Patriarchy 24939 225575074 2008-07-14T11:23:24Z Cgingold 2013997 Quick-adding category "Fatherhood" (using [[WP:HOTCAT|HotCat]]) [[Image:Vintage family from england.jpg|thumb|right|200px|English family c. 1900]] {{otheruses|Patriarchy (disambiguation)}} '''Patriarchy''' is the structuring of [[society]] on the basis of [[family]] units, where fathers have primary [[Social responsibility|responsibility]] for the welfare of, hence authority over, their families. The concept of ''patriarchy'' is often used, by extension (in [[anthropology]] and [[feminism]], for example), to refer to the expectation that [[man|men]] take primary responsibility for the welfare of the [[community]] as a whole, acting as representatives via [[public office]]. The feminine form of ''patriarchy'' is ''[[matriarchy]]'', but there are no known examples of matriarchies from any point in history.<ref> Joan Bamberger,'The Myth of Matriarchy: Why Men Rule in Primitive Society', in M Rosaldo and L Lamphere, ''Women, Culture, and Society'', (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1974), pp. 263-280.</ref><ref> "Once we abandon the concept of women as historical victims, acted upon by violent men, inexplicable 'forces', and societal institutions, we must explain the central puzzle—woman's participation in the construction of the system that subordinates her. I suggest that abandoning the search for an empowering past—the search for matriarchy—is the first step in the right direction. The creation of compensatory myths of the distant past of women will not emancipate women in the present and the future." [[Gerda Lerner]], ''The Creation of Patriarchy'', (Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]], 1986), p. 36.</ref><ref> Cynthia Eller, ''[[The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory]]: [http://www.amazon.com/dp/080706792X Why an Invented Past Won't Give Women a Future]'', (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001).]</ref> [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] says it is a "[[Hypotheticals|hypothetical]] social system".<ref name=Britannica>'Matriarchy', ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> The Britannica article goes on to note, "The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development is now generally discredited. Furthermore, the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed."<ref name=Britannica /> The anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]] said, "All the claims so glibly made about societies ruled by women are nonsense. We have no reason to believe that they ever existed. ... men everywhere have been in charge of running the show. ... men have been the leaders in public affairs and the final authorities at home."<ref>Margaret Mead,'Review of Sex and Temperament in Three Privative Societies'. ''Redbook'' (October 1973): 48.</ref> For [[morality|moral]] assessments of patriarchy see [[patriarchy#Benefits of patriarchy|benefits]] and [[patriarchy#Feminist criticism|criticism]] below; for a [[scientific method|scientific]] treatment, see [[patriarchy#biology of gender|biology of gender]] below. ==Etymology== The word ''patriarchy'' comes from two [[Greek language|Greek]] words —''patēr'' (πατήρ, father) and ''archē'' (αρχή, rule). In Greek, the [[genitive case|genitive form]] of ''patēr'' is ''patr-os'',<ref> William D Mounce, ''The Morphology of Biblical Greek'', (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), p. 209.</ref> which shows the [[root (linguistics)|root form]] ''patr'', explaining why the word is spelled ''patr-iarchy''.<ref> The letter ''i'' in ''patr-i-archy'' occurs because ''patēr'' comes into [[English language|English]] via [[Latin]], which had a different [[vowel]] flavour to Greek in the genitive (''pater''/''patris''). For example, the abbreviation ''DVP'' stands for ''Decessit Vita Patris'' (literally, "died in the life of the father," meaning "died in the father's lifetime").</ref> The basic meaning of the Greek word ''archē'' is actually "beginning" (hence [[archeology|arche-ology]] or [[Menarche|men-arche]])<ref> Bauer, Arndt and Gingrich, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', 3rd ed., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), pp. 137.</ref> — the first words of [[Genesis]] in Greek (see [[Septuagint]]) are ''En archē'' ("In the beginning").<ref> Alfred Rahlfs ed., ''Septuaginta'', (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1979), p. 1.</ref> However, ''archē'' is also used [[metaphor]]ically to refer to ruling, because rulers are perceived to "start" things,<ref> Bauer, Danker, Arndt and Gingrich, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', 3rd ed., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), pp. 138.</ref> for example [[hierarchy|''hier-archy'']] and [[anarchy|''an-archy'']]. ==Related words== [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Abraham & son]] A ''patriarch'' is a man who has great influence on his family or society. Many historical societies claimed descent from one great man. For example, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] believed they were descended from [[Romulus]] who founded [[Rome]]. The traditional founder of [[Athens]] is Erectheus, and of [[Sparta]] Lacedæmon. Similarly, the [[Judaism|Jewish]] tradition in the [[Torah]] says [[Jew]]s are descended from [[Abraham]] through [[Isaac]]. Both the Torah and [[Qur'an]] say [[Arab]]s are descended from Abraham through [[Ishmael]],<ref>Genesis 25:12-18.</ref>&nbsp;<ref>Sura 37:99-109.</ref> Abraham's first son, Isaac's half-brother. Traditional founders are often called patriarchs. The feminine form of ''patriarch'' is ''matriarch'', for example see [[Matriarchs (Bible)]]. ''[[Patriarch]]'' is also a name for the most senior leaders of [[Eastern Christianity]], roughly comparable to the western ''[[archbishop|arch-bishop]]'' (''archē'' as above). The adjective for ''patriarchy'' is ''patriarchal''; and ''patriarchalism'', or more commonly ''[[paternalism]]'', refer to the practice or defence of patriarchy. [[patronage|''Patron'']] is a related word used generically (that is, it is not [[gender]] or [[sex]] specific). Women and men who provide financial support to activities within a community can be termed ''patrons''. The verb form ''patronize'' can be used positively, to describe the activity of patrons, or negatively, to describe adopting a superior attitude. If the superior attitude is adopted by a man, he can be called ''paternalistic''. ==Related customs== ''Patrimonalism'' uses the Greek word ''monos'' (μόνος, sole) to describe the view of a [[state]] as the extended household of a [[monarch|mon-arch]] (sole ruler, ''archē'' as above) or [[deity]]. There are records of patrimonalism almost as far back as the earliest [[writing]] itself (about 5000 years ago). This is probably because patrimonalism directly facilitated the invention of writing — the first hereditary monarchs gained so much wealth as to need to keep [[accountancy|accounts]], and enough to pay those [[accountant]]s. The earliest records of patrimonalism come from [[Ancient Near East]]ern legal documents, the best known being the [[Code of Hammurabi]] and the Torah. Some aspects of patrimonalism can still be found in the few remaining [[monarchy|monarchies]] in the world today, for example, [[Law of the United Kingdom|British law]] concerning [[real estate]] (see [[Crown land]]s), especially in [[Australia]]. For more detail regarding patrimonalism see [[Traditional authority#Patrimonalism|Traditional authority]]. [[Image:XlinkRecessive.jpg|thumb|Passing of X-linked conditions]] Some social customs reflect what is termed ''[[patrilineality]]'' or ''[[patrilocal residence|patrilocality]]''. ''Patrilineal'' describes customs where family responsibilities and assets pass from father to son. By contrast, contemporary Judaism considers people to be [[Jew]]ish if their mothers were Jewish, which makes this aspect of contemporary Judaism [[matrilineal]]. Biblical Judaism is, however, a classical example of a patrilineal society. ''Matrilineal'' is a particularly useful term in [[genetics]], where some genetic features are more or less passed via the maternal line, notably [[mitochondrial DNA]] and severe [[Sex linkage|X-linked]] genetic conditions. An X [[chromosome]] from the mother is always passed to offspring, male and female. However, daughters do not receive a [[Y chromosome]], and sons do not receive an [[X chromosome]] from their fathers (see [[sex-determination system]], [[heredity]] and [[genetic genealogy]]). ''Patrilocal'' describes the custom of [[bride]]s relocating to the geographic community of the husband and his father's family. In a [[matrilocal]] society, a husband will relocate to the home community of his wife and her mother (see also [[marriage]]). Matrilocality can substantially increase the social influence of women in a culture, however, given that tribal and family leaders are still men in all known matrilocal societies, matrilocality is not equivalent to matriarchy, see main entry [[patriarchy (anthropology)]]. By contrast with these other customs, patriarchy can be seen to be distinctly about gender and the [[nuclear family]], gender and public office, and about female-male relationships in general. ==Benefits of patriarchy== Patriarchy is advanced as being beneficial for human [[evolution]] and social organization on many grounds, crossing several [[List of academic disciplines|disciplines]]. Although [[biology]] may explain its existence (see below), arguments for its social [[Utilitarianism|utility]] have been made since ancient times. These include elements of Greek [[Stoicism|Stoic Philosophy]] and the Roman social structure based on the ''[[pater familias]]'',<ref> "Research into the nature of marriage in the Greco-Roman world ... shows ... [that] in Stoic traditions marriage promoted the full responsibility of a husband as a householder, father, and citizen and stability in society." [[Anthony Thiselton|Anthony C. Thiselton]], ''First Corinthians: A Shorter Exegetical and Pastoral Commentary'', (Grand Rapids: [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]], 2006), p. 102.</ref> but are also found in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] records of Babylonian and Assyrian laws. [[George Lakoff]] proposes an ancient dichotomy of "Strict Father" as opposed to "Nurturing Parent" models of ethical theory (SFM and NPM).<ref> George Lakoff, ''Moral Politics'', (Univ of Chicago Press, 1996) and ''Philosophy in the Flesh'', (UCP, 1999).</ref> In general, the main lines of argument are either [[Pragmatism|pragmatic]]—namely, the [[Sexual reproduction|reproductive]] advantages of male-as-provider—<ref> [[Phillip Longman]], '[http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3376 The Return of Patriarchy]', ''[[Foreign Policy]]'', 2006.</ref> or [[Ethics|ethical]]—that any perceived male authority is [[Contingency|contingent]] upon underlying perceptions of [[duty of care]]. ==Feminist criticism== [[Image:Beauvoir.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Simone de Beauvoir]] [[Image:JohnStuartMill.jpg|thumb|150px|right|John Stuart Mill]] {{Main|Patriarchy in feminism}} Most forms of feminism have challenged patriarchy as a social system that is adopted uncritically, due to millennia of human experience where male physical strength was the ultimate way of settling social conflicts – from [[war]] to [[child discipline|disciplining children]]. John Stuart Mill wrote, "In early times, the great majority of the male sex were slaves, as well as the whole of the female. And many ages elapsed ... before any thinker was bold enough to question the rightfulness, and the absolute necessity, either of the one slavery or of the other."<ref>John Stuart Mill, ''The Subjection of Women'', (London: Longmans, 1868).</ref> In [[feminist theory]], the opposite of feminism is not [[masculism]] but patriarchy. It is not surprising, therefore, that the word ''patriarchy'' has a range of additional, negative associations when used in the context of feminist theory, where it is sometimes capitalized and used with the definite article (''the Patriarchy''), likely best understood as a form of collective [[personification]] (compare "blame it on the Government" to "blame it on the Patriarchy"). The use of the word ''patriarchy'' in [[list of feminist literature|feminist literature]] has become so loaded with emotive associations that some writers prefer to use an approximate [[synonym]], the more objective and technical [[androcentrism|''androcentric'']] (also from Greek – ''anēr'', genitive ''andros'', meaning man). Fredrika Scarth (a feminist) reads Simone de Beauvoir's ''The Second Sex'' to be saying, "Neither men nor women live their bodies authentically under patriarchy."<ref>Fredrika Scarth, ''The Other Within: Ethics, Politics and the Body in Simone de Beauvoir'', (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), p. 100.</ref> [[Mary Daly]] wrote, "Males and males only are the originators, planners, controllers, and legitimators of patriarchy."<ref>Mary Daly, ''Gyn/Ecology The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'', (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978), p. 29.</ref> Carole Pateman, another feminist, writes, "The patriarchal construction of the difference between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection."<ref>Carole Pateman, ''The Sexual Contract'', (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 207.</ref> Most feminists do not propose to replace patriarchy with matriarchy, rather they argue for [[egalitarianism|equality]] (though some have argued for [[Separatist feminism|separation]]). However, [[Ronald Dworkin]] has argued that equality is a difficult idea. <ref>"People who praise it or disparage it disagree about what they are praising or disparaging.", Ronald Dworkin, ''Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality'', (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 2.</ref> It is particularly hard to work out what equality means when it comes to gender, because there are real differences between men and women (see [[Sexual dimorphism]] and [[Gender differences]]). Recent feminist writers speak of "feminisms of diversity", that seek to reconcile older debates between [[equality feminism]]s and [[difference feminism]]s. For instance, Judith Squires writes, "The whole conceptual force of 'equality' rests on the assumption of differences, which should in some respect be valued equally."<ref>Judith Squires, ''Gender in Political Theory'', (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), p. 97.</ref> For a leading feminist who writes against patriarchy see [[Marilyn French]]; and for one who is more sympathetic see [[Christina Hoff Sommers]]. [[Image:Income inequity US.png||thumb|300px|right|Average Income USA (2005 Census Data)]] In summary, recent feminist writers have shown a tendency to admit [[misandry]] among some members of the movement<ref name=Hoff_Sommers> Hoff Sommers, Christina, Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women (Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1995)</ref>, and acknowledge real differences in men and women that make diversity a more meaningful aim than [[reductionism|reductionistic]] equality (for example Judith Squires above). Decades of [[legislation]] and [[affirmative action]] have not yet changed the fact that [[western culture]] is male dominated, and that it remains patriarchal, although women can vote in most countries of the world, and they outnumber men in [[higher education]] in many countries <ref>"In terms of academic achievement, international education figures from 43 developed countries, published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2003, showed a consistent picture of women achieving better results than men at every level, particularly in literacy assessments.", [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00098.x Ian W Craig, Emma Harper and Caroline S Loat, 'The Genetic Basis for Sex Differences in Human Behaviour: Role of the Sex Chromosomes', ''Annals of Human Genetics'' 68 (2004): 269–284.]</ref>. However, [[head of state|heads of state]], [[minister (government)|cabinet ministers]] and the top [[corporate title|executives]] of major [[company (law)|companies]] are still mostly men (see [[glass ceiling]]). Also, women's average [[income]] is still significantly [[Male-female income disparity in the United States|lower than men's average income]]. Sally Haslanger claims women are still marginalized within academic [[philosophy]] departments.<ref> Sally Haslanger, [http://www.mit.edu/~shaslang/papers/HaslangerCICP.pdf Article Title].</ref> ==Steven Goldberg== [[Image:Inevitability.jpg|thumb|150px|First Book]] {{Main|Why Men Rule}} To date, feminists have failed to achieve many of their goals (for example, those related to executive positions and average income, see [[Patriarchy#Feminist criticism|above]]). This was predicted in 1973 (the early days of [[second wave feminism|second wave feminist activism]]) by [[Steven Goldberg]] (born 1941). {{cquote|In every society a basic male motivation is the feeling that the women and children must be protected. But the feminist cannot have it both ways: if she wishes to sacrifice all this, all that she will get in return is the right to meet men on male terms. She will lose.<ref>[[Steven Goldberg]], ''[[The Inevitability of Patriarchy]]'', (London: Temple Smith, 1977), p. 196.</ref>}} Goldberg was chairman of the department of sociology at [[City College of New York]], and has written two books on patriarchy. In the second he wrote: {{cquote|There is nothing in this book concerned with the desirability or undesirability of the institutions whose universality the book attempts to explain. For instance, this book is not concerned with the question of whether male domination of hierarchies is morally or politically 'good' or 'bad'. Moral values and political policies, by their nature, consist of more than just empirical facts and their explanation. 'What is' can never entail 'what should be', so science knows nothing of 'should'. 'Answers' to questions of 'should' require subjective elements that science cannot provide. Similarly, there is no implication that one sex is 'superior' in general to the other; 'general superiority' and 'general inferiority' are scientifically meaningless concepts.<ref>[[Steven Goldberg]], ''[[Why Men Rule]]'', (Chicago, Illinois: [[Open Court Publishing Company]], 1993), p. 1.</ref>}} [[Image:WhyMenRule.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Second Book]] In Goldberg's first book, he seeks an explanation for three specific aspects of male dominance behaviour in human societies. Patriarchy is the first of these. He also considers the phenomenon of male [[social status|status]] seeking, which he calls "male attainment". He is influenced by Margaret Mead in identifying this phenomenon. She says, "Men may cook, or weave or dress dolls or hunt hummingbirds, but if such activities are appropriate behavior for men, then the whole society, men and women alike, votes them as important. When the same occupations are performed by women, they are regarded as less important."<ref>Margaret Mead. ''Male and Female''. London: Penguin, 1950.</ref> Finally, he considers the way men seem to dominate in one-to-one relationships with women. Marriage is just one example of such relationships. Goldberg comments, "A woman’s feeling that she must get around a man is the hallmark of male dominance."<ref>Steven Goldberg, ''Why Men Rule'', (Chicago, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1993), p. 11.</ref> Goldberg proposes the [[hypothesis]] that the statistical averages of all these forms of behaviour are partly explained by the [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary]] (but not sufficient) condition of [[neuroendocrinology|neuroendocrinological]] effects – namely, [[testosterone]]. The title of his first book makes his hypothesis very clear, it was called ''[[The Inevitability of Patriarchy]]: Why the Biological Difference between Men and Women always Produces Male Domination''. At the time he wrote (1973), there were only very limited results from [[biology|biological]] [[research]]ers to support his hypothesis. The situation has changed a lot since then. For other writers who make similar points to Goldberg see [[Steven Pinker]] and [[Donald Brown]] in the [[Patriarchy#Literature|literature]] below. For current feminists and writers with considerably more biological knowledge than Goldberg, who accept his hypothesis, but consider issues beyond the biological, see [[Helena Cronin]] and [[Louann Brizendine]]. {{cquote|It all stems from muddling science and politics. It's as if people believe that if you don't like what you think are the ideological implications of the science then you're free to reject the science – and to cobble together your own version of it instead. Now, I know that sounds ridiculous when it's spelled out explicitly. Science doesn't have ideological implications; it simply tells you how the world is – not how it ought to be. So, if a justification or a moral judgement or any such 'ought' statement pops up as a conclusion from purely scientific premises, then obviously the thing to do is to challenge the logic of the argument, not to reject the premises. But, unfortunately, this isn't often spelled out. And so, again and again, people end up rejecting the science rather than the fallacy.<ref>John Brockman, 'Getting Human Nature Right: A Talk with Helena Cronin', ''Edge'' 73 (2000): 2.</ref>}} {{cquote|"To state categorically that there can be no biological component would seem to be foolish. We do not know yet how male hormones (acting indeed before birth and the possibility of different socialization) may affect the male psyche. But that there might be a biological component does not lead me to conclude that men then should do what is 'natural' to them, for there must be complementarity between the sexes. It makes me think that humanity is faced with a deeper problem than we knew." Margaret Daphne Hampson<ref>Margaret Daphne Hampson, [http://books.google.com/books?id=D5lkoMxTgMoC&pg=PR10&lpg=PR10&dq=%22to+state+categorically+that+there+can+be+no+biological+component+would+seem+to+be+foolish%22&source=web&ots=fCq1Hm-S0R&sig=Q6BS3AbuuC-TVGkuErsTFF99kU4 ''Theology and Feminism'',] (Oxford: [[Blackwell Publishing]], 1990), p. x.</ref>}} ==Biology of gender== [[Image:Peacock courting peahen.jpg||thumb|250px|right|Female-male differences — [[Peacock]] courting peahen]] {{Main|Biology of gender}} The '''biology of gender''' is scientific analysis of the physical basis for behavioural differences between men and women. It is more specific than [[sexual dimorphism]], which covers physical and behavioural differences between males and females of any sexually reproducing species, or [[sexual differentiation]], where physical and behavioural differences between men and women are described. Biological research of [[gender]] has explored such areas as: [[intersex]] physicalities, [[gender identity]], [[gender roles]] and [[sexual orientation]]. Research in this area is generally motivated by the search for causes of [[disease]]s in human beings, and ways of treating or preventing those diseases; it is thought that men and women might require different kinds of treatment for certain diseases. The results are relevant to gender issues, but that is not their direct concern. It has long been known that there are [[correlation]]s between the biological sex of [[animal]]s and their [[ethology|behaviour]].<ref>Charles Darwin, ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'', (London: John Murray, 1859).</ref>&nbsp;<ref>Charles Darwin, ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'', 2 volumes, (London: John Murray, 1871).</ref>&nbsp;<ref>Helena Cronin, ''The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).</ref> The late twentieth century saw an explosion in technology capable of aiding sex research. [[John Money]] and [[Milton Diamond]] made great progress towards understanding the formation of [[gender identity]] in [[human]]s. Extensive advances were also made in understanding sexual dimorphism in other animals. For example, there were studies on the effects of [[sex steroid|sex hormone]]s on rats. In the early twenty first century, discoveries were made concerning [[genetic programming|genetically programmed]] sexual dimorphism in rat brains, prior even to the influence of hormones on [[developmental biology|development]]. [[Image:Lobes of the brain NL.svg||thumb|150px|left|Human Brain]] {{cquote|Genes on the [[sex chromosome]]s can directly influence sexual dimorphism in [[cognition]] and behaviour, [[Statistical independence|independent]] of the action of sex steroids.}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Skuse|first=David H|title=Sexual dimorphism in cognition and behaviour: the role of X-linked genes|journal=European Journal of [[Endocrinology]]|volume=155|pages=99–106|date=2006|doi=10.1530/eje.1.02263}}</ref> Some specific relevant [[result]]s are as follows. The brains of many animals are [[statistical significance|significantly]] different for [[female]]s and [[male]]s of the [[species]].<ref name = SexDiffBrain>[https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=10042&mode=toc Robert W Goy and Bruce S McEwen, ''Sexual Differentiation of the Brain: Based on a Work Session of the Neurosciences Research Program''. MIT Press Classics. Boston: MIT Press, 1980.]</ref> Both [[genes]] and [[hormone]]s affect the formation of many animal brains before "[[birth]]" (or [[hatching]]), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. Both kinds of brain difference affect male and female behaviour. [[Image:Normal distribution pdf.png||thumb|200px|right|The red bell curve here has a lower [[standard deviation]] than the green or blue curves, but the same average. This reflects the differences in logical and geometric reasoning between women and men. The purple curve has a lower average as well. This reflects the differences in sensory processing abilities between men and women.<ref name=SexDiffMath>Camilla Persson Benbow and Julian C Stanley, 'Sex Differences in Mathematical Reasoning Ability: More Facts', ''Science'' '''222''' (1983): 1029-1031.</ref>]] Brain differences also have a statistically measurable effect on an array of [[ability|abilities]]. In particular, on average, women are more capable in nearly everything to do with [[senses|sensory]] processing. For an illustrated description of clear differences between female and male brain response to pain see Laura Stanton and Brenna Maloney, '[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2006/12/18/GR2006121800372.html The Perception of Pain]'.<ref>Laura Stanton and Brenna Maloney, '[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2006/12/18/GR2006121800372.html The Perception of Pain]', ''Washington Post'' 19 December, 2006.</ref> On the other hand, male brains seem to be "pushed" towards extremes of low ability or high ability in various forms of mental abstraction, especially those related to space and logic. This means the average scores of young women and men in mathematics, for example, will be close, but there will be more men than women in the very low scores and in the very high scores (see the diagram at the right for an illustration).<ref name=SexDiffMath/> There is evidence to suggest that forms of [[autism]] may be essentially extreme expressions of certain typically male characteristics.<ref>[http://www.autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/1999_BC_extrememalebrain.pdf Simon Baron-Cohen, 'The Extreme-Male-Brain Theory of Autism', in H Tager-Flusberg (ed.), ''Neurodevelopmental Disorders'', (Boston: The MIT Press, 1999).]</ref>&nbsp;<ref>Simon Baron-Cohen. ''Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind''. (Boston: The MIT Press, 1997).</ref> Hormones have also been linked with male [[aggression]].<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-3920(198708)58%3A4%3C1114%3AHEDAAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 Elizabeth J. Susman, Gale Inoff-Germain, Editha D. Nottelmann, and others, 'Hormones, Emotional Dispositions, and Aggressive Attributes in Young Adolescents', ''Child Development'' 58 (1987): 1114-1134.]</ref> [[Sarah Blaffer Hrdy]] (confirming Goldberg above) notes observed male aggression would predict a tendency towards the patriarchy that has also been observed.<ref name=Smuts>, 'Raising Darwin's Consciousness: Female Sexuality and the prehominid origins of patriarchy.' ''[[Human Nature]] '''8''' (1997): 1-49.</ref>. [[Image:Lightmatter chimp.jpg||thumb|200px|left|Chimpanzee]] Alexandra M. Lopes and others recently published that: {{cquote|A sexual dimorphism in levels of [[Gene expression|expression]] in brain [[biological tissue|tissue]] was observed by [[quantitative]] [[Real-time computing|real-time]] [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]], with females presenting an up to 2-fold excess in the abundance of PCDH11X [[Gene transcription|transcripts]]. We relate these findings to sexually dimorphic [[Trait (biology)|traits]] in the human brain. Interestingly, PCDH11X/Y gene pair is unique to ''Homo sapiens'', since the X-linked gene was [[Transposon|transposed]] to the Y chromosome after the human–[[chimpanzee]] [[Lineage (evolution)|lineages]] split.<ref>Alexandra M. Lopes and others,'Inactivation status of PCDH11X: sexual dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain', ''Human Genetics'' 119 (2006): 1–9.</ref>}} ==Appendix==<!-- This section is linked from [[Patriarchy]] --> ;Patriarchies in dispute The [[Patriarchy#Table|table]] shows most societies that have been claimed at one time or another to be matriarchal. In every case the [[Ethnography|ethnographers]] report that the societies were patriarchal not matriarchal, even before changes brought by contact with western culture. However, some of the societies are matrilineal or matrilocal. Note: ''separate'' in the marriage column, refers to the practice of husbands and wives living in separate locations, often informally called ''walking marriages''. See the articles for the specific cultures that practice this for further description. ==Table== {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" |+Patriarchal cultures that have been claimed to be matriarchal |- ! [[Endonym]] !! Continent !! Country !! Marriage !! Property !! Government !! Ethnographer !! Date !! F/M |- | [[Alor]] | [[Asia]] | [[Indonesia]] | | | patriarchy | Cora du Bois | 1944 | female |- | [[Bamenda]] | [[Africa]] | [[Cameroon]] | patrilocal | only Kom matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Phyllis Kaberry]] | 1952 | female |- | Bantoc | [[Asia]] | [[Philippines]] | | | patriarchy | Albert S Bacadayan | 1974 | male |- | [[Batek]] | [[Asia]] | [[Malaysia]] | patrilocal | | patriarchy | Kirk Michael Endicott | 1974 | male |- | [[Trobriand Islands|Boyowan]] | [[Australasia]] | [[Papua New Guinea]] | patrilocal | matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Bronisław Malinowski]] | 1916 | male |- | [[Bribri]] | [[North America]] | [[Costa Rica]] | matrilocal | matrilineal | patriarchy | William Moore Grabb | 1875 | male |- | unknown ([[Çatalhöyük]]) | [[Asia]] | [[Turkey]] | na | na | na | [[James Mellaart]] | 1961 | male |- | [[Chambri]] | [[Australasia]] | [[Papua New Guinea]] | | | patriarchy | [[Margaret Mead]] | 1935 | female |- | [[Philippines|Pilipino]] | [[Asia]] | [[Philippines]] | both | both | patriarchy | Chester L Hunt | 1959 | male |- | [[Fore (people)|Gahuku-Gama]] | [[Australasia]] | [[Papua New Guinea]] | | | patriarchy | Shirley Glasse (Lindenbaum) | 1963 | female |- | [[Hopi|Hopituh Shi-nu-mu]] | [[North America]] | [[United States of America]] | matrilocal | matrilineal | patriarchy | Barbara Freire-Marreco | 1914 | female |- | [[Iban people|Iban]] | [[Asia]] | [[Borneo]] | both | neither | patriarchy | Edwin H Gomes | 1911 | male |- | [[Berbers|Imazighen]] | [[Africa]] | North [[Sahara]] | | | patriarchy | [[George Murdock|George Peter Murdock]] | 1959 | male |- | [[Iroqois|Haudenosaunee]] | [[North America]] | North East [[North America]] | matrilocal | matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Lewis Morgan|Lewis Henry Morgan]] | 1901 | male |- | [[Jivaro]] | [[South America]] | West [[Amazon Basin|Amazon]] | | | patriarchy | R Karstan | 1926 | male |- | [[Nubians|Kenuzi]] | [[Africa]] | [[Sudan]] | | | patriarchy | Ernest Godard | 1867 | male |- | [[Kibutz]]im | [[Asia]] | [[Israel]] | neither | neither | patriarchy | Judith Buber Agassi | 1989 | female |- | [[!Kung people|!Kung San]] | [[Africa]] | Southern [[Africa]] | | | patriarchy | [[Marjorie Shostak]] | 1976 | female |- | [[Minicoy Island|Maliku]] | [[Asia]] | [[India]] | separate | matrilineal | patriarchy | Ellen Kattner | 1996 | female |- | [[Minangkabau]] | [[Asia]] | [[Indonesia]] | | both | patriarchy | PJ Veth | 1882 | male |- | [[Mosuo]] | [[Asia]] | [[China]] | separate | matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Joseph Rock|Joseph Francis Charles Rock]] | 1924 | male |- | [[Nakhi]] | [[Asia]] | [[China]] | | matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Joseph Rock|Joseph Francis Charles Rock]] | 1924 | male |- | [[Nair|Nayar]] | [[Asia]] | [[India]] | | matrilineal | patriarchy | E Kathleen Gough | 1954 | female |- | [[Tlingit]] | [[North America]] | [[United States of America]] | matrilocal | matrilineal | patriarchy | [[Aurel Krause]] | 1885 | male |- | [[Vanatinai]] | [[Australasia]] | [[Papua New Guinea]] | matrilocal | matrilineal | no government<br>patriarchy | Maria Lipowsky | 1981 | female |- | Wemale | [[Asia]] | [[Indonesia]] | | | patriarchy | Adolf E Jensen | 1939 | male |- | Woorani | [[South America]] | [[Ecuador]] | | | patriarchy | John Man | 1982 | male |- | Yegali | [[Africa]] | [[Madagascar]] | na | na | na | na | na | na |} ==List== {{Patriarchy (ethnographies)}} ==See also== {{Wiktionary|patriarchy}} * [[Anti-feminism]] * [[Chinese patriarchy]] * [[Domitius]] * [[Gender role]] * [[Homemaker]] * [[Masculinity]] * [[Men's movement]] * [[Nature versus nurture]] * [[Patriarch magazines]] * [[Patriarchs (Bible)]] * [[Sociology of fatherhood]] == Notes and references == {{reflist|2}} == Bibliography == <!-- This section is linked from [[Patriarchy]] --> * Adeline, Helen B. ''Fascinating Womanhood''. New York: Random House, 2007. * [[Simon Baron-Cohen|Baron-Cohen, Simon]]. ''The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain''. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2003. * [[Simone de Beauvoir|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''Le Deuxième Sexe''. Paris: [[Éditions Gallimard]], 1949. (original French edition) * [[Simone de Beauvoir|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''The Second Sex''. London: [[Jonathan Cape]], 1953. (first UK edition, in translation) * [[Simone de Beauvoir|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''The Second Sex''. New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]], 1953. (first USA edition, in translation) * [[Pierre Bourdieu|Bourdieu, Pierre]]. ''Masculine Domination''. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]], 2001. * [[Louann Brizendine|Brizendine, Louann]]. ''The Female Brain''. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006. * [[Donald Brown|Brown, Donald E]]. ''[[Human Universals]]''. New York: [[McGraw Hill]], 1991. * Jay, Jennifer W. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28199604%2F06%29116%3A2%3C220%3AIM%22OWI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage 'Imagining Matriarchy:] "Kingdoms of Women" in Tang China'. ''[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]'' '''116''' (1996): 220-229. * [[Melvin Konner|Konner, Melvin]]. ''[http://www.henryholt.com/tangledwing/tangledwingnotes.pdf The Tangled Wing:] Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit''. 2nd edition, revised and updated. ([[Henry Holt|Owl Books]], 2003). 560p. ISBN 0805072799 [first published 1982, [http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTMK/TangledWing.htm Endnotes] * Lepowsky, Maria. ''[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/catalog/data/023108/0231081200.HTM Fruit of the Motherland:] Gender in an Egalitarian Society''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1993. * [[Margaret Mead|Mead, Margaret]]. 'Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives'. ''[[Redbook]]'' 122 (1963). * Mies, Maria. ''Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour''. [[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave MacMillan]], 1999. * Moir, Anne and David Jessel. ''[[Brain Sex]]: The Real Difference Between Men and Women''. * [[Sherry Ortner|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In MZ Rosaldo and L Lamphere (eds). ''Woman, Culture and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 67-87. * [[Sherry Ortner|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'So, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In S Ortner. ''Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 173-180. * Pilcher, Jane and Imelda Wheelan. ''50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies''. London: Sage Publications, 2004. * [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. ''The Blank Slate: A Modern Denial of Human Nature''. London: [[Penguin Books]], 2002. == External links == * '[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051408 Matriarchy]'. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online, 2007. * '[http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994220 Cattle ownership makes it a man's world]'. ''[[New Scientist]]'' (2003). * [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]. ''[http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/wollstonecraft/woman-a.html#CHAPTER%20II A Vindication of the Rights of Women]''. Boston: Peter Edes for Thomas and Andrews, 1792. * [[Simone de Beauvoir]]. ''[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/2ndsex.htm The Second Sex]''. Translated by HM Parshley. London: Penguin, 1972. * '[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/equality Equality]'. In ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''. Stanford University, 2001. * [http://www.debunker.com/texts/avoidable.html ''Times Literary Supplement'' review (by Mark Ridley) of ''The Inevitability of Patriarchy'' and reply by the author (Steven Goldberg).] * [[Phyllis Kaberry|Phyllis M Kaberry]]. ''[http://www.era.anthropology.ac.uk/Kaberry/Kaberry_text A Study of the Economic Position of Women in Bamenda, British Cameroons]''. London: [[Office of Public Sector Information|Her Majesty's Stationary Office]], 1952. * Steven Webster. '[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/9751 Was it Matriarchy?]' ''[[New York Review of Books]]'' (1972): 37–38. * [[Phillip Longman]]. '[http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3376 The Return of Patriarchy]'. ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' (2006). * Official [http://www.cbmw.org site] of the [[Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood]]. * [http://www.mensstudies.info/RMBP.html Culture, Society & Masculinities] — [[Men's Studies Press]]. {{Forms of leadership}} [[Category:Biology of gender]] [[Category:Cultural anthropology]] [[Category:Family]] [[Category:Feminism]] [[Category:Forms of government]] [[Category:Gender studies]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Sociobiology]] [[Category:Men]] [[Category:Fatherhood]] [[cs:Patriarchát]] [[da:Patriarkat]] [[de:Patriarchat (Soziologie)]] [[et:Patriarhaalsus]] [[el:Πατριαρχία]] [[es:Patriarcado]] [[fa:مردسالاری]] [[fr:Patriarcat (sociologie)]] [[ko:가부장제]] [[he:משפחה פטריארכלית]] [[nl:Patriarchaat (sociologie)]] [[ja:家父長制]] [[no:Patriarki]] [[oc:Patriarcat]] [[pl:Patriarchat (ustrój)]] [[pt:Patriarcado]] [[ru:Патриархат]] [[sr:Патријархат]] [[fi:Patriarkaatti (yhteiskuntatieteet)]] [[sv:Patriarkat]] [[zh:父權]]