Parthia
24836
224891304
2008-07-10T21:35:09Z
Flamarande
491689
/* Conflicts with Rome */linking to the proper legion
{{merge|Parthian Empire|Talk:Parthian Empire#Merger proposal|date=May 2008}}
{{citations missing|article|date=August 2007}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = [[Middle Persian|Ashkâniân]] (اشکانیان)
|conventional_long_name = Parthian Empire
|common_name = Parthia
|
|continent = Asia
|region = [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Western Asia]]
|country = Iran
|era = Classical_antiquity
|status = Empire
|status_text = '''Empires of Persia'''
|empire = Persia
|government_type = [[Feudalism|Feudalist]] [[Monarchy]]
|
|<!--- Rise and fall, events, years and dates --->
|<!-- only fill in the start/end event entry if a specific article exists. Don't just say "abolition" or "declaration"-->
|
|year_start = 238 BC
|year_end = 226
|
|year_exile_start =
|year_exile_end =
|
|event_start = [[Parthia#The Parthian Empire|Established]]
|date_start =
|event_end = [[Parthia#Decline and fall|Overthrown]]
|date_end =
|
|event1 = <!--- Optional: other events between "start" and "end" --->
|date_event1 =
|event2 =
|date_event2 =
|event3 =
|date_event3 =
|event4 =
|date_event4 =
|
|event_pre = <!--- Optional: A crucial event that took place before before "event_start"--->
|date_pre =
|event_post = <!--- Optional: A crucial event that took place before after "event_end"--->
|date_post =
|
|<!--- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities p1 to p5 and s1 to s5 --->
|p1 = Seleucid Empire
|flag_p1 = Seleucid Empire 323 - 60 (BC).GIF
|image_p1 = [[Image:Seleucid Empire 323 - 60 (BC).GIF|30px|Seleucid Empire]]
|p2 =
|flag_p2 =
|p3 =
|flag_p3 =
|p4 =
|flag_p4 =
|p5 =
|flag_p5 =
|s1 = Sassanid Empire
|flag_s1 = Sassanid empire map.PNG
|image_s1 = [[Image:Sassanid empire map.PNG|30px|Sassanid Empire]]
|s2 =
|flag_s2 =
|s3 =
|flag_s3 =
|s4 =
|flag_s4 =
|s5 =
|flag_s5 =
|
|image_flag = <!--- Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
|flag = <!--- Link target under flag image. Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}} --->
|flag_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under flag. Default "Flag" --->
|
|image_coat = <!--- Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
|symbol = <!--- Link target under symbol image. Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}} --->
|symbol_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under symbol. Default "Coat of arms" --->
|
|image_map = Parthian Empire 248 – 224 (BC).PNG|250px|center
|image_map_caption = Parthia at its greatest extent under [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]] (123–88 BC)
|
|image_map2 = <!-- If second map is needed - does not appear by default -->
|image_map2_caption =
|
|capital = [[Hecatompylos]] 238 BC to<br />[[Ecbatana]] 139 BC to<br />[[Ctesiphon]] c. 129 BC
|capital_exile = <!-- If status="Exile" -->
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
|
|national_motto =
|national_anthem =
|common_languages = [[Parthian language|Parthian]]
|religion = [[Zoroastrianism]]<br />[[Christianity]]<br />[[Judaism]]
|currency =
|
|<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies --->
|leader1 = <!--- Name of king or president --->
|leader2 =
|leader3 =
|leader4 =
|year_leader1 = <!--- Years served --->
|year_leader2 =
|year_leader3 =
|year_leader4 =
|title_leader = Shāhanshāh
|representative1 = <!--- Name of representative of head of state (eg. colonial governor) --->
|representative2 =
|representative3 =
|representative4 =
|year_representative1 = <!--- Years served --->
|year_representative2 =
|year_representative3 =
|year_representative4 =
|title_representative = <!--- Default: "Governor"--->
|deputy1 = <!--- Name of prime minister --->
|deputy2 =
|deputy3 =
|deputy4 =
|year_deputy1 = <!--- Years served --->
|year_deputy2 =
|year_deputy3 =
|year_deputy4 =
|title_deputy = <!--- Default: "Prime minister" --->
|
|<!--- Legislature --->
|legislature = <!--- Name of legislature --->
|house1 = <!--- Name of first chamber --->
|type_house1 = <!--- Default: "Upper house"--->
|house2 = <!--- Name of second chamber --->
|type_house2 = <!--- Default: "Lower house"--->
|
|<!--- Area and population of a given year --->
|stat_year1 = <!--- year of the statistic, specify either area, population or both --->
|stat_area1 = <!--- area in square kílometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated --->
|stat_pop1 = <!--- population (w/o commas or spaces), population density is calculated if area is also given --->
|stat_year2 =
|stat_area2 =
|stat_pop2 =
|stat_year3 =
|stat_area3 =
|stat_pop3 =
|stat_year4 =
|stat_area4 =
|stat_pop4 =
|stat_year5 =
|stat_area5 =
|stat_pop5 =
|footnotes = <!--- Accepts wikilinks --->
}}
[[Image:ParthianVotiveReliefIranKhuzestan2ndCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|Parthian votive relief. The style displays frontally, shallow relief and attention to ornamental detail. Typical decorated costume and dagger tucked in belt. Iran, [[Khuzestan]](?), 2nd century CE.<ref>Notice of Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibit</ref>]]
'''Parthia'''<ref>''Parthia'' derives from [[Latin]] ''Parthia'', from [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] ''Parthava-'', a dialectical variant of the stem ''Parsa-'', from which [[Persia]] derives its name. ''Ashkanian'' appears to have come from the Sassanian chronicles, from which they entered in [[Ferdowsi]]'s epic poem ''[[Shahnama]]''.</ref> ([[Middle Persian]]: '''اشکانیان Ashkâniân''') was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran.
At the height of its power, the [[Parthian Empire]] covered all of [[Iran]] proper, as well as regions of the modern countries of [[Armenia]], [[Iraq]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], eastern [[Turkey]], eastern [[Syria]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Kuwait]], the [[Persian Gulf]], the coast of [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], [[Palestine]] and the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]<ref>[http://www.livius.org/pan-paz/parthia/parthia02.html Parthia (2): the empire<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. The Parthian empire was led by the Arsacid dynasty, which reunited and ruled over the [[Iran]]ian plateau, after defeating and disposing the Hellenistic [[Seleucid Empire]], beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled [[Mesopotamia]] between 150 BC and 224 AD. It was the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (after the [[Medes|Median]] and the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] dynasties). Parthia had many wars with the [[Roman Empire]].
After the [[Scythian]]-[[Parni]] [[nomads]] ([[Assyrians]] called them Ashkuz)<ref>[http://www.livius.org/pan-paz/parthia/parthia02.html Parthia (2): the empire<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> had settled in Parthia and built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under king [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates the Great]] (171-138 BC).<ref>George Rawlinson, ''The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World'', 2002, Gorgias Press LLC ISBN 1931956480</ref> Later, at the height of their power, Parthian influence reached as far as [[Ubar]] in [[Arabia]], the nexus of the [[frankincense]] [[trade route]], where Parthian-inspired ceramics have been found. The power of the early Parthian empire seems to have been overestimated by some ancient historians, who could not clearly separate the powerful later empire from its more humble obscure origins. The end of this long-lived empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the [[Persians]] of the [[Sassanid]] dynasty.
Relatively little is known of the Parthian ([[Arsacid]]) dynasty compared to the [[Achaemenids]] and [[Sassanids]] dynasties, given that little of their own literature has survived. Consequently Parthian history is largely derived from foreign histories, controlled by the evidence of [[numismatics|coins]] and [[epigraphy|inscriptions]]; even their own name for themselves is debatable due to a lack of domestic records. Several Greek authors, of whom we have fragments, including [[Apollodorus of Artemita]] and [[Isidore of Charax]], wrote under Parthian rule. Their power was based on a combination of the guerrilla warfare of a mounted nomadic tribe, with organizational skills to build and administer a vast empire — even though it never matched in power and extent the Persian empires that preceded and followed it. Vassal kingdoms seem to have made up a large part of their territory (see [[Tigranes II of Armenia|Tigranes II]] of [[History of Armenia|Armenia]]), and [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] cities enjoyed a certain autonomy; their craftsmen received employment by some Parthians.
==Seleucid satrapy==
{{see main|Parthia (satrapy)}}
[[Image:AndragorasBMC.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coin of Andragoras, the last Seleucid satrap of Parthia. He proclaimed independence around 250 BC.]]
Parthia was originally designated as a territory southeast of the [[Caspian sea]] encompasing the Kopet Dag mountain range in the north and Dasht-e-Kavir desert in the south. It was a [[satrapy]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] from 550 BC when it was subdued by [[Cyrus the Great]] until the conquest of the [[Persian Empire]] by [[Alexander the Great]] in 330 BC <ref>[http://www.livius.org/pan-paz/parthia/parthia01.html Parthia (1)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Following Alexander's death, the government of Parthia was given to [[Nicanor (satrap)|Nicanor]], at the [[Partition of Babylon]] in 323 BC. At the [[Partition of Triparadisus]] in 320 BC, Parthia was then given to [[Philip (satrap)|Philip]]. Philip in turn was then succeeded by [[Peithon]]. From 311 BC, Parthia then became a part of the [[Seleucid empire]], being ruled by various [[satrap]]s under Seleucid kingdom.
[[Andragoras (3rd century BC)|Andragoras]] (d. 238 BC) was the last [[Seleucid]] [[satrap]] of the province of Partahia, under the Seleucid rulers [[Antiochus I Soter]] and [[Antiochus II Theos]] ([[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], xli. 4). Andragoras tried to wrestle independence from the Seleucid Empire, at a time when the Seleucid were embroiled in conflict with [[Ptolemaic]] Egypt. In defiance, he issued coins in which he wears the royal diadem as well as his name (Will: I, 1966). Andragoras was a neighbour, a contemporary, and probably an ally of [[Diodotus I]] in [[Bactria]], who also fought the [[Seleucids]] for independence around the same time, giving rise to the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]].<ref>Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'', chapters 28 and 29</ref>
==The Parthian Empire==
{{See also|Parthian Empire}}
{{See also|Seven Parthian clans}}
[[Image:Coin of Arsaces I of Parthia.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Arsaces I. The reverse shows a seated archer carrying a bow. A Greek inscription on the right reads ΑΡΣΑΚ[ΟΥ] (from the outside). The inscription below the bow is in [[Aramaic]].]]
Around the same time Andragoras seceded from the Seleucids, an [[Eastern Iranian]] [[Dahae]] tribe called the [[Parni]] entered the [[Iranian plateau]] from [[Central Asia]]. They were consummate horsemen, known for the "[[Parthian shot]]": turning backwards at full gallop to loose an arrow directly to the rear. Initially, about 238 BC, their king named [[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces]] (Ashk) toppled [[Andragoras (3rd century BC)|Andragoras]] and established his [[Arsacid dynasty|dynasty's]] independence from the [[Seleucid Empire]], ruling his kingdom in remote areas of northern Iran in what is today known as Turkmenistan.
:"He (Arsaces) was used to a life of pillage and theft, when he heard about the defeat of [[Seleucus II Callinicus|Seleucus]] against the [[Gaul]]s. Relieved from his fear of the king, he attacked the Parthians with a band of thieves, vanquished their prefect Andragoras, and, after having killed him took the power over the nation" [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html Justin, xli. 4].
Arsaces' immediate descendants ruled free of the Seleucids until 209 BC, when King [[Antiochus III the Great]] invaded Parthia, occupied the capital at [[Hecatompylus]], and pushed forward into [[Hyrcania]]. The Parthian king [[Arsaces II of Parthia|Arsaces II]] successfully sued for peace, and recognized Seleucid authority. Antiochus III had so well secured Parthia that he moved further east, where he fought the [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Euthydemus I]] for three years and then went into [[India]].
[[Image:MithradatesI.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coin of [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] (ruled 171–138 BC) from the mint at [[Seleucia on the Tigris]]. The reverse shows a naked [[Heracles]] holding a cup, lion's skin and club. The [[Greek language|Greek]] inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ (great king Arsaces, friend of the [[Greece|Greeks]]). The date ΓΟΡ is the year 173 of the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid era]], corresponding to 140–139 BC.]]
It was not until well into the 2nd century BC that the Parthians were able to profit from the continuing decline of the Seleucid Empire. King [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] defeated King [[Eucratides]] of the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] and annexed Bactria's territory west of the [[Hari Rud|Arius]] (the regions of [[Tapuria]] and [[Traxiane]]) and gained [[Herat]]. This choked off the movement of trade along the [[Silk Road]] to China, and effectively doomed the eastern [[Hellenistic]] world of Greco-Bactria and the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greeks]].
The Seleucid monarchs attempted to hold the line against Parthian expansion; [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] spent his last years on a campaign against the newly emerging Iranian states. After his death in 164 BC, the Parthians took advantage of the ensuing dynastic squabbles to make even greater gains.
In 139 BC, [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] captured the Seleucid monarch [[Demetrius II of Syria|Demetrius II Nicator]], holding him captive for ten years while his troops overwhelmed [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Medes|Media]].
By 129 BC, the Parthians were in control of the lands east of the [[Tigris River|Tigris]] and established their winter encampment on its banks at [[Ctesiphon]], a small suburb directly across the river from [[Seleucia on the Tigris]], the Seleucid capital of Mesopotamia (downstream from modern [[Baghdad]]). Because of their need of the wealth and trade provided by Seleucia, the Parthian armies limited their incursions to harassment and allowed the city to preserve its independence. In the heat of the Mesopotamian summer, the Parthian army would withdraw to the ancient Persian capitals of [[Susa]] and [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]).
After 130 BC the Parthians suffered numerous incursions by [[Scythian]] nomads (also called the [[Tocharian]]s from [[Bactria]], possibly the [[Yuezhi]]), in which kings [[Phraates II of Parthia|Phraates II]] and [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]] were successively killed. Scythians again invaded Parthia around 90 BC, putting king [[Sanatruces of Parthia|Sanatruces]] on the Parthian throne.
==Government==
[[Image:PhartianFormalHeaddress.gif|thumb|250px|Different kinds of Parthian formal headdress used both between people and royal meetings. Their style is a mix of Persian and Greek clothing style. An Armenian tiara is depicted on the lower right corner.]]
After the conquests of [[Medes|Media]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] and [[Elam]], the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were [[Greeks|Greek]], and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. An interesting detail is coinage: legends were written in the Greek alphabet, a practice that continued until the 2nd century AD, when local knowledge of the language was in decline and few people knew how to read or write the [[Greek alphabet]].
[[Image:SurenaImage.jpg|left|175px|thumb|The ''Parthian Prince'', thought to be [[Surena]] the victor of the [[Battle of Carrhae]], found in [[Khuzestan]] ca. 100 AD, is kept at The [[National Museum of Iran]], [[Tehran]].]]
Another source of inspiration was the [[Achaemenid dynasty]] that had once ruled the [[Persian Empire]]. Courtiers spoke Persian and used the [[Pahlavi script]]; the royal court traveled from capital to capital, and the [[Arsacid]] kings styled themselves "king of kings". It was an apt title, as in addition to his own kingdom the Parthian monarch was the overlord of some eighteen vassal kings, such as the rulers of the city state [[Hatra]], the kingdom of [[Characene]] and the ancient kingdom of [[Armenia]].
The empire was, overall, not very centralized. There were several languages, many people, and a number of different economic systems. The loose ties between the separate parts of the empire were a key to its survival. In the 2nd century AD, the most important capital, Ctesiphon, was captured no less than three times by the Romans (in 116, 165 and 198), but the empire survived because there were other centers of power. On the other hand, the fact that the empire was a mere conglomeration of kingdoms, provinces and city-states did at times seriously weaken the Parthian state. This was a major factor in the halt of the Parthian expansion after the conquests of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]].
Local potentates played important roles, and the king had to respect their privileges. Several noble families had votes in the Royal council; the [[House of Suren]] had the right to crown the Parthian king, and every aristocrat was allowed and expected to retain an army of his own. When the throne was occupied by a weak ruler, divisions among the nobility became dangerous.
The constituent parts of the empire were surprisingly independent. For example, they were allowed to strike their own coins, a privilege which in antiquity was very rare. As long as the local elite paid tribute to the Parthian king, there was little interference. The system worked well: towns such as Ctesiphon, Seleucia, Ecbatana, [[Rhagae]], [[Hecatompylos]], [[Nisa (village)|Nisâ]], and Susa flourished.
Tribute was one source of royal income; another was tolls. Parthia controlled the Silk Road, the trade route between the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and China.
==Parthian language==
{{mainarticle|Parthian language}}
'''Arsacid Pahlavi''' or more popularly known as '''Parthian''' is a now-extinct ancient Northwestern [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]] that originated in [[Parthia]] (a region in the north-eastern part of modern [[Iran]], including and not limited to [[Khorosan]], [[Mazandaran]] and southern parts of what is today known as [[Turkmenistan]]). The language was the official state language of the [[Arsacid Dynasty]] (248 BC – 224 AD) and may have served as a secondary language for the [[Sassanid dynasty]] of [[Iran]] in its early years. The language was written using the [[Pahlavi script]].
==Contact with China==
[[Image:Zhang Qian.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The 138–126 BC travels of [[Zhang Qian]] to the West, [[Mogao Caves]], 618–712 AD [[mural]].]]
[[Image:Parthia 001ad.jpg|thumb|300px|Parthia in 001 AD, showing Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors.]]
The Chinese explorer [[Zhang Qian]], who visited the neighbouring countries of [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]] in 126 BC, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "[[Arsacid]]", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization that farmed grain and grapes, made silver coins and leather goods;<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18006 ''Silk Road, North China'', C. Michael Hogan, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham (2007)]</ref> Zhang Qian equates the level of advancement of Parthia to the cultures of [[Dayuan]] (in [[Ferghana]]) and [[Daxia]] (in Bactria).
{{Quote|Anxi is situated several thousand ''[[Li (Chinese unit)|li]]'' west of the region of the Great [[Yuezhi]] (in [[Transoxonia]]). The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of [[Dayuan]] ([[Ferghana]]), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies [[Tiaozhi]] (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan[[Hyrcania]]).|Zhang Qian|trans. Burton Watson,[[Shiji]], 123,}}
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BC:
{{Quote|The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out."|Zhang Qian|trans. Burton Watson, Shiji}}
The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC:
{{Quote|When the [[Han dynasty|Han]] envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom... When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted at this."|Zhang Qian|trans. Burton Watson, Shiji, 123}}
In 97 BC, the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] general [[Ban Chao]] formed direct military contacts with the Parthian Empire and establish military bases as far west as the [[Caspian Sea]] with his cavalry of 70,000 men during expeditions against the [[Xiongnu]], while protecting the trade routes now known as the [[Silk Road]].
Parthians also played a role in the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] from Central Asia to China. [[An Shih Kao]], a Parthian nobleman and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] missionary, went to the Chinese capital [[Luoyang]] in 148 where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into [[Chinese language|Chinese]].
==Conflicts with Rome==
{{main|Roman-Persian Wars}}
[[Image:ParthianWarrior.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Reproduction of a Parthian archer as depicted on [[Trajan's Column]].]]
[[Image:ParthianHorseman.jpg|thumb|right|Parthian horseman. [[Palazzo Madama, Turin|Palazzo Madama]], [[Turin]], [[Italy]].]]
[[Image:PalmyraParthianCavalryman.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Parthian calvaryman (escorting a camel caravan, detail). He wears large [[chaps]] over decorated trousers, as well as a polylobed [[dagger]] ([[Akinakes]]) on the right side. [[Palmyra]] relief.]]
During the earlier part of the first century BC, Parthia pursued a peaceful policy of non-entanglement with the west.<ref>Arthur Keaveney examined Parthian foreign relations in two articles: "Roman treaties with Parthia, circa 95—circa 64 B.C." (''American Journal of Philology'' '''102''' (1981:195-212) and "The King and the War-Lords: Romano-Parthian Relations Circa 64-53 B.C." (''AJP'' '''103''' (1982:412-428).</ref> Parthian relations with Imperial Rome largely consisted in intermittent warfare separated by periods of stalemate truce and exchange of gifts and hostages, with Trajan's Parthian campaign as a watershed, until the recognition of Parthia as co-equal in the fourth century, followed the final stages of fierce fighting under [[Macrinus]], and the tribute sent by [[Philip the Arab]] and the humiliation of [[Valerian]]. No official documents in the form of official inscriptions of treaties survive; the sources are largely Roman and literary. Protocol<ref>The protocol when representatives met is investigated in J. Gagé, "L'Empereur Romain et les rois: politique et protocol," ''Revue Historique'' 1959.</ref> developed during the fourth century provided the basis on which the Eastern Empire would address the [[Sassanians]]
In 53 BC, the Roman general [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] invaded Parthia in search of desperately needed gold to fund Roman military campaigns. The Parthian armies included two types of [[cavalry]], heavily-armed and armored [[cataphract]]s and lightly armed but highly-mobile [[Horse archer|mounted archers]]. For the Romans, who relied on heavy [[infantry]], the Parthians were difficult to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. Furthermore, the Parthians used strategies during warfare unfamiliar to the Romans, such as the famous "Parthian shot", firing arrows backwards at the gallop. Crassus having never encountered such an army or strategic warfare before was defeated decisively at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] by a Parthian commander called [[Surena]] in the Greek and Latin sources. This was the beginning of a series of wars that were to last for almost three centuries. After the defeat Crassus was fed molten gold, a symbolic gesture for his greed. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to conquer Roman eastern provinces completely.
In the years following the battle of Carrhae, the Romans were divided in [[civil war]] between the adherents of [[Pompey]] and those of [[Julius Caesar]] and hence unable to campaign against Parthia. Although Caesar was eventually victorious against Pompey and was planning a campaign against Parthia, his subsequent murder led to another Roman civil war. The Roman general [[Quintus Labienus]], who had supported Caesar's murderers and feared reprisals from his heirs, [[Mark Antony]] and [[Augustus|Octavian]] (later [[Augustus]]), sided with the Parthians under [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus I]]. In 41 BC Parthia, led by Labienus, invaded Syria, [[Cilicia]], and [[Caria]] and attacked [[Phrygia]] in [[Asia Minor]]. A second army intervened in [[Judaea]] and captured its king [[Hyrcanus]] II. The spoils were immense, and put to good use: King [[Phraates IV of Parthia|Phraates IV]] invested them in building up [[Ctesiphon]].
In 39 BC, Antony retaliated, sending out general [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]] and several legions to secure the conquered territories. The Parthian King Pacorus was killed along with Labienus, and the [[Euphrates]] again became the border between the two nations. Hoping to further avenge the death of Crassus, Antony invaded Mesopotamia in 36 BC with the [[Legio VI Ferrata]] and other units. Having cavalry in support, Antony reached Armenia but failed to make much impact and withdrew with heavy losses.
Antony's campaign was followed by a break in the fighting between the two empires as Rome was again embroiled in civil war. When Octavian defeated Mark Antony, he ignored the Parthians, being more interested in the west. His son-in-law and future successor [[Tiberius]] negotiated a peace treaty with Phraates (20 BC).
[[Image:ParthianCataphract.JPG|thumb|220px|Parthian [[cataphract]] fighting a lion. [[British Museum]].]]
At the same time, around the year 1, the Parthians became interested in the valley of the [[Indus river|Indus]], where they began conquering the kingdoms of [[Gandhara]]. One of the Parthian leaders was [[Gondophares]], king of [[Taxila]]; according to an old and widespread [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition, he was baptized by the apostle [[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas]]. While it may sound far-fetched, the story is not altogether impossible: adherents of several religions lived together in Gandara and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and there may have been an audience for a representative of a new [[Judaism|Jewish]] sect.
War broke out again between Rome and Parthia in the 60s AD. Armenia had become a Roman vassal kingdom, but the Parthian king [[Vologases I of Parthia|Vologases I]] invaded and installed his own brother as king of Armenia. This was too much for the Romans, and their commander [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]] invaded Armenia. The result was that the Armenian king received his crown again in Rome from the emperor [[Nero]]. A compromise was worked out between the two empires: in the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans.
==Expansion to India==
{{Main article|Indo-Parthian Kingdom}}
[[Image:Gondophares.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Coin of [[Gondophares]] (20–50), first and greatest king of the [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]].]]
Also during the 1st century BC, the Parthians started to make inroads into eastern territories that had been occupied by the [[Indo-Scythians]] and the [[Yuezhi]]. The Parthians gained control of parts of [[Bactria]] and extensive [[South Asian]] territories in modern day [[Pakistan]], after defeating local rulers such as the [[Kushan Empire]] ruler [[Kujula Kadphises]], in the [[Gandhara]] region.
The ruins of the ancient port city of [[Siraf]] are in the process of excavation, and its historical importance to ancient trade is only now being realized. Discovered there in archaeological excavations are ivory objects from east [[Africa]], pieces of stone from [[India]], and [[lapis]] from [[Afghanistan]]. Sirif dates back to the Parthian era.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.chnpress.com/news/?Section=2&id=5935
|title=Foreign Experts Talk of Siraf History
|publisher=Cultural Heritage News Agency
|accessdate=2006-12-11
}}</ref>
Around 20 AD, Gondophares, one of the Parthian conquerors, declared his independence from the Parthian empire and established the [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]] in the conquered territories.
==Decline and fall==
[[Image:Vologases III of Parthia.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Vologases III of Parthia]] (ruled c. 105–147 AD on a [[silver]] [[drachm]].]]
[[Image:YoungManWithParthianCostume.jpg|thumb|220px|Young man with Parthian costume. [[Palmyra]], [[Syria]], 1st half of the 3rd century AD. Decoration of a funerary stela. [[Musée du Louvre]].]]
<!--LEAVE IMAGES IN A ROW TO AVOID CREATION OF BLANKS-->
The Armenian compromise served its purpose, but nothing in it covered the deposition of an Armenian king. After 110 AD, the Parthian king [[Vologases III of Parthia|Vologases III]] dethroned the Armenian ruler, and the Roman emperor [[Trajan]] decided to invade Parthia in retaliation. War broke out in 114 AD and the Parthians were severely beaten. The Romans conquered Armenia, and in the following year, Trajan marched to the south, where the Parthians were forced to evacuate their strongholds. In 116, Trajan captured Ctesiphon, and established new provinces in Assyria and [[Babylonia]]. Later that year, he took the Parthian capital, [[Susa]], deposed the Parthian King [[Osroes I]] and put [[Parthamaspates]] as a puppet ruler on the throne.
Rebellions soon broke out due to the continuing loyalty of the population to Parthia. At the same time, the [[Jewish diaspora|diasporic Jews]] revolted and Trajan was forced to send an army to suppress them. Trajan overcame these troubles, but his successor [[Hadrian]] gave up the territories (117).
Parthian weaknesses also contributed to the disaster. In the first century AD, the Parthian nobility had become more powerful due to concessions by the Parthian king granting them greater powers over the land and the peasantry. Their power now rivaled the king's, while at the same time internal divisions in the [[Arsacid]] family had rendered them vulnerable.
[[Image:ParthianInChains.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Parthian prisoner in chains wearing a [[Phrygian cap]], led forward by a Roman, circa 200 AD. [[Arch of Septimius Severus]], [[Rome]].]]
But the end was not near, yet. In 161, king [[Vologases IV of Parthia|Vologases IV]] declared war against the Romans and reconquered Armenia. The Roman counter-offensive was slow, but in 165, Ctesiphon fell, and the Parthians were only saved by the outburst of a catastrophic epidemic (probably the [[measles]] or [[smallpox]]) which temporarily crippled the two empires. The Roman co-emperors [[Lucius Verus]] and [[Marcus Aurelius]] added northern Mesopotamia to their realm (partly as a vassal-kingdom), but as it was never secure enough for them to [[demilitarization|demilitarize]] the region between the Euphrates and Tigris, it remained an expensive burden.
The deciding blow came thirty years later. King [[Vologases V of Parthia|Vologases V]] had tried to reconquer Mesopotamia during another Roman civil war (193), but was repulsed when general [[Septimius Severus]] counter-attacked. Again, Ctesiphon was captured (198), and large spoils were brought to Rome. According to a modern estimate, the gold and silver were sufficient to postpone a [[Europe]]an economic crisis for three or four decades, and the consequences of the looting for Parthia were dire.
Parthia, now impoverished and without any hope to recover the lost territories, was demoralized. The kings were forced to concede greater powers to the nobility, and the vassal kings began to waver in their allegiance. In 224, the Persian vassal king [[Ardashir I|Ardašir]] revolted. Two years later, he took Ctesiphon, and this time it meant the end of Parthia, replaced by a third Persian Empire, ruled by the [[Sassanid dynasty]].
<br clear=all>
==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Sarbaz Nysa.jpg|A second century BC helmet with hellenistic influences protects the head of a Parthian warrior from [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nysa]], capital of the Parthian homeland.
Image:Parthian Queen Bust.jpg|A bust from The [[National Museum of Iran]] of Queen [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]], wife of [[Phraates IV of Parthia]].
Image:Coin of Phraates IV of Parthia.jpg|Coin of [[Phraates IV]] (38 BC). The inscripton reads: Benefactor [[Arsaces]], Civilized friend of [[Greeks]].
Image:Pegasus iran.jpg|Parthian era Bronze plate with [[Pegasus]] depiction ("Pegaz" in Persian). Excavated in Masjed Soleiman, [[Khuzestan]].
Image:ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg|Parthian waterspout with face of Iranian man, 1-2nd century CE.
</gallery>
</center>
==Parthian rulers==
{{History of Greater Iran}}
{{Arsacid dynasty}}
==Notes on the text==
{{reflist}}
==References==
* [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f5/v2f5a012.html Encyclopedia Iranica, "Arsacids", A. Sh. Shahbazi, K. Schippmann, M. Alram, M. Boyce, C. Toumanoff]
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
==Further reading==
* Debevoise, N.C. 1938. ''A Political History of Parthia''
==See also==
{{Commonscat|Parthia|Parthian Empire}}
* [[Parthian language]]
* [[Parthian shot]]
* [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
* [[An Shihkao]]
* [[List of kings of Persia|List of kings of Persia (Iran)]]
* [[Elymais]]
* [[Patigrabana]]
* [[Parthian Coinage]]
==External links==
* [http://www.parthia.com/ Parthia.com - with an extensive bibliography]
* [http://www.annourbis.com/ancient-civilizations/Parthia/index.html History of Parthia]
* [http://www.transoxiana.org/0106/venetis-mozoor_christianity_parthian_empire.html The Establishment and Development of Christianity in the Parthian Empire] in Transoxiana 6.
* [http://www.livius.org/pan-paz/parthia/parthia01.html Parthia (Old Persian Parthava)]
[[Category:247 BC establishments]]
[[Category:220 disestablishments]]
[[Category:History of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:Parthian empire|*]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ancient Iranian peoples]]
[[ar:بارثيون]]
[[bg:Партско царство]]
[[ca:Imperi Part]]
[[cs:Parthská říše]]
[[cy:Parthia]]
[[da:Partherriget]]
[[de:Parther]]
[[el:Παρθία]]
[[es:Partos]]
[[eo:Partoj]]
[[fa:اشکانیان]]
[[fr:Parthie]]
[[ko:파르티아]]
[[hr:Parti]]
[[id:Parthia]]
[[it:Parti]]
[[he:האימפריה הפרתית]]
[[lt:Partai]]
[[hu:Parthusok]]
[[ms:Parthia]]
[[nl:Parthen]]
[[ja:パルティア]]
[[no:Partia]]
[[pl:Partia (kraina)]]
[[pt:Pártia]]
[[ru:Парфия]]
[[simple:Parthia]]
[[sk:Partia]]
[[sl:Parti]]
[[sr:Партијско царство]]
[[fi:Parthia]]
[[sv:Partien]]
[[tr:Partlar]]
[[uk:Парфія]]
[[ur:پارتھیا]]
[[diq:İmparatoriya Parti]]
[[zh:安息]]