of lime, flour, egg whites and milk were rubbed into the skins. Meliora di Curci in her paper "The History and Technology of Parchment Making" notes that parchment was not always white. "[[Cennino Cennini|Cennini]], a 15th century craftsman provides recipes to tint parchment a variety of colours including purple, indigo, green, red and peach." The Early medieval [[Codex Argenteus]] and [[Codex Vercellensis]], the [[Stockholm Codex Aureus]] and the [[Codex Brixianus]] give a range of luxuriously produced manuscripts all on purple vellum, in imitation of Byzantine examples, like the [[Rossano Gospels]], [[Sinope Gospels]] and the [[Vienna Genesis]], which at least at one time are believed to have been reserved for Imperial commissions. ===Reuse=== :''Main article [[Palimpsest]]''. During the seventh through the ninth centuries, many earlier parchment manuscripts were scrubbed and scoured to be ready for rewriting, and often the earlier writing can still be read. These "recycled" parchments are called [[palimpsest]]s. Later, more thorough techniques of scouring the surface irretrievably lost the earlier text. ===Alternatives to Parchment=== :''Main article [[Gevil]]''. The way in which parchment was processed (from hide to parchment) has undergone a tremendous evolution based on time and location. Parchment and vellum are not the sole methods of preparing animal skins for writing. In the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] ([[Bava Batra]] 14B) Moses writes the first Torah Scroll on the unsplit cow-hide called ''[[gevil]]''. :''Main article [[paper]]''. In the later [[Middle Ages]] European parchment in turn was largely replaced by [[paper]], a Chinese invention that was being manufactured in Moorish [[Andalusia]] in the eleventh century. Paper became particularly important with the advent of [[printing]] in the later fifteenth century, since the demands of printers would have outstripped the supply of animal skins for parchment. Parchment is still the only medium used by [[religious]] [[Jews]] for [[Sefer Torah|Torah]] [[scrolls]] or [[Tefilin]] and [[Mezuzah]]s, and is produced by large companies in [[Israel]]. For those uses, only hides of [[kosher]] animals are permitted. Since there are many requirements for it being fit for the religious use, the liming is usually processed under supervision of a qualified [[Rabbi]].<ref>[http://www.ccdesigninc.com/MishmeresStam/Leaflet.pdf Information Leaflet by Vaad Mishmereth Staam].</ref> ===Additional uses of the term=== In some universities, the word parchment is still used to refer to the certificate (scroll) presented at graduation ceremonies, even though the modern document is printed on paper or thin card; although doctoral graduands may be given the option of having their scroll written by a calligrapher on vellum. The [[University of Notre Dame]] still uses animal parchment for its diplomas. ==Plant-based parchment== '''Vegetable (paper) parchment''' is made by [[silicone]] treatment of high density paper. This produces a cross-linked material with high density, stability and heat resistance. Applications include cooking and baking (cooking parchment, baking parchment). To avoid sticking to foods, silicone and other coatings can be applied to parchment. A common use is to eliminate the need to grease [[Cookware and bakeware|baking sheets]] and the like, allowing very rapid turn-around of batches of cookies in a commercial bakery. It can also be folded to make moisture-proof packages in which food items are cooked or steamed [[En papillote]]. Standard grease-proof or [[wax paper]] does not have the properties of parchment and will burn in most cooking applications. ==See also== *[[Manuscript culture]] *[[diploma]] *[[palimpsest]] *[[paper]] *[[Parchment repair]] *[[Klaf]] *[[Gevil]] *[[Duchsustus]] ==Notes== <references/> == References == * di Curci, Meliora. (2003) The History and Technology of Parchment Making. http://www.sca.org.au/scribe/articles/parchment.htm * Hasewint, Inden W. (2001) Tor Parchment Prepared According to Mediaeval Recipes. http://dedas.com/parchment/uk/recipe.html * Reed, Ronald. (1975). The Nature and Making of Parchment. Leeds, England: Elmete Press ==Further reading== * Dougherty, Raymond P., 1928." Writing upon parchment and papyrus among the Babylonians and the Assyrians," in ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' 48, pp 109–135. * Ryder, Michael L., 1964. ''Parchment: its history, manufacture and composition''. * Reed, R. 1972. ''Ancient Skins, Parchments, and Leathers.'' Seminar Press. ISBN 0-12-903550-5 == External links == {{commonscat|Parchments}} {{commons|Parchment|Parchment}} *[http://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/parchment.html Central European University, Materials and Techniques of Manuscript Production: Parchment]: medieval technique *[http://classes.bnf.fr/phebus/explo/index3b.htm On-line demonstration of the preparation of vellum from the BNF, Paris. Text in French, but mostly visual.] * [http://www.leavesofgold.org/learn/children/how_made/parchmenter.html Leaves of gold] *[http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/parchmen.html Meir Bar-Ilan, "Parchment"] *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Liber.html Lacus Curtius Website: Liber]: Roman book production *[http://www.unesco.org/webworld/ramp/html/r8817e/r8817e08.htm UNESCO:] Parchment: production and conservation *[http://www.dedas.com/parchment/uk/parchment.html Inden witten Hasewint Parchment] Contemporary application of the Medieval technique. [[Category:Hides]] [[Category:Book design]] [[Category:Writing media]] [[bg:Пергамент]] [[ca:Pergamí]] [[cs:Pergamen]] [[da:Pergament]] [[de:Pergament]] [[el:Περγαμηνή]] [[es:Pergamino]] [[eo:Pergameno]] [[fr:Parchemin]] [[gl:Pergamiño]] [[hr:Pergament]] [[is:Bókfell]] [[it:Pergamena]] [[he:קלף]] [[hu:Pergamen]] [[nl:Perkament]] [[ja:羊皮紙]] [[no:Pergament]] [[oc:Pergamin]] [[pl:Pergamin]] [[pt:Pergaminho]] [[ru:Пергамент]] [[scn:Pirgamena]] [[sk:Pergamen (koža)]] [[sl:Pergament]] [[fi:Pergamentti]] [[sv:Pergament]] [[uk:Пергамент]] [[zh:羊皮紙]]