Paul the Apostle 24140 225986345 2008-07-16T09:46:33Z Dampinograaf 3064953 /* References */ completed and reordened {{Infobox Saint |name=Saint Paul |birth_date=no scholarly consensus on date |death_date=64-67 [[AD]] |feast_day=[[January 25]] (The Conversion of Paul)<br>[[February 10]] (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta)<br>[[June 29]] ([[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]])<br>[[November 18]] (Feast of the dedication of the [[basilica]]s of Saints Peter and Paul) |venerated_in=All [[Christianity]] |image=StPaul_ElGreco.jpg |imagesize=200px |caption=''St Paul, by [[El Greco]]'' |birth_place=&nbsp;in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|22:3|KJV}}) |death_place=&nbsp;in [[Rome]] during [[Nero#Great Fire of Rome|Nero's Persecution]] ([http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.i.html EH 3.1]) |titles=Apostle to the Gentiles, Martyr |beatified_date= |beatified_place= |beatified_by= |canonized_date= |canonized_place= |canonized_by=[[Pre-congregation|Pre-Congregation]] |attributes=[[Apostle]]; [[Missionary]]; [[Christian martyrs|Martyr]]; [[sword]] |patronage= |major_shrine=[[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]] |suppressed_date= |issues= }} '''Saint Paul''' the apostle, ({{lang-he|שאול התרסי}} ''Šaʾul HaTarsi'', meaning "'''Saul of Tarsus'''", {{lang-grc|Σαούλ ''Saul'' and Σαῦλος ''Saulos'' and Παῦλος ''Paulos''}}<ref>[[Bauer lexicon]]; {{bibleverse||Acts|13:9|KJV}}, from "The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: According to the [[Textus Receptus|Received Greek Text]]" (University Press, Cambridge 1876)</ref>), the ''"Apostle to the [[Gentiles]]"''<ref>{{bibleverse||Romans|11:13|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|2:8|KJV}}</ref> (ca 5 - 67CE) was, together with [[Saint Peter]] and [[James the Just]],<ref>"The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by [[James D. G. Dunn]]: "For ''Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man'' (pontifex maximus!) ''who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity.'' James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity&mdash;though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]</ref> the most notable of [[early Christian]] missionaries. Unlike the [[Twelve Apostles]], there is no indication that Paul, born in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], ever met [[Jesus]] before the latter's [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]].<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller ed., notes on {{bibleverse||Matthew|26:48|KJV}}: "The fact that Judas needs to use a ''sign'' indicates that Jesus was not known by face in Jerusalem." Presumably, at that time, Paul was in Jerusalem studying under the famous Pharisee [[Gamaliel]].</ref> According to [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], his conversion took place as he was traveling the [[Conversion of Paul|road to Damascus]], and experienced a [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|vision of the resurrected Jesus]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|9:1-31|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|22:1-22|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|26:9-24|KJV}}</ref> Paul asserts that he received the [[Gospel]] not from man, but by "the [[revelation]] of Jesus Christ".<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|1:11–12|KJV}}</ref> Fourteen [[epistle]]s in the [[New Testament]] are traditionally attributed to Paul, though in some cases the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|authorship is disputed]]. Paul had often employed an [[amanuensis]], only occasionally writing himself.<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|6:11|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|16:22|KJV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|16:21|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Colossians|4:18|KJV}}, {{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|3:17|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Philippians|1:19|KJV}}</ref><ref>[[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]] in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point [{{bibleverse||Galatians|6:11|KJV}}] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ({{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|2:2|KJV}}; {{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|3:17|KJV}}) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."</ref> As a sign of authenticity, the writers of these epistles<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|2:2|KJV}}; {{bibleverse-nb|2|Thessalonians|3:17|KJV}}</ref> sometimes employ a passage presented as being in Paul's own handwriting. These epistles were circulated within the Christian community. They were prominent in the first [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon#New Testament canon|canon]] ever proposed (by [[Marcion]]), and they were eventually included in the [[orthodox Christian]] [[Biblical canon#Orthodox Christian canon|canon of Scripture]]. They are believed to be the earliest-written books of the New Testament. Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.<ref> ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on St. Paul</ref> His influence on the main strands of Christian thought has been demonstrable: from [[St. Augustine of Hippo]] to the controversies between [[Gottschalk (theologian)|Gottschalk]] and [[Hincmar of Reims]]; between [[Thomism]] and [[Molinism]]; [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]] and the [[Arminians]]; to [[Jansenism]] and the [[Jesuit]] theologians, and even to the [[Germany|German]] church of the twentieth century through the writings of the scholar [[Karl Barth]], whose commentary on the [[Epistle to the Romans|Letter to the Romans]] had a political as well as theological impact. ==Sources of information== {{Life of Paul}} In trying to reconstruct the events of Paul's life the main sources are Paul's own letters and the Acts of the Apostles, traditionally attributed to [[St. Luke]].<ref name="Inter"> Laymon, Charles M. ''The Interpreter's Eighteen-Volume Commentary on the Bible'' (Abingdon Press, Nashville 1871) ISBN 0687192994 </ref> Different views are held as to the reliability of the latter. Some scholars, such as [[Hans Conzelmann]] and 20th century theologian John Knox (not the 16th century [[John Knox]]), dispute the historical accuracy of Acts.<ref>{{cite book | first=Steve | last=Walton | title=Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians | pages=3 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=P9NznB__-E0C&pg=PA3&vq=%22these+scholars+see+the+paul%22&dq=conzelmann+paul+acts&as_brr=3&sig=QanFBxTbjopfPhsPqcWm1PG3lLw | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521780063 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | first=Douglas R. A. | last=Hare | contribution=Introduction | editor-first=John | editor-surname=Knocks | pages=x | title=Chapters in a Life of Paul | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g_42mQjLOVsC&pg=PR10&vq=%22proper+historical+method+requires+us%22&dq=paul+primary+sources+acts+epistles&as_brr=3&sig=RvCwlMrXfqLVQ91D-2OTOOwRWm8 | publication-date=1987 | publisher=Mercer University Press | edition=Revised | isbn=0865542813 }}</ref> Even allowing for omissions in Paul's own account, which is found particularly in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]], there are many differences between his account and that in Acts.<ref>{{cite book | first=Hyam | last=Maccoby | title=The mythmaker | pages=4 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=co_CxizRbTAC&pg=PA4&vq=%22From+certain+of+Paul%27s+letters,+particularly+Galatians,&dq=paul+account+particularly+galatians&as_brr=3&sig=jPTrXnLJDJ651XZXpe70N02GSUs | publisher=Barnes and Noble | edition=Barnes and Noble ed. | isbn=0760707871 | date=1998 }}</ref> (Please see the full discussion in [[Acts of the Apostles#Historical|Acts of the Apostles]]). The [[Acts of Paul]] and the [[Clementine literature]] also contain information about Saint Paul. ==Early life== [[Image:Saint Paul.jpg|thumb|left|''Saint Paul's conversion,'' by [[Jean Fouquet]].]] According to Acts,<ref>Chapters 9:30, 11:25 and 22:3</ref> Paul was born in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus, Cilicia]] in [[Asia Minor]], or modern-day [[Republic of Turkey|Turkey]], under the name Saul, "an [[Israel]]ite of the tribe of [[Benjamin]], [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcised]] on the eighth day" ({{bibleverse||Philippians|3:5|NIV}}). However, Paul's own letters never mention this as his birthplace, nor is the name "Saul" alluded to. Acts records that Paul was a [[Roman citizen]] — a privilege he used a number of times in his defence, appealing against convictions in [[Judaea]] to [[Rome]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|22:25|KJV}} and {{bibleverse||Acts|27–28|KJV}}). According to Christian tradition, his parents lived in [[Jish]], [[Galilee]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/887800.html "Galilee villages launch campaign to attract Christian pilgrims"], ''Haaretz'' - Israel News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to {{bibleverse||Acts|22:3|KJV}}, he studied in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] under the Rabbi [[Gamaliel]], well known in Paul's time. There is at least some doubt about this story, as Paul writes that he was unknown by face to those in Jerusalem before visiting there as an adult{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. He described himself as a [[Pharisees|Pharisee]] ({{bibleverse||Philippians|3:5|KJV}}). He supported himself during his travels and while preaching — a fact he alludes to a number of times (e.g., {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|9:13–15|KJV}}). According to {{bibleverse||Acts|18:3|KJV}} he worked as a tentmaker. Although Saul was educated as a [[Pharisee]] in [[Beit Hillel]] [[Halakhah]] under [[Gamaliel]], [[Eusebius]] cites an [[Ebionite]] tradition that in order to marry the High Priest's daughter, Paul converted to the [[Sadduccee]] faction which controled the Sanhedrin at the time. He first appears in the pages of the [[New Testament]] as a witness to the [[martyrdom]] of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|7:57-8:3|KJV}}). He was, as he described himself, a persistent persecutor of the [[Early Christianity|Church]] ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:9|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:13|KJV}}) (almost all of whose members were Jewish or Jewish [[proselytes]]), until his experience on the [[Road to Damascus]] which resulted in his conversion. Ebionite tradition recorded by Eusebius asserts that he joined the Jesus movement only after his love for the High Priest's daughter was spurned. Paul himself is very disinclined to talk about the precise character of his conversion ({{bibleverse||Galatians|1:11–24|KJV}}) though he uses it as authority for his independence from the apostles. In Acts there are three accounts of his conversion experience: * The first is a description of the event itself ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:1–20|KJV}}) in which he is described as falling to the ground, as a result of a flash of light from the sky, hearing the words "Saul, Saul why are you persecuting me?" * The second is Paul's witness to the event before the crowd in Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|22:1–22|KJV}}). * The third is his testimony before King [[Agrippa II]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|26:1–24|KJV}}). In the accounts, he is described as being led by those he was traveling with , blinded by the light, to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called [[Ananias of Damascus|Ananias]] then he was [[baptized]]. == Mission == [[Image:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Bab Kisan]], where Paul is said to have escaped from [[Damascus]].]] Following his stay in Damascus after his conversion, where he was baptized,<ref>{{cite book | pages=43 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PRIKVslqctkC&pg=PA43&vq=%22the+baptism+of+Saul/Paul+in+Damascus%22&dq=paul+baptized+damascus&as_brr=3&sig=DLbwPWBw-HL4JYp6MmR3ZsIxoqg | first=Martin | last=Hengel | coauthors=Anna Maria Schwemer | others=trans. John Bowden | title=Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years | date=1997 | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | isbn=0664257364 }}</ref> Paul says that he first went to [[Arabia]], and then came back to Damascus ({{bibleverse||Galatians|1:17|KJV}}). According to Acts, his preaching in the local [[synagogue]]s got him into trouble there, and he was forced to escape, being let down over the wall in a basket ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:23|KJV}}). He describes in Galatians, how three years after his conversion, he went to Jerusalem, where he met [[James the Just|James]], and stayed with [[Simon Peter]] for 15 days ({{bibleverse||Galatians|1:13–24|KJV}}). According to Acts, he apparently attempted to join the disciples and was accepted only owing to the intercession of [[Barnabas]] — they were all understandably afraid of him as one who had been a persecutor of the Church ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:26–27|KJV}}). Again, according to Acts, he got into trouble for disputing with "Hellenists" ([[Koine Greek]] speaking Jews and Gentile [[Godfearers|"God-fearers"]]) and so he was sent back to Tarsus. Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:1–10|KJV}}</ref> It is not known exactly what happened during these so-called "unknown years," but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.<ref>Barnett, Paul ''The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years'' (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0802827810 [http://books.google.com/books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C&pg=PA200&vq=%22Paul%27s+%E2%80%9CUnknown%E2%80%9D+Years%22&dq=paul+fourteen+years+unknown&as_brr=3&sig=T8cKbW6QxSY-NEYkWsPszP_14ws p. 200]</ref> At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to [[Antioch]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|11:26|KJV}}). When a famine occurred in Judaea, around 45–46,<ref> Ogg, George, ''Chronology of the New Testament'' in Peake's Commentary of the Bible (Nelson) 1963)</ref> Paul, along with Barnabas and a Gentile named Titus, journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.<ref>Barnett [http://books.google.com/books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C&pg=PA83&vq=%22famine+relief+sent+by+members+of+the+church+of+Antioch%22&dq=paul+fourteen+years+unknown&as_brr=3&sig=Riugmq-417hSFp4dQYcIhk301Rc p. 83]</ref> According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative centre for Christians, following the dispersion after the death of Stephen. It was at this time in Antioch, Acts reports, the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|11:26|KJV}}</ref> === First missionary journey === Paul’s first missionary journey begins in {{bibleverse||Acts|13|KJV}} in [[Antioch]] in approximately AD 47. During this period the Christian church here grew in prominence partially owing to Jewish Christians fleeing from Jerusalem.<ref>[Gundry, R.H, A Survey of the New Testament 3rd edition (Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1994)]</ref> The [[Holy Spirit]], speaking through one of the prophets listed in {{bibleverse||Acts|13:1|KJV}}, identifies Barnabas and Saul to be appointed “for the work which I have called them to.” The group then releases the pair from the church to spread the Gospel into the predominantly [[Gentile]] mission field. The significance of the [[Holy Spirit]] selecting him can be seen in {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:1|KJV}} when Paul states that he is made an apostle “not through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father.” Traveling via the port of [[Seleucia Pieria]], [[Barnabas]] and Saul’s initial destination is the island of Cyprus of which Barnabas had intimate knowledge, as he grew up there {{bibleverse||Acts|4:36|KJV}}. Preaching throughout the island, it is not until reaching the city of Paphos that they meet the magician and [[false prophet]] Bar-Jesus, described by Luke as “full of deceit and all fraud”. The two rebuke the magician, causing him to go [[blindness|blind]] and, upon seeing this Sergius Paulus, is astonished at the teaching of the Lord. [[Image:Ananias house.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The house of [[Ananias of Damascus|St. Ananias]] in [[Damascus]]]] Once having left [[Cyprus]], Saul exchanges his Hebrew name for the more appropriate [[Greco-Roman]] name of Paul for ministering to the Gentiles. It is also here that their helper John Mark departs them - an act which later becomes a source of much tension between Paul and Barnabas and ultimately leading to their split in {{bibleverse||Acts|15:36-41|KJV}}. The two then set about strategically preaching to major cities as they make their way across the provinces of [[Asia Minor]]. A noticeable pattern begins to develop: after successfully speaking to the people in an area, the local Jews become apprehensive resulting in hostility which eventually forces them to move on. An example of this can be seen in [[Antioch, Pisidia|Antioch of Pisidia]]. Paul’s preaching in the local synagogue spreads quickly to ensure that almost the entire city turns out to hear him speak the following week. So radical is Paul’s message of salvation for both Jews and Gentiles through the justification of the death and resurrection of Jesus, the two are expelled from the city by the jealous Jewish chief men of the city. Likewise in the subsequent city of [[Iconium]] their message splits the town population in two. Ultimately they are compelled to flee because of rising Jewish violence against them. Traveling on to [[Lystra]] where no mention is made of any God fearing gentiles, it can be assumed that there was most likely no synagogue here.<ref>[Kistemaker, S.J, Acts (New Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990)]</ref> With no formal place to preach in they come across a man who has been crippled from birth. Seeing that the man has faith enough to be healed at Paul's instruction, he gets up and walks. In spite of this the Lystrians are now convinced that the two are the human incarnation of [[Zeus]] and [[Hermes]] and proceed to sacrifice oxen before them. [[Paul]] and [[Barnabas]] are so distraught at this that they tear off their clothes and cry out to the people. Pleading with the crowd, the style of preaching becomes more basic as [[Lystra]] has no knowledge of God. Paul starts from the basics by stating that God is a living God who made the heavens, earth and seas ({{bibleverse||Acts|14:15|KJV}}). Paul is then hunted by disgruntled Jews from [[Antioch]] and [[Iconium]] and is [[stoning|stoned]] to the point where he is thought to be dead. Amazingly he gets to his feet and flees to [[Derbe]] and preaches the word there. He then opts to return to the cities he visited to encourage disciples, establish churches and appoint elders. This emphasis on the role of the whole church is strengthened once at home in Antioch where he finally gathers together the unified church to report to them on all his experiences. Here he summarises the aim of his journey well, to “give God the honor and the glory” ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:4|KJV}}) Part of this first missionary journey can be walked today in the [[Saint Paul Trail]], a [[Long-distance trail|long-distance footpath]] in [[Turkey]]. === Council of Jerusalem === {{main|Council of Jerusalem}} According to {{bibleverse||Acts|15|KJV}}, Paul attended a meeting of the apostles and elders held in Jerusalem where they discussed the question of [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision of Gentile Christians]] and whether Christians should follow the Mosaic law. Traditionally, this meeting is called the [[Council of Jerusalem]],<ref>for example see the title in {{bibleverse||Acts|15|NIV}} in the NIV</ref> though nowhere is it called so in the text of the New Testament. Paul and the apostles apparently met at Jerusalem several times. Unfortunately, there is some difficulty in determining the sequence of the meetings and exact course of events.<ref> see below </ref> Some Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, some meetings are mentioned in Paul's letters, and some appear to be mentioned in both.<ref name="white">{{cite book | pages=148–149 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC&pg=PA149&vq=%22Two+more+of+Paul%27s+visits+to+Jerusalem%22&dq=paul+%22visits+to+jerusalem%22+acts+letters&as_brr=3&sig=Lir18QcyIN5vGQhjG0W8m8KwIqI | first=L. Michael | last=White | title=From Jesus to Christianity | publisher=HarperCollins | isbn=0060526556 | date=2004 }}</ref> For example, it has been suggested that the Jerusalem visit for [[famine]] relief implied in {{bibleverse||Acts|11:27–30|KJV}} corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only) narrated in {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:18–20|KJV}}.<ref name="white" /> In {{bibleverse||Galatians|2:1|KJV}}, Paul describes a "second visit" to Jerusalem as a private occasion, whereas Acts 15 describes a public meeting in Jerusalem addressed by James at its conclusion. Thus, while most<ref name="white" /><ref>[[Raymond E. Brown]] in ''Introduction to the New Testament'' argues that they are the same event but each from a different viewpoint with its own bias.</ref> think that Galatians 2:1 corresponds to the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15, others{{Who|date=July 2007}} think that Paul is referring here to the meeting in {{bibleverse||Acts|11|KJV}} (the "famine visit"). <!-- — commenting out this next section — because it's hard to understand and unsupported by refs — and that the letter to the Galatians was written after the men had come to Antioch demanding circumcision and before the "Council of Jerusalem," the public meeting, had taken place — or even as he was setting out for it — this interpretation would make Galatians the earliest letter to be written (it is generally dated between 48 and 55). If the meeting was private, Luke's informants might have had no knowledge of it; however, it could not have taken place fourteen years after the first encounter (or seventeen from the date of Paul's conversion), because the famine relief took place in the reign of King [[Herod Agrippa]], according to Acts; he died in 44.{{or}} That would put Paul's conversion at 27, likely before Jesus' death.<ref>The [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|crucifixion]] is generally dated between 28 and 36, 28 being the year that [[John the Baptist]] began his ministry according to {{bibleverse||Luke|3|NIV}}, 36 being the year of [[Pilate]]'s recall to Rome; the traditional date is ''c.'' 33.</ref> — — end of commented out section — -->Other conjectures have been offered: the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit;<ref>''Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit,'' [[F. F. Bruce]], Paternoster 1980, p.151</ref> If there was a public rather than a private meeting, it seems likely that it took place after Galatians was written.<ref> Ogg, George (ibid) p. 731</ref> According to Acts, Paul and Barnabas were appointed to go to Jerusalem to speak with the apostles and elders and were welcomed by them.<ref>[[Bruce Metzger]]'s ''Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament'' has the [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version]] of 15:2: "for Paul spoke maintaining firmly that they should stay as they were when converted; but those who had come from Jerusalem ordered them, Paul and Barnabas and certain others, to go up to Jerusalem to the apostles and elders that they might be judged before them about this question."</ref> The key question raised (in both Acts and Galatians and which is not in dispute) was whether [[Gentile]] converts needed to be circumcised ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:2|NIV}}ff; {{bibleverse||Galatians|2:1|NIV}}ff). Paul states that he had attended "in response to a revelation and to lay before them the gospel that I preached among the Gentiles" ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:2|NIV}}). Peter publicly reaffirmed a decision he had made previously ({{bibleverse||Acts|10-11|NIV}}), proclaiming: "[God] put no difference between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith" ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:9|NIV}}), echoing an earlier statement: "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons" ({{bibleverse||Acts|10:34|NIV}}). James concurred: "We should not trouble those of the Gentiles who are turning to God" ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:19–21|NIV}}), and a letter (later known as the [[Council of Jerusalem#Apostolic Decree|Apostolic Decree]]) was sent back with Paul to the Gentiles who Honoured God's name enjoining them from [[idolatry]], from bloodshed, from unkashered meat, and from [[fornication|sexual immorality]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:29|NIV}}), which some consider related to [[Noahide Law]]<ref>For example, [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine's]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/140632.htm Contra Faustum 32].13, see also [[Council of Jerusalem]]</ref> while others instead see a connection to {{bibleverse||Leviticus|17}} and [[Leviticus 18|18]].<ref>[[Joseph Fitzmyer]], ''The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries)'', Yale University Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0300139829, chapter V</ref> Despite the agreement they achieved at the meeting as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch"<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers] see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"</ref> over his reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch. Paul later wrote: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong" and said to the apostle: "You are a Jew, yet you [[Hellenization|live like a Gentile]] and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you [[Judaizers|force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs]]?" ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:11–14|NIV}}). Paul also mentioned that even Barnabas sided with Peter.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers]: "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten with the Gentiles, "withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision," and by his example drew with him not only the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer."</ref> On the incident, the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: The Incident at Antioch] states: "St. Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that St. Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." However, L. Michael White's ''From Jesus to Christianity'' states: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."<ref>{{cite book | pages=170 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC&pg=PA170&vq=%22total+failure+of+political+bravado%22&dq=paul+%22visits+to+jerusalem%22+acts+letters&as_brr=3&sig=EZ2xNofTh3Rw11WHiHXs-iVqhR8 | first=L. Michael | last=White | title=From Jesus to Christianity | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | date=2004 | isbn=0–06–052655–6 }}</ref> (see also [[Pauline Christianity]]). Acts does not record this event, saying only that "some time later," Paul decided to leave Antioch (usually considered the beginning of his "Second Missionary Journey," ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:36–18:22|NIV}}) with the object of visiting the believers in the towns where he and Barnabas had preached earlier, but this time without Barnabas. At this point the Galatians witness ceases. ==== Paul's visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles ==== <!-- Not sure exactly where this should go in the article — Please move to better place if you have a good idea --> This table is adapted from White, ''From Jesus to Christianity.''<ref name="white" /> {| class="wikitable" align="center" border=5 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 |- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | align="center" width="50%"| '''Acts''' | align="center" width="50%"| '''Epistles''' |- valign="top" | align="left"| * First visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:26–27|NIV}}) ** after Damascus conversion ** preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas * Second visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|11:29–30|NIV}}) ** For famine relief * Third visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:1–19|NIV}}) ** With Barnabas ** "Council of Jerusalem" * Fourth visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|18:21–22|NIV}}) ** To "keep the feast" ({{bibleverse||Acts|18:21|NIV}}) * Fifth visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Acts|21:17|NIV}}ff) ** Paul arrested | align="left"| * No visit to Jerusalem immediately after conversion ({{bibleverse||Galatians|1:17–18|NIV}}) * First visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Galatians|1:18–20|NIV}}) * Sees only Cephas (Peter) and James * Second visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:1–10|NIV}}) ** With Barnabas and Titus ** Possibly the "Council of Jerusalem" ** Paul agrees to "remember the poor" ** Followed by confrontation with Peter in Antioch ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:11–14|NIV}}) * Third visit to Jerusalem ({{bibleverse||Romans|15:25|NIV}}ff, {{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|8–9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|16:1–3|NIV}}) * Paul delivers the collection for the poor |- |} === Second missionary journey === [[Image:Saint-Paul.JPG|thumb|180px|Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th-early 7th century ([[Musée de Cluny]])]] And following a dispute between Paul and Barnabas over whether they should take John Mark with them, they go on separate journeys ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:36–41|NIV}}) — Barnabas with John Mark, and Paul with Silas. Following {{bibleverse||Acts|16:1–18:22|NIV}}, Paul and Silas go to Derbe and then Lystra. They are joined by [[Timothy]], the son of a Jewish woman and a [[Greek people|Greek]] man. According to {{bibleverse||Acts|16:3|NIV}}, Paul circumcises Timothy before leaving.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch16.html McGarvey]: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this 'on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters.'"</ref> They continue to [[Phrygia]] and northern [[Galatia]] to [[Troas]], when, inspired by a vision they set off for [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]. At [[Philippi]] they meet and bring to faith a wealthy woman named [[Lydia of Thyatira]], they then baptize her and her household; there Paul is also arrested and badly beaten. According to Acts, Paul then sets off for [[Thessalonica]].<ref>[http://www.bible.org/assets/netbible/jp2.jpg Map of Paul's Second Missionary Journey]</ref> This accords with Paul's own account ({{bibleverse|1|Thessalonians|2:2|NIV}}), though, given that he had been in Philippi only "some days," the church must have been founded by someone other than Paul. According to Acts, Paul then comes to [[Athens]] where he gives his speech in the [[Areopagus]]; in this speech, he tells Athenians that the "[[Unknown God]]" to whom they had a shrine is in fact known, as the God who had raised Jesus from the dead. ({{bibleverse||Acts|17:16–34|NIV}}) [[Image:Stpaulscorinth.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Greek Orthodox]] Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in [[Corinth]], [[Greece]]]] Thereafter Paul travelled to [[Corinth]], where he settled for three years and where he may have written 1 Thessalonians which is estimated to have been written in 50 or 51.<ref name="Inter"/> At Corinth, ({{bibleverse||Acts|18:12–17|NIV}}) the "Jews united" and charged Paul with "persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law"; the proconsul [[Gallio]] then judged that it was an internal religious dispute and dismissed the charges. "Then all of them (Other ancient authorities read all the Greeks) seized [[Sosthenes]], the official of the synagogue, and beat him in front of the tribunal. But Gallio paid no attention to any of these things."<ref>Acts 18:17 NRSV</ref> From an inscription in [[Delphi]] that mentions Gallio held office from 51–52 or 52–53,<ref name="Inter"/> the year of the hearing must have been in this time period, which is the only fixed date in the chronology of Paul's life.<ref>[http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Pauline_Chronology.htm Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work], from [http://catholic-resources.org Catholic Resources] by Felix Just, S.J.</ref> === Third missionary journey === Following this hearing, Paul continued his preaching, usually called his "third missionary journey" ({{bibleverse||Acts|18:23–21:26|NIV}}), traveling again through Asia Minor and [[Macedonia]], to Antioch and back. He caused a great uproar in the theatre in [[Ephesus]], where local silversmiths feared loss of income due to Paul's activities. Their income relied on the sale of [[silver]] statues (idols) of the goddess [[Artemis]], whom they worshipped; the resulting mob almost killed Paul ({{bibleverse||Acts|19:21–41|NIV}}) and his companions. Later, as Paul was passing near Ephesus on his way to Jerusalem, Paul chose not to stop, since he was in haste to reach Jerusalem by [[Pentecost]].<ref>[http://www.bible.org/assets/netbible/jp3.jpg Map of Paul's Third Missionary Journey]</ref> The church here, however, was so highly regarded by Paul that he called the elders to Miletus to meet with him ({{bibleverse||Acts|20:16–38|NIV}}). == Arrest and death == According to {{bibleverse||Acts|21:17–26|NIV}}, upon his arrival in Jerusalem, the Apostle Paul provided a detailed account to James regarding his ministry among the Gentiles, it states further that all the Elders were present. James and the Elders praised God for the report which they received. Afterward the elders informed him of rumors that had been circulating, which stated that he was teaching Jews to forsake observance of the [[Law of Moses|Mosaic law]], and the customs of the Jews; including circumcision. To rebut these rumors, the elders asked Paul to join with four other men in performing the vow of purification according to Mosaic law, in order to disprove the accusations of the Jews. Paul agreed, and proceeded to perform the vow. ''See Also:'' [[Paul the Apostle#Relationship with Judaism|Relationship with Judaism]] [[Image:Temple inscription in greek.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Greek language]] inscription from [[Herod's Temple]], late 1st century BC. It warns [[gentiles]] to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.]] Some of the Jews had seen Paul accompanied by a Gentile, and assumed that he had brought the Gentile into [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple]], which if he had been found guilty of such, would have carried the death penalty.<ref>''Expositor's Bible Commentary'' (Zondervan, 1978–1992), Commentary on Acts 21:27–29</ref> The Jews were on the verge of killing Paul when Roman soldiers intervened. The Roman commander took Paul into custody to be scourged and questioned, and imprisoned him, first in Jerusalem, and then in [[Caesarea]]. Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome, but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea for two years. When a new governor (Porcius Festus) took office, Paul was sent by sea to Rome. During this trip to Rome, Paul was shipwrecked on [[Malta]], where Acts states that he preached the Gospel, and the people converted to Christianity. The [[Roman Catholic]] church has named the Apostle Paul as the patron saint of Malta in observance of his work there. It is thought that Paul continued his journey by sea to Syracuse, on the Italian island of Sicily before eventually going to Rome. According to {{bibleverse||Acts|28:30–31|NIV}}, Paul spent another two years in Rome under house arrest, where he continued to preach the [[gospel]] and teach about [[Jesus]] being the [[Christ]]. Of his detention in Rome, Philippians provides some additional support. It was clearly written from prison and references to the "[[praetorian guard]]" and "Caesar's household," which may suggest that it was written from Rome. Whether Paul died in Rome, or was able to go to [[Spain]] as he had hoped, as noted in his letter to the [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] ({{bibleverse||Romans|15:22–27|NIV}}), is uncertain. [[1 Clement]] reports this about Paul:<ref>The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5–6, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in {{cite book | first=Joseph Barber | last=Lightfoot | title=The Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations | publisher=Macmillan | date=1890 | pages=274 | oclc=54248207 | url=http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html }}</ref><blockquote> "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance." </blockquote> Commenting on this passage, [[Raymond E. Brown|Raymond Brown]] writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martydom is the most reasonable interpretation."<ref>{{cite book | pages=124 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_6H3XKLXGvYC&pg=PA124&vq=%22such+a+martyrdom+is+the+most+reasonable+interpretation%22&dq=paul+clement+death&as_brr=3&sig=CcsRPhc3hLHN-RKGuHtE1mVQsyk | first=Raymond Edward | last=Brown | coauthors=John Paul Meier | title=Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity | publisher=Paulist Press | location=Mahwah, NJ | date=1983 | isbn=0809125323 }} </ref> [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], who wrote in the fourth century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]]. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. A [[Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his [[martyrdom]], other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).<ref>Lactanius, John Chrysostom, Sulpicius Severus all agree with Eusebius' claim that Peter and Paul died under Nero. Lactantius, ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died'' II; John Chrysostom, ''Concerning Lowliness of Mind'' 4; Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' II.28–29</ref> <!-- — — commenting this sentence out b/c it's uncited and seems incorrect — — A number of other sources including [[Clement of Rome]], say that Paul survived Rome and went to "the limits of the west."<ref>The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal Acts of Peter, the Muratorian Fragment and First Epistle of Clement 5:6 all say Paul survived Rome and traveled west</ref> — — end comment — --> Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed ({{bibleverse|2|Timothy|4:13|NIV}}). A Roman Catholic tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ''ad Catacumbas'' by the [[Appian Way|via Appia]] until moved to what is now the [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]] in Rome (now in the process of being excavated). [[Bede]], in his ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History]]'', writes that [[Pope Vitalian]] in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the [[Crypt of Lucina|crypts of Lucina]] to King [[Oswy of Northumbria]], northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains. == Writings == {{main|Authorship of the Pauline Epistles}} === Authorship === [[Image:PaulT.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'', 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, [[Houston]], [[Texas]]).]] Saint Paul is the second most prolific contributor to the New Testament (after [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], whose two books amount to nearly a third of the New Testament). Thirteen letters are attributed to him with varying degrees of confidence.<ref>''Hebrews''' authorship by Paul was questioned as early as Origen (circa. 200); it has no early attribution; the almost unanimous views of scholars is that it is not Pauline</ref> The letters are written in [[Koine Greek]] and it may be that he employed an [[amanuensis]], only occasionally writing himself.<ref> see {{bibleverse||Galatians|6:11|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|16:22|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|16:21|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Colossians|4:18|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|2| Thessalonians|3:17|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Philemon|1:19|NIV}}</ref> The [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles#The undisputed epistles|undisputed Pauline epistles]] contain the earliest systematic account of Christian doctrine, and provide information on the life of the infant Church. They are arguably the oldest part of the New Testament. Paul also appears in the pages of the Acts of the Apostles, attributed to [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], so that it is possible to compare the account of his life in the Acts with his own account in his various letters. His letters are largely written to churches which he had founded or visited; he was a great traveler, visiting [[Cyprus]], [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]), [[Macedon]]ia, mainland [[Greece]], [[Crete]], and [[Rome]] bringing the [[Gospel|teachings of Jesus of Nazareth]] with him. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life and teachings of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the [[Last Supper]] ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:17-34|KJV}}) and the [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|crucifixion and resurrection]] ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15|KJV}} [[1 Corinthians 15]]). His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|7:10-11|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Corinthians|9:14|KJV}}), raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent [[Pauline Christianity|his account of the faith]] is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the [[Epistle of James]]. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the [[historical Jesus]] has been expounded by [[Adolf Harnack]] among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality. Of the thirteen letters traditionally attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles#The undisputed epistles|seven]], those being [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]], [[First Corinthians]], [[Second Corinthians]], [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]], [[Philippians]], [[First Thessalonians]], and [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]. [[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]], which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never had an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul, see also [[Antilegomena]]. The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees. The authenticity of [[Colossians]] has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a [[Christology]] found elsewhere only in St. John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. More problematic is [[Ephesians]], a very similar letter to Colossians, but which reads more like a manifesto than a letter. It is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique; it lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the [[Second Coming]] is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the grudging reference in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|7:8-9|KJV}}. Finally it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.<ref name="Brown">Brown, R.E., ''The Churches the Apostles left behind'' p.48.</ref> The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. The [[Pastoral Epistles]], 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style and [[Christian theology|theology]] from Paul's acknowledged writings; secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.<ref name="Barrett">Barrett, C.K. ''the Pastoral Epistles'' p.4ff.</ref> They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission. 2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with scholars noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. === Paul and Jesus === [[Image:Paul Apostle.jpg|thumb|[[Russian Orthodox]] [[icon]] of the Apostle Paul, 18th century ([[Iconostasis]] of [[Transfiguration]] [[Orthodox church (building)|church]], [[Kizhi]] [[monastery]], [[Karelia]], [[Russia]]).]] {{main|Atonement}} Little can be deduced about the historical life of Jesus from Paul's letters. He mentions specifically the Last Supper ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23|NIV}}ff), his death by crucifixion ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|2:2|KJV}}; {{bibleverse||Philippians|2:8|NIV}}), and his resurrection ({{bibleverse||Philippians|2:9|NIV}}). In addition, Paul states that Jesus was a Jew of the line of [[King David|David]] ({{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|KJV}}) who was betrayed ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:12|KJV}}). Paul concentrates instead on the nature of Christians' relationship with Christ and, in particular, on Christ's saving work. In Mark's gospel, Jesus is recorded as saying that he was to "give up his life as a ransom for many."<ref> {{bibleverse||Mark|10:45|KJV}} </ref> Paul's account of this idea of a saving act is more fully articulated in various places in his letters, most notably in his letter to the Romans. What Christ has achieved for those who believe in him is variously described: as [[sin]]ners under the law, they are "[[Justification (theology)|justified]] by his [[Divine grace|grace]] as a gift"; they are "[[Redemption (religious)|redeemed]]" by Jesus who was put forward by God as expiation; they are "reconciled" by his death; his death was a propitiatory or expiatory sacrifice or a ransom paid. The gift (grace) is to be received in faith ({{bibleverse||Romans|3:24|NIV}}; {{bibleverse||Romans|5:9|NIV}}). '''Justification''' derives from the law courts.<ref> Oxford Dictionary of the Christian church (Oxford 1958) article on Justification </ref> Those who are justified are acquitted of an offence. Since the sinner is guilty, he or she can only be acquitted by someone else, Jesus, standing in for them, which has led many Christians to believe in the teaching known as the doctrine of [[penal substitution]]. The sinner is, in Paul's words "justified by faith" ({{bibleverse||Romans|5:1|NIV}}), that is, by adhering to Christ, the sinner becomes at one with Christ in his death and resurrection (hence the word "[[atonement]]"). Acquittal, however, is achieved not on the grounds that we share in Christ's innocence, but on the grounds of his sacrifice (crucifixion), i.e., his innocent undergoing of punishment on behalf of sinners who should have suffered [[divine retribution]] for their sins. They deserved to be punished and he took their punishment. They are justified by his death, and now "so much more we are saved by him from divine retribution" ({{bibleverse||Romans|5:9|NIV}}). For an understanding of the meaning of faith as that which justifies, Paul turns to [[Abraham]], who trusted God's promise that he would be father of many nations. Abraham preceded the giving of the law on [[Mount Sinai]]. Abraham could not, of course, have faith in the living Christ but, in Paul's view, "the gospel was preached to him beforehand" ({{bibleverse||Galatians|3:8|NIV}}); this is in line with Paul's belief in the pre-existence of Christ (cf. {{bibleverse||Philippians|2:5–11|NIV}}.<ref name="Hanson">Hanson A.T., ''Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology (SPCK 1974) p. 64</ref> Within the last three decades, a number of theologians have put forward a "new perspective" on Paul's doctrine of justification, and even more specifically on what he says about justification by faith. Justification by faith means God accepts Gentiles in addition to Jews, since both believe in God. Paul writes in his letter to the Romans, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law. Is God the God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, of Gentiles too, since there is only one God, who will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through that same faith" (Romans 3:28-30). Faith is the central component of Paul's doctrine of justification -- it means that Gentiles don't need to become Israelites when they convert to Christianity, because God is not just the God of one nation, but Gentile and Jew alike.<ref name="Gathercole">Gathercole Simon, "What Did Paul Really Mean?" (''[[Christianity Today]]'', 2007)</ref> [[Image:Malta-stpaul-column.jpg|thumb|left|The St. Paul column ([[Valletta]], [[Malta]]).]] '''Redemption''' has a different origin, that of the freeing of slaves; it is similar in character as a transaction to the paying of a ransom, (cf. {{bibleverse||Mark|10:45|NIV}}) though the circumstances are different. Money was paid in order to set free a [[slavery|slave]] who was in the ownership of another. Here the price was the costly act of Christ's death. On the other hand, no price was paid to anyone — Paul does not suggest, for instance, that the price be paid to [[Satan|the devil]] — though this has been suggested by learned writers, ancient and modern,<ref> Christus Victor, Gustaf Aulen (SPCK 1931)</ref> such as [[Origen]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], as a reversal of the [[The Fall of Man|Fall]] by which the devil gained power over humankind. A third expression, '''reconciliation,''' is about the making of peace ({{bibleverse||Colossians|1:20|NIV}} and {{bibleverse||Romans|5:9|NIV}}), another variant of the same theme. Elsewhere ({{bibleverse||Ephesians|2:14|NIV}}) he writes of Christ breaking down the dividing wall between Jew and Gentile, which the law constituted. [[Sacrifice]] is an idea often elided with justification, but carries with it either the notion of appeasing the wrath of God (propitiation) or dealing with sin (expiation). As to how a person appropriates this gift, Paul writes of a mystical union with Christ through baptism: "we who have been baptised into Christ Jesus were baptised into his death" ({{bibleverse||Romans|6:4|NIV}}). He writes also of our being "in Christ Jesus" and alternately, of "Christ in you, the hope of glory." Thus, the objection that one person cannot be punished on behalf of another is met with the idea of the identification of the Christian with Christ through baptism. These expressions, some of which are to be found in the course of the same exposition, have been interpreted by some scholars, such as the mediaeval teacher [[Peter Abelard]] and, much more recently, [[Hastings Rashdall]],<ref name="Rashdall">Rashdall, Hastings, ''The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology'' (1919).</ref> as metaphors for the effects of Christ's death upon those who followed him. This is known as the "subjective theory of the atonement." On this view, rather than writing a systematic theology, Paul is trying to express something inexpressible. According to Ian Markham, on the other hand, the letter to the Romans is "muddled."<ref name="Markham">Markham I.S., in ''Theological Liberalism: Creative and Critical'' ed. J'annine Jobling & Ian Markham</ref> But others, ancient and modern, Protestant and Catholic, have sought to elaborate from his writing objective theories of the [[Atonement]] on which they have, however, disagreed. The doctrine of [[Sola fide|justification by faith alone]] was the major source of the division of western Christianity known as the [[Protestant Reformation]] which took place in the sixteenth century. [[Justification by faith]] was set against [[Legalism (theology)|salvation by works of the law]] in this case, the acquiring of [[indulgences]] from the Church and even such good works as the [[corporal works of mercy]]. The result of the dispute, which undermined the system of endowed prayers and the doctrine of [[purgatory]], contributed to the creation of Protestant churches in [[Western Europe]], set against the Roman Catholic Church. [[Solifidianism]] (from ''sola fide'', the [[Latin]] for "faith alone"), the name often given to these views, is associated with the works of [[Martin Luther]] (1483 — 1546) and his followers. The various doctrines of the atonement have been associated with such theologians as [[Anselm]];<ref> ''Cur Deus Homo'; Dillistone (ibid.) p. 190 ff</ref> [[John Calvin]];<ref> (ibid.) p. 195ff </ref> and more recently [[Gustaf Aulén]];<ref> (ibid.) p. 102 </ref> none found their way into the [[Creeds]]. The substitutionary theory (above), in particular, has fiercely divided [[Christendom]]; some pronouncing it essential and others repugnant.<ref> (see [[penal substitution]]</ref> (In law, no one can be punished instead of another and the punishment of the innocent is a prime example of injustice — which tells against too precise an interpretation of the atonement as a legal act.)<ref> (ibid.) p. 214 </ref> Further, because salvation could not be achieved by merit, Paul lays some stress on the notion of its being a free gift, a matter of '''Grace.''' Whereas [[Divine grace|grace]] is most often associated specifically with the Holy Spirit, in St. Paul's writing, grace is received through Jesus ({{bibleverse||Romans|1:5|NIV}}), from God through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus ({{bibleverse||Romans|3:24|NIV}}), and especially in {{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|13:14|KJV}}. On the other hand, the Spirit he describes as the Spirit of Christ (see below). The notion of free gift, not the subject of entitlement, has been associated with belief in [[predestination]] and, more controversially, [[Predestination (Calvinism)|double predestination]]: that God has chosen whom He wills to have mercy on and those whose will He has hardened ({{bibleverse||Romans|9:18|KJV}}f.). Paul's concern with what Christ had done, as described above, was matched by his desire to say also who Jesus was (and is). At the beginning of his letter to the Romans, he describes Jesus as the "Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead"; in the letter to the Colossians, he is much more explicit, describing Jesus as "the image of the invisible God," ({{bibleverse||Colossians|1:15|NIV}}) as rich and exalted picture of Jesus as can be found anywhere in the New Testament (which is one reason why some doubt its authenticity)<ref> R.E. Brown ''The Churches the Apostles left behind'' (Chapman 1984 p. 47f </ref> On the other hand, in the undisputed Pauline letter to the Church at Philippi, he describes Jesus as "in the form of God" who "did not count equality with God as thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men he humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross…" ({{bibleverse||Philippians|2:5-7|KJV}}). === Holy Spirit === In considering the manifestations of the Spirit, Paul is varied in his instructions. Thus, when discussing the gift of tongues in his first letter to the Corinthians ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|14|KJV}}), as against the unintelligible words of [[religious ecstasy|ecstasy]], he commends, by contrast, intelligibility and order. Paul argues that not all things permissible are good; he condemns eating meats that have been offered to [[pagan]] idols, frequenting pagan temples, and [[orgy|orgiastic]] feasting. On the contrary, he calls the Spirit a uniting force, manifesting Himself through the common purpose expressed in the exercise of their different gifts ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|12|KJV}}) He compares the Christian community to a human body, with its different limbs and organs, and the Spirit as the Spirit of Christ. The gifts range from administration to teaching, encouragement to healing, prophecy to the working of miracles. The fruits are the virtues of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control ({{bibleverse||Galatians|5:22|NIV}}). Love is the "most excellent" of all ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|13|KJV}}). Furthermore, the new life is the life of the Spirit, as against the life of the flesh, which Spirit is the Spirit of Christ, so that one becomes a son of God. God is our Father and we are fellow heirs of Christ ({{bibleverse||Romans|8:14|NIV}}). === Relationship with Judaism === {{seealso|Christianity and Judaism}} Paul, himself a circumcised Jew, appeared to praise Jewish circumcision in {{bibleverse||Romans|3:1–2|NIV}}, but says that circumcision doesn't matter in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|7:19|KJV}}. In Galatians, meanwhile, he accuses those who promote circumcision of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and boasting or glorying in the flesh in {{bibleverse||Galatians|6:11–13|NIV}}.{{Syn|date=October 2007}} He also [[Antinomianism|questions the authority of the law]], and though he may have opposed observance by Gentiles he also opposed Peter for his [[Cafeteria Christianity|partial observance]]. In a later letter, {{bibleverse||Philippians|3:2|NIV}}, he is reported as warning Christians to beware the "mutilation"<ref>http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/strongs.pl?strongs=2699 Strong's G2699</ref> and to "watch out for those dogs." He writes that there is neither Jew nor Greek, but Christ is all and in all. On the other hand, in Acts, he is described as submitting to taking a [[Nazirite]] vow,<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch21.html McGarvey on Acts 21]: "It is evident, from the transaction before us, as observed above, that James and the brethren in Jerusalem regarded the offering of sacrifices as at least innocent; for they approved the course of the four Nazarites, and urged Paul to join with them in the service, though it required them to offer sacrifices, and even sin-offerings. They could not, indeed, very well avoid this opinion, since they admitted the continued authority of the Mosaic law. Though disagreeing with them as to the ground of their opinion, as in reference to the other customs, Paul evidently admitted the opinion itself, for he adopted their advice, and paid the expense of the sacrifices which the four Nazarites offered"; [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10727a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Nazarite]: "From Acts ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|21:23-24|KJV}}) we learn that the early Jewish Christians occasionally took the temporary Nazarite vow, and it is probable that the vow of St. Paul mentioned in {{bibleverse||Acts|18:18|KJV}}, was of a similar nature, although the shaving of his head in Cenchræ, outside of Palestine, was not in conformity with the rules laid down in the sixth chapter of Numbers, nor with the interpretation of them by the Rabbinical schools of that period. (See Eaton in Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, s. v. Nazarites.) If we are to believe the legend of Hegesippus quoted by Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl.", II, xxiii), St. James the Less, Bishop of Jerusalem, was a Nazarite, and performed with rigorous exactness all the ascetic practices enjoined by that rule of life."</ref> and earlier to having had Timothy circumcised to placate "certain Jews".<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch16.html McGarvey]: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this "on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters."</ref> He also wrote that among the Jews he became as a Jew in order to win Jews ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|9:20|KJV}}) and to the Romans: "So the law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good" ({{bibleverse||Romans|7:12|NIV}}). However, considerable disagreement at the time and subsequently has been raised as to the significance of ''Works of the Law''.<ref>[[James D. G. Dunn]], ''Jesus, Paul and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians'', Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990, chapter 8: "Works of the Law and the Curse of the Law"</ref> In the same letter in which Paul writes of justification by faith, he says of the Gentiles: "It is not by hearing the law, but by doing it that men will be justified (same word) by God." ({{bibleverse||Romans|2:12|NIV}}) Those who think Paul was consistent have judged him not to be a [[Solifidianism|Solifidianist]] himself; others hold that he is merely demonstrating that both Jews and Gentiles are in the same condition of sin. Some scholars find that Paul's agreement to perform the vow of purification noted in {{bibleverse||Acts|21:18–26|NIV}} and his circumcision of Timothy noted in {{bibleverse||Acts|16:3|NIV}}, are difficult to reconcile with his personally expressed attitude to the Law in portions of Galatians and [[Philippians]]. For example, J. W. McGarvey's ''Commentary on Acts 21:18–26''<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch21.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> states: {{cquote|This I confess to be the most difficult passage in Acts to fully understand, and to reconcile with the teaching of Paul on the subject of the Mosaic law.}} And his ''Commentary on Acts 16:3''<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch16.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> states: {{cquote|The circumcision of Timothy is quite a remarkable event in the history of Paul, and presents a serious injury as to the consistency of his teaching and of his practice, in reference to this [[Covenant (Biblical)#Abrahamic Covenant|Abrahamic rite]]. It demands of us, at this place, as full consideration as our limits will admit.}} This is generally reconciled by arguing that Paul's attitude to the Law was flexible, for instance the 1910 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm "Judaizers"], 1910 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]</ref> writes: {{cquote|Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|9:20|KJV}}).}} The 1906 [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] article on [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543 Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah] notes the following reconciliation: {{cquote|[[Jacob Emden|R. Emden]], in a remarkable [[apologetics|apology]] for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the [[Seven Laws of Noah|seven moral laws of Noah]] and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law — which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the [[Biblical law in Christianity|laws of Moses]] and the [[Sabbath in Christianity|Sabbath]].}} [[E. P. Sanders]] in 1977<ref>''Paul and Palestinian Judaism'' 1977 SCM Press ISBN 0–8006–1899–8</ref> reframed the context to make law-keeping and good works a sign of being in the [[Covenant (biblical)|Covenant]] (marking out the Jews as the people of God) rather than deeds performed in order to accomplish salvation (so-called [[Legalism (theology)]]), a pattern of religion he termed "[[covenantal nomism]]." If Sanders' perspective is valid, the traditional Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification may have needed rethinking, for the interpretive framework of Martin Luther was called into question. Sanders' work has since been taken up by Professor [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]]<ref>''J.D.G. Dunn's ''Manson Memorial Lecture'' (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95–122.</ref> and [[N.T. Wright]],<ref>[http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm ''New Perspectives on Paul'']</ref> Anglican Bishop of Durham, and the [[New Perspective]]. Wright, noting the apparent discrepancy between Romans and Galatians, the former being much more positive about the continuing covenantal relationship between God and his ancient people, than the latter, contends that works are not insignificant ({{bibleverse||Romans|2:13|KJV}}ff) and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} === Resurrection === {{seealso|Resurrection of the dead|1 Corinthians 15}} Paul appears to develop his ideas in response to the particular congregation to whom he is writing ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|9:19-23|KJV}}). He writes of the hope given to all who belong to Christ, includes those who have already died but who have been baptised vicariously by the baptism of others on their behalf — so that they may be included among the saved ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:29|KJV}}); (whether or not Paul of Tarsus approved of the practice he was apparently prepared to use as part of his argument in favour of the resurrection of the dead). === The World to come === {{seealso|Second Coming|End times}} Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. Paul regarded the age as passing and, in such difficult times, he therefore encouraged marriage as a means of happiness. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive ({{bibleverse|1|Thessalonians|4:16|NIV}}ff). This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.<ref> Rowlands, Christopher ''Christian Origins'' (SPCK 1985) p.113 </ref> The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the [[Man of Sin|man of lawlessness]] ({{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|2:3|NIV}}ff) whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ. The delay in the coming of the end has been interpreted in different ways: on one view, Paul of Tarsus and the early Christians were simply mistaken; on another, that of [[Austin Farrer]], his presentation of a single ending can be interpreted to accommodate the fact that endings occur all the time and that, subjectively, we all stand an instant from judgement. The delay is also accounted for by God's patience (({{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|2:6|NIV}}). As for the form of the end, the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' presents two distinct ideas. First, universal judgement, with neither the good nor the wicked omitted ({{bibleverse||Romans|14:10–12|NIV}}), nor even the angels ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|6:3|KJV}}). Second, and more controversially, judgment will be according to faith and works, mentioned concerning sinners ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|11:15|KJV}}), the just ({{bibleverse|2|Timothy|4:14|KJV}}), and men in general ({{bibleverse||Romans|2:6–9|NIV}}). == Speculative views == [[Image:Caravaggio-The Conversion on the Way to Damascus.jpg|thumb|''The conversion on the way to Damascus,'' by [[Caravaggio]].]] {{main|Pauline Christianity}} [[Elaine Pagels]], professor of religion at [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and an authority on [[Gnosticism]], argues that Paul was a Gnostic<ref>Pagels, Elaine. ''The Gnostic Gospels.'' Vintage Publishers, 1989, p.62 </ref> and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this. Pagels maintains that the majority of the Christian churches in the second century went with the majority of the [[middle class]] in opposing the trend toward equality for women. By the year 200, the majority of Christian communities endorsed as canonical the "pseudo-Pauline" letter to Timothy. That letter, according to Pagels, stresses and exaggerates the [[antifeminism|antifeminist]] element in Paul's views: "Let a woman learn in silence in all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent." She believes the letters to the Colossians and to the Ephesians, which order women to "be subject in everything to their husbands," do not express what she says were Paul's very favorable attitudes toward women, but also were "pseudo-Pauline" [[forgery|forgeries]]. Theologian Robert Cramer agrees that the "pseudo-Pauline" epistles were written to marginalize women, especially in the church and in marriage:: ::Since it is now widely concluded that the Pastoral Epistles were written around 115 AD, these words were written most likely about 50 years after Paul's martyrdom. Considering the similarity between {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|14:35|NIV}} and {{bibleverse|1|Timothy|2:11-12|NIV}}, conclusions that I and others continue to draw are: ::#that Paul wrote the bulk of what was in 1 Corinthians but that he did not write 1 Timothy, and ::#that around 115 AD, the writer of 1 Timothy or a group associated with him added the {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|14:33-36|NIV}} pericope to the body of letters that later became 1 Corinthians. ::In this scenario this would have been done in part to lend further authority to a later (or more culturally acceptable) teaching that marginalized women.<ref>Cramer, Robert N. "Women's roles in early church — real history, revisionism, and making things right." Online: http://www.bibletexts.com/qa/qa078.htm#1 Accessed October 5, 2007</ref> Father Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, O.P., in the ''New Jerome Biblical Commentary,'' agrees that the verses not favorable to women were "post-Pauline interpolations": ::{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|14:34-35|NIV}} are not a Corinthian slogan, as some have argued…, but a post-Pauline interpolation…. Not only is the appeal to the law (possibly {{bibleverse||Genesis|3:16|HE}}) un-Pauline, but the verses contradict {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:5|NIV}}. The injunctions reflect the [[misogyny]] of {{bibleverse|1|Timothy|2:11-14|NIV}} and probably stem from the same circle. Some mss. place these verses after 40.<ref>''New Jerome Biblical Commentary,'' edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J, and Roland E. Murphy, O.Carm., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, pages 811-812)</ref> Talmudic scholar [[Hyam Maccoby]] contends that the Paul as described in the [[Book of Acts]] and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Additionally, the speeches of Paul, as recorded in Acts, have been argued to show a different turn of mind. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit. On the other hand, according to Maccoby, there are no references to [[John the Baptist]] in the [[Pauline Epistles]], but Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts. [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F.C.Baur]] (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany and founder of the so-called [[Tübingen School]] of theology, argued that Paul, as the apostle to the Gentiles, was in violent opposition to the older disciples. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with [[Adolf Deissmann]] (1866–1937) and [[Richard Reitzenstein]] (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and [[Albert Schweitzer]] stressing his dependence on Judaism. Maccoby theorizes that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributes the origins of Christian [[anti-Semitism]] to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.<ref>Maccoby, Hyam. ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity.'' HarperCollins, 1987. Ch. 1</ref> Professor [[Robert Eisenman]] of California State University at Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.<ref>See Paul as Herodian, JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110-122. http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/eisenman.html</ref> Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."<ref><u>Antiquities</u>, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm</ref> Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans, 16:11 where Paul writes, "greet Herodion, my kinsman." This is a minority view in the academic community. Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was [[Thomas Jefferson]], who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus". <ref>''The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Nites, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole'', by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854.</ref> Howard Brenton's play ''[[Paul (play)|Paul]]'' also takes a sceptical account as to his conversion. == Sickness == It has been suggested that Paul suffered from a condition of [[Ophthalmia]]. This has been referenced in many of Paul's writings. They are, most notably, {{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|12:7|NIV}}. Others include {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:15|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|2:3-4|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|10:10|KJV}}. [[C.I. Scofield]] made [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Commentaries/ScofieldReferenceNotes/srn.cgi?book=2co&chapter=012 this observation] in his Study Bible. There is no record of Paul curing himself. == See also == * [[Achaichus]] * [[Pauline Epistles]] * [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles]] * [[Christian mystics]] * [[New Covenant]] * [[Old Testament#Christian_views_on_Mosaic_Law|Old Testament: Christian views of the Law]] * [[Persecution of Christians in the New Testament]] * [[Pauline Christianity]] * [[Persecution of religion in ancient Rome]] == Notes == {{reflist|2}} <!-- Dead note "Spong": John Shelby Spong, "[http://www.escapefromwatchtower.com/spong7&8.html The Man From Tarsus]," in ''Rescuing the Bible From Fundamentalism,'' reprint ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1992). --> == References == * [[Gustaf Aulén|Aulén, Gustaf]], ''Christus Victor'' (SPCK 1931) * [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown Raymond E.]] ''The Church the Apostles left behind''(Chapman 1984) * [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]] ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' [[Anchor Bible Series]], 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2. * [[F.F. Bruce|Bruce, F.F.]], ''Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free'' (ISBN 0–8028–4778–1) * Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' ''Bulletin John Rylands Library'' 58 (1976) 283–305 * [[Hans Conzelmann|Conzelmann, Hans]], ''the Acts of the Apostles — a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles'' (Augsburg Fortress 1987) * {{citation | last=Davies | first=W. D. | contribution=The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul | editor-first=Matthew | editor-last=Black | title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible | publisher=T. Nelson | location=London | date=1962 | isbn=0840750196 }} * {{cite book | first=W. D. | last=Davies | title=Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology | publisher=S.P.C.K. | edition=third edition | date=1970 | isbn=0281024499 }} * [[James D. G. Dunn|Dunn, James D.G.]], 1990, ''Jesus, Paul and the Law'' Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664250955 * {{cite book | first=Anthony Tyrrell | last=Hanson | title=Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology | publisher=Eerdmans | location=Grand Rapids, MI | date=1974 | isbn=0802834523 }} * [[Irenaeus]], ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]],'' i.26.2 * [[Hyam Maccoby|Maccoby, Hyam]]. ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity.'' New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0–06–015582–5. * MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. ''The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press. * {{citation | first=George | last=Ogg | contribution=Chronology of the New Testament | editor-first=Matthew | editor-last=Black | title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible | publisher=T. Nelson | location=London | date=1962 | isbn=0840750196 }} * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills'' (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0814658458 * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Paul: A Critical Life'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5 * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives'' (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0814651739 * Rashdall, Hastings, ''The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology'' (1919) * John Ruef, ''Paul's First letter to Corinth'' (Penguin 1971) * [[E.P. Sanders|Sanders, E.P.]], ''Paul and Palestinian Judaism'' (1977) * [[Alan F. Segal|Segal, Alan F.]], "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in ''Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World'' (Harvard University Press 1986). * [[Alan F. Segal|Segal, Alan F.]], ''Paul, the Convert'', (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1. == External links == {{Wikiquote|Paul of Tarsus}} {{commons|Paul of Tarsus}} {{Wikisource author|Paul of Tarsus}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus] * [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Paul Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul] * [http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/bible8_e.htm Epistles of Apostle Paul] Bishop Alexander (Orthodox Christian perspective) * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=283&letter=S&search=Paul%20of%20Tarsus Jewish Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus] * [http://www.thepaulpage.com New Perspective on Paul] * [http://www.chemins-cathares.eu/02_06_raison_paul_anarchiste.php Paul: anarchiste éclairé] Dr. Yves Maris * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/missions.html Paul's mission and letters] From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6219656.stm St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome] from BBC News (2006–12–08) * [http://spindleworks.com/library/rfaber/aratus.htm The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus] Dr. Riemer Faber * [http://www.parsagard.com/shipwreck.htm The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28] * [http://www.sullivan-county.com/id3/paul_problem.htm The Problem of Paul] Hyam Maccoby * [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=42907 Vatican reports discovery of St.Paul's tomb] from WorldNetDaily.com ([[February 18]], [[2005]]). cf. [[Vatican Museum]] * [http://articles.news.aol.com/news/_a/vatican-unearths-apparent-tomb-of-st/20061211154209990007?cid=2194 Vatican Unearths Apparent Tomb of Paul of Tarsus] * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N&search=New%20Testament#700 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: For and Against the Law]. * [http://www.saintpaultarsus.com/html/saint_paul1.html 2008 saint paul year] * [http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-20538 Documentary film on Apostle Paul] *.[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/887800.html] {{portalpar|Saints|Gloriole.svg}} {{Apostles}} {{New Testament people|collapsed}} {{First Journey of Paul of Tarsus}} {{Second Journey of Paul of Tarsus}} {{Third Journey of Paul of Tarsus}} <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> <!--at one time---> {{Persondata | NAME=Paul the Apostle | ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Paul of Tarsus; Paul, Saint; Saul | SHORT DESCRIPTION=Apostle who spread Christianity | DATE OF BIRTH=10 | PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], [[Turkey]] | DATE OF DEATH=67 | PLACE OF DEATH=[[Rome]], [[Italy]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Paul of Tarsus}} [[Category:67 deaths]] [[Category:Christian martyrs of the Roman era]] [[Category:Christian religious leaders]] [[Category:Jewish Christians]] [[Category:Converts from Judaism to Christianity]] [[Category:Judeo-Christian topics]] [[Category:Letter writers]] [[Category:New Testament people]] [[Category:People executed by decapitation]] [[Category:Prophets in Christianity]] [[Category:Religious writers]] [[Category:Christian writers]] [[Category:Roman era Jews]] [[Category:Saints from the Holy Land]] [[Category:Theologians]] [[Category:Jews and Judaism-related controversies]] [[Category:Biblical apostles]] [[Category:Apostle Paul]] {{Link FA|el}} [[ar:بولس]] [[bs:Sveti Pavao]] [[br:Paol Tarsos]] [[bg:Павел (апостол)]] [[ca:Pau de Tars]] [[cs:Pavel z Tarsu]] [[cy:Yr Apostol Paul]] [[da:Paulus (Bibelen)]] [[de:Paulus von Tarsus]] [[et:Paulus]] [[el:Απόστολος Παύλος]] [[es:Pablo de Tarso]] [[eo:Sankta Paŭlo]] [[eu:San Paulo]] [[fr:Paul de Tarse]] [[fy:Paulus (apostel)]] [[ga:Naomh Pól]] [[hak:Pó-lò]] [[ko:파울로스]] [[hr:Sveti Pavao]] [[id:Paulus dari Tarsus]] [[is:Páll postuli]] [[it:Paolo di Tarso]] [[he:פאולוס]] [[sw:Mtakatifu Paulo]] [[la:Paulus]] [[lt:Apaštalas Paulius]] [[hu:Pál apostol]] [[mk:Апостол Павле]] [[mt:Pawlu minn Tarsu]] [[mn:Павел]] [[nl:Paulus (apostel)]] [[ja:パウロ]] [[no:Apostelen Paulus]] [[nn:Paulus]] [[oc:Pau de Tars]] [[pl:Paweł z Tarsu]] [[pt:Paulo de Tarso]] [[ro:Pavel (apostol)]] [[ru:Апостол Павел]] [[sco:Saunt Paul]] [[sq:Shën Pali]] [[scn:Pàulu di Tarsu]] [[simple:Paul of Tarsus]] [[sk:Apoštol Pavol]] [[sl:Sveti Pavel]] [[sr:Свети апостол Павле]] [[sh:Sveti Pavle]] [[fi:Paavali]] [[sv:Paulus]] [[tl:Pablo ng Tarsus]] [[ta:புனித பவுல்]] [[th:พอลแห่งทาซัส]] [[vi:Sứ đồ Phao-lô]] [[tr:Pavlus]] [[uk:Павло (апостол)]] [[vec:San Pagoło]] [[zh:保羅]]