Perfume 98581 225753905 2008-07-15T06:43:30Z 24.98.65.57 /* Classification of Perfumes Depends on the Concentration of Active Ingredients */ {{otheruses}} '''Perfume''' is a mixture of fragrant [[essential oil]]s and [[aroma compound]]s, [[fixative]]s, and [[solvent]]s used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. [[Image:Collage of commercial perfumes.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Bottles of some notable commercial perfumes: (clockwise from top left) ''Bois de Violette'', [[Serge Lutens]], 1992; ''Angel'', [[Thierry Mugler]], 1994; ''Shalimar'', [[Guerlain]], 1925; ''Beyond Paradise'', [[Estée Lauder]], 2003; ''No. 5'', [[Chanel]], 1921 (Pre-1950 bottle); ''Cabochard'', [[Parfums Grès]], 1959 (original bottle); ''Bellodgia'', [[Parfums Caron|Caron]], 1927; ''Arpège'', [[Lanvin]], 1927 (original bottle); ''Nombre Noir'', [[Shiseido]], 1981; ''Mitsouko'', [[Guerlain]], 1919; ''Pour Un Homme'', [[Parfums Caron|Caron]], 1934.]] ==History== {{main|History of perfume}} [[Image:Egypte louvre 021.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume]] [[Image:Etruscan perfume vase Louvre Br2949.jpg|125px|left|thumbnail|[[Etruscan]] perfume vase shaped like a female head]] The word ''perfume'' used today derives from the Latin "''per fumum''", meaning ''through smoke''. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] but was developed and further refined by the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Persians]]. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in [[East Asia]], much of its fragrances are [[incense]] based. The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a person named [[Tapputi]], a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Strathern, Paul |title=Mendeleyev's Dream - The Quest For the Elements|location=New York | publisher=Berkley Books|year=2000|id=ISBN 0425184676}}</ref> Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what is believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in [[Pyrgos (Cyprus)|Pyrgos]], [[Cyprus]]. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes were discovered in an ancient perfumery factory. At least 60 distilling stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the {{convert|43000|sqft|m2|-2|sing=on}} factory.<ref>[http://www.perfumerflavorist.com/news/6663832.html 4,000-Year-Old Perfumes Found]</ref> In [[ancient]] times people used [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s, like [[almond]], [[coriander]], [[myrtle]], [[conifer|conifer resin]], [[bergamot]], but not [[flowers]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science/archaeology Fox News: Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome]</ref> The [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arabian chemist]], [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named ‘''Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations''’. It contained more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described one hundred and seven methods and recipes for perfume-making, and even the perfume making equipment, like the alembic, still bears its Arabic name<ref>al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our World, FSTC, p.22.</ref>. The Persian [[Islamic medicine|Muslim doctor]] and chemist [[Avicenna]] (also known as Ibn Sina) introduced the process of extracting oils from [[flowers]] by means of [[distillation]], the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and [[Science|scientific]] developments, particularly [[chemistry]]. Knowledge of perfumery came to [[Europe]] as early as the 14th century due partially to the spread of Islam. But it was the [[Hungarians]] who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. Made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, the first modern perfume was made in 1370 at the command of [[Elisabeth of Poland|Queen Elizabeth of Hungary]] and was known throughout [[Europe]] as [[Hungary Water]]. The art of perfumery prospered in [[Renaissance]] [[Italy]], and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by [[Catherine de' Medici]]'s personal perfumer, [[Rene le Florentin]]. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. [[France]] quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the [[Renaissance]] period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the [[Grasse]] region of [[France]] to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and [[trade]]. ==Classification of Perfumes Depends on the Concentration of Active Ingredients== Perfume types reflect the concentration of active ingredients in a solvent, nearly always ethyl alcohol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. “Musk” may be an ingredient of perfume, initially derived from the musk gland of the Musk deer as well as of certain species of Civet, and now also produced in the laboratory, and is thus a fragrance description. All classes of perfume, however, descend from the highest to the lowest concentration of the active ingredients, which are mostly aromatic oils. The most costly perfumes use natural ingredients. Because each concoction contains secret ingredients (some over 100), should an allergy occur, finding the specific cause is problematic. The ranges quoted below include the lowest to the highest percentages of many sources reviewed. Parfum (French) or Perfume (English): may contain 10-25%, even 50%, active ingredients. Eau de Parfum ( French )or eau de perfume (Franglais): may contain 7 to 15%. Eau de toilette (French), also called toilet water, cologne, or eau de cologne, usually contains about 1–6% concentrates. Eau de Cologne has also been called less concentrated than eau de toilete. Splash (also called eau de toilette splash) and aftershaves usually contain 0.5 to 2%. ==Describing a perfume== [[Image:Perfume shelf 536pix.jpg|thumb|Shelves of perfumes]] The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept [[Trade secret|secret]]. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a useful guide to the general consumer in description of the ''experience'' of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts <ref name=Burr>{{cite book | author=Burr, Chandler | title=The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the Senses | year=2003 | location=New York | publisher=Random House | id=ISBN 0-375-50797-3}}</ref>. The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the ''fragrance notes'' of the scent or the ''family'' it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent<ref name=Fortineau> Fortineau, Anne-Dominique (2004). "Chemistry Perfumes Your Daily Life". ''Journal of Chemical Education''.81(1)</ref><ref name=Edwards1>Edwards, Michael (2006). "Fragrances of the World 2006". ''Crescent House Publishing''. ISBN 0-9756097-1-8</ref> ===Fragrance notes=== {{main| Note (perfumery)}} Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of 'notes', making the harmonious [[chord (music)|chord]] of the scent. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. *'''Top notes''': The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also called the head notes. *'''Middle notes''': The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the "heart notes". *'''Base notes''': The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. Manufactures of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms. ===Olfactive families=== Grouping perfumes, like any [[taxonomy]], can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower", however subtle, will have undertones of other aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material. Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume. ====Traditional==== The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories: *'''Single Floral''': Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a ''soliflore''. (e.g. [[Serge Lutens]]' ''Sa Majeste La Rose'', which is dominated by rose.) *'''Floral Bouquet''': Containing the combination of several flowers in a scent. *'''Ambery''': A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of [[ambergris]] or [[labdanum]], often combined with [[vanilla]], flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind [[Victorian era]] imagery of the [[Middle East]] and [[Far East]]. *'''Woody''': Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of [[agarwood]], [[sandalwood]] and [[cedar]]. Patchouli, with its [[camphoraceous]] smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. *'''Leather''': A family of fragrances which features the scents of [[honey]], [[tobacco]], wood and wood [[tar]]s in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. *'''[[Chypre]]''': Meaning ''[[Cyprus]]'' in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of [[bergamot]], [[oakmoss]], [[patchouli]], and [[labdanum]]. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by [[François Coty]]. A notable [[example]] is ''[[Mitsouko]]'' (meaning ''mystery'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) by [[Guerlain]]. *'''[[Fougère]]''': Meaning ''[[Fern]]'' in French, built on a base of [[lavender]], [[coumarin]] and [[oakmoss]]. [[Houbigant (perfume)|Houbigant]]'s ''Fougère Royale'' pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent. ====Modern==== Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to describe modern scents: *'''Bright Floral''': combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories. *'''Green''': a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type. *'''Oceanic/Ozone''': the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's ''Dune''. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern [[androgynous]] perfumes. *'''Citrus''' or '''Fruity''': An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. *'''Gourmand''': scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla and [[tonka bean]], as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. An example is [[Thierry Mugler]]'s ''Angel''. ====Fragrance wheel==== {{main|Fragrance wheel}} [[Image:Wheel2.gif|thumb|Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart]] The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification.The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes<ref name=OGrantInterview>{{cite web |author= Osborne, Grant |date= 2001-05-01 |title= Interview with Michael Edwards|url=http://www.basenotes.net/interviews/int-medwards.html| accessdate=2006-12-17 | publisher=Basenotes}}</ref>. The five standard families consist of ''Floral'', ''Oriental'', ''Woody'',''Fougère'', and ''Fresh'', with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. With the exception of the ''Fougère'' family, each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel. ==Aromatics sources== ===Plant sources=== Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually [[secondary metabolites]] produced by plants as protection against [[herbivore]]s, infections, as well as to attract [[pollinator]]s. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of [[coriander]] have remarkably different odors from each other. [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]] leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of [[petit grain]], [[neroli]], and [[orange oil]]s. * '''[[Bark]]''': Commonly used barks includes [[cinnamon]] and [[cascarilla]]. The fragrant oil in [[sassafras]] root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, [[safrole]], which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds such as [[helional]]. * '''[[Flower]]s''' and '''[[blossom]]s''': Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of [[rose]] and [[jasmine]], as well as [[osmanthus]], [[Acacia farnesiana|mimosa]], [[tuberose]], as well as the blossoms of [[citrus]] and [[ylang-ylang]] trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the [[clove]] are also commonly used. Orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of [[vanilla]], an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery. * '''[[Fruit]]s''': Fresh fruits such as [[apple]]s, [[strawberry|strawberries]], [[cherry|cherries]] unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include [[litsea|litsea cubeba]], [[vanilla]], and [[juniper|juniper berry]]. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include [[citrus]] such as [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s, [[lemon]]s, and [[lime (fruit)|limes]]. Although [[grapefruit]] rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains [[sulfur]] and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell. * '''[[Leaves]]''' and '''[[twigs]]''': Commonly used for perfumery are [[lavender]] leaf, [[patchouli]], [[Common sage|sage]], [[violet (plant)|violet]]s, [[rosemary]], and [[citrus]] leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include [[hay]] and [[tomato]] leaf. * '''[[Resin]]s''': Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in [[incense]] and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include [[labdanum]], [[frankincense]]/[[olibanum]], [[myrrh]], [[Peru balsam]], [[gum benzoin]]. [[Pine]] and [[fir]] resins are a particularly valued source of [[terpene]]s used in the [[organic synthesis]] of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called [[amber]] and [[copal]] in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil [[conifer]]s. *'''[[Root]]s, [[rhizome]]s and [[bulb]]s''': Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include [[iris (plant)|iris]] [[rhizome]]s, [[vetiver]] roots, various rhizomes of the [[ginger]] family. * '''[[Seed]]s''': Commonly used seeds include [[tonka bean]], [[coriander]], [[caraway]], [[cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], [[cardamom]], and [[anise]]. * '''[[Wood]]s''': Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include [[sandalwood]], [[rosewood]], [[agarwood]], [[birch]], [[cedar]], [[juniper]], and [[pine]]. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms. ===Animal sources=== *'''[[Ambergris]]''': Lumps of [[oxidize]]d fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the [[Sperm Whale]]. Ambergris is commonly referred to as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with [[amber|yellow amber]], which is used in jewelry. *'''[[Castoreum]]''': Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver. *'''[[Civet]]''': Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family ''Viverridae'', related to the [[Mongoose]]. The [[World Society for the Protection of Animals]] investigated African civets caught for this purpose.<ref>[http://www.profumo.it/internet-documents/zibetto/suffering.htm]</ref> *'''[[Honeycomb]]''': From the honeycomb of the [[Honeybee]]. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute. *'''[[Musk]]''': Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks which usually are called “[[white musk]]”. <!-- *'''Rom [[terpenes]]. Orchid scents --> ===Other natural sources=== * '''[[Lichen]]s''': Commonly used lichens include [[oakmoss]] and [[treemoss]] thalli. * '''[[Brown algae|"Seaweed"]]''': Distillates are sometimes used as [[essential oil]] in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is ''[[Fucus vesiculosus]]'', which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics. ===Synthetic sources=== {{main| Aroma compound}} Many modern perfumes contain synthetic odorants [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]]. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, [[Calone]], a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, [[linalool]] and [[coumarin]] are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from [[terpenes]]. Orchid scents (typically ''[[salicylic acid|salicylates]]'') are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few [[:Category:Fragrance companies|companies]]. They include: * [[International Flavors and Fragrances]] (IFF) * [[Givaudan]] * [[Firmenich]] * [[Takasago International Corporation|Takasago]] * [[Symrise]] Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually. ===Characteristics=== Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery {| class="wikitable" !| ! style="background:#ff5656;"|Naturals ! style="background:#5656ff;"|Synthetics |- !|Variance |Vary by the times and locations where they are harvested. It's much more difficult to produce consistent products with equivalent odor over years of harvest. As such, the perfumer has to "manually" balance-out the natural variations of the ingredients in order to maintain the quality of the perfume. |Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection) thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will be significant. |- !|Components |Thousands of chemical compounds. |Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound. |- !|Scent Uniqueness |Bears a somewhat similar scent to its originating material, depending on the extraction method. |Similar to natural scents if the compounds are the same. Novel scent compounds not mimicking natural compounds however, bear little scent likeness to natural materials. |- !|Scent Complexity |Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer with subtle scent nuances. |Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Structural and defined. |- !|Price |Perfume composed of largely natural materials are usually much more expensive. |Perfumes using largely synthetic aromatics can be available at widely-affordable prices. However, synthetic aromatics and perfumes are not necessarily cheaper than naturals. |- |} ==Obtaining natural odorants== {{main|Extraction (fragrance)}} Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through [[organic synthesis]] and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of [[wax]]es in the extracted product. <ref name=Camps>Camps, Arcadi Boix (2000). "Perfumery Techniques in Evolution". ''Allured Pub Corp''. ISBN 0-931710-72-3</ref> All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless. * '''[[Maceration]]/[[Solvent extraction]]''': The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. ''Maceration'' lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for ''distillation'' or easily [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] by heat. Commonly used solvents for ''maceration/solvent extraction'' include [[hexane]], and [[dimethyl ether]]. The product of this process is called a "concrete". ** ''[[Supercritical fluid extraction]]'': A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs [[Supercritical carbon dioxide|Supercritical CO<sub>2</sub>]]. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material. **''Ethanol extraction'': A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol. * '''[[Distillation]]''': A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from [[plant]]s, such as [[orange blossom]]s and [[rose]]s. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through [[condensation]] of the distilled vapour. ** ''Steam distillation'': Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in a [[Florentine flask]]. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called [[hydrosol]] and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as [[flower]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], and [[Plant stem|stems]]. ** ''Dry/destructive distillation'': The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous [[pyrolysis]], which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil [[amber]] and fragrant [[wood]]s where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired. * '''[[Expression]]''': Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible. * '''[[Enfleurage]]''': Absorption of aroma materials into wax and then extracting the odorous oil with [[ethanol|ethyl alcohol]]. Extraction by [[enfleurage]] was commonly used when [[distillation]] was not possible because some fragrant compounds [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denature]] through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods. <ref name=Fortineau/> ==Fragrant extracts== Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "[[essential oil]]s", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only ''absolutes'', ''essential oils'', and ''tinctures'' are directly used to formulate perfumes. *'''Absolute''': Fragrant materials that are purified from a ''pommade'' or ''concrete'' by soaking them in [[ethanol]]. By using a slightly [[hydrophilic]] compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid. *'''Concrete''': Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through ''solvent extraction'' using volatile [[hydrocarbon]]s. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various [[hydrophobic]] compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids. *'''[[Essential oil]]''': Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through ''distillation'' or ''expression'' and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called ''expression oils''. *'''Pomade''': A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the ''[[enfleurage]]'' process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid. *'''[[Tincture]]''': Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in [[ethanol]]. Tinctures are typically thin liquids. <ref name=Fortineau/> ==Composing perfumes== Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their [[olfaction|sense of smell]] and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. ===The perfumer=== {{main|Perfumer}} The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the ''perfumer''. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "''Nez''" (French for ''nose'') due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition. The composition of a perfume typically begins with a ''brief'' by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large [[corporation]]s of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume. The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a ''functional fragrance'' ([[shampoo]]s, [[make-up]], [[detergent]]s, [[car]] interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a ''fine fragrance''.<ref name=Burr /> ===Technique=== [[Image:Blotter stripes.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Paper blotters are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.]] Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively. ====Basic framework==== Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups: *''Primary scents'': Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. [[Cola]] flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent. *''Modifiers'': These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit [[ester]]s may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; [[calone]] and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier. *''Blenders'': A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. Common blending ingredients include [[linalool]] and [[hydroxycitronellal]]. *''Fixatives'': Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins and wood scents, and amber bases are used for fixative purposes. The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. <!-- Contrary to popular belief, perfumes have not contained products from animal origins for decades, including [[ambergris]], [[civet]] and [[musk deer]]. These products have been replaced by synthetics for economical and ethical reasons. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} -->The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with [[Ethanol|ethyl alcohol]] and water, aged in tanks for a minimum of 14 days and filtered through processing equipment to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} ====Fragrance bases==== Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using ''fragrance bases'' or simply '''bases'''. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of [[Guerlain]]'s ''Aqua Allegoria'' line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like. The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous: #Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume #A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain [[rose oil]]. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as [[gardenia]] or [[hyacinth]], are composed as bases from data derived from [[headspace technology]]. #The concept of a perfume can be relatively quickly roughed out from a brief for purposes of feedback by cobbling together multiple bases and presented. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive responses to the perfume concept. ===Reverse engineering=== Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as [[GC/MS]] can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficult of GC/MS analysis arise due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients, this is particularly due to presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."<ref>Calkin, Robert R. & Jellinek, J. Stephen (1994). "Perfumery: practice and principles". ''John Wiley & Sons, Inc.''. ISBN 0-471-58934-9</ref> Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of perfume market. ==Health and environmental issues== Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment. ===Health=== ====Immunological==== Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions even when the participants could not actually smell the fragrances<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=7583865&query_hl=38&itool=pubmed_docsum Inhalation challenge effects of perfume scent stri...[Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995&#93; - PubMed Result]</ref>. Many fragrance ingredients can cause allergic skin reactions<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15859994&query_hl=41&itool=pubmed_DocSum Patch testing with a new fragrance mix - reactivit...[Contact Dermatitis. 2005&#93; - PubMed Result]</ref> or nausea.<ref name=GushmanHanaHou>{{cite web | url = http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=373&MagazineID=23 | Author= Deborah Gushman |title= The Nose Knows | accessdate=2008-05-07 | publisher [http://www.hanahou.com/]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12529978&query_hl=50&itool=pubmed_DocSum Evaluation of carcinogenic potential of two nitro [Anticancer Res. 2002 Sep-Oct&#93; - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=11434209&query_hl=50&itool=pubmed_DocSum Evaluation of health risks caused by musk ketone. [Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2001&#93; - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause [[allergy|allergic]] reactions of the skin. For instance, [[acetophenone]], [[ethyl acetate]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and [[acetone]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}} while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory [[allergen]]s. Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation<ref name=udgiv>Environmental and Health Assessment of Substances in Household Detergents and Cosmetic Detergent Products [http://www2.mst.dk/common/Udgivramme/Frame.asp?pg=http://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/2001/87-7944-596-9/html/kap12_eng.htm]</ref>, However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that [[opoponax]] is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus <ref>http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_025b.pdf</ref>. It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation. ====Carcinogenicity==== There is scientific evidence that some common ingredients, like certain synthetic musks, can disrupt the balance of hormones in the human body (endocrine disruption)<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14998010&query_hl=48&itool=pubmed_docsum In vitro and in vivo antiestrogenic effects of pol...[Environ Sci Technol. 2004&#93; - PubMed Result]</ref> <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15537743&query_hl=50&itool=pubmed_docsum Interaction of polycyclic musks and UV filters wit...[Toxicol Sci. 2005&#93; - PubMed Result]</ref> and even cause cancer (nitro-musks). Some natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes, contain allergens and carcinogenic compounds <ref name=udgiv/> <ref name=OakAranol>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15274728&dopt=Abstract Content of oak moss allergens atranol and chloroat...[Contact Dermatitis. 2004&#93; - PubMed Result]</ref>. ===Environmental=== ====Pollution==== Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to they large scale use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16182860&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum], as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes <ref>{{Citation | last = Peck | first = A. M. | last2 = Linebaugh | first2 = E. K. | last3 = Hornbuckle | first3 = K. C. | title = Synthetic musk fragrances in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario sediment cores. | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 40 | issue = 18 | pages = 5629-35 | year = 2006}}</ref>. <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17007119&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum].</ref> These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets. ====Species endangerment==== The demands for aromatic materials like sandalwood, agarwood, musk has led to the endangerment of these species as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting. ===Safety regulation=== The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and require that they be tested to the extent that they are ''[[Generally recognized as safe]]'' (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, the mandatory listing of any of a number of chemicals thought to be hazardous has just begun. As well many old perfumes of like chypres and [[fougeres]] classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, are being reformulated because of these new regulations. ==Preserving perfume== Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of: * [[Heat]] * [[Light]] * [[Oxygen]] * Extraneous organic materials Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored.<ref name=Burr /> However the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance. Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight [[aluminium]] bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated at a relatively low temperatures between 3-7 degrees Celsius. Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which will degrade and alter the quality of a perfume. ==Lists of perfumes== {{see|List of Famous Perfumes}} {{see|List of celebrity endorsed perfumes}} ==See also== * [[Aromatherapy]] * [[:Category:Fragrance companies|Fragrance companies]] * [[Fragrance museum]] * [[Fragrance oil]] * [[Incense]] * [[Pheromone]] * [[Sex in advertising]] * [[Fixative (perfumery)]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *Edwards, Michael (1997). "Perfume Legends: French Feminine Fragrances". ''Crescent House Publishing''. ISBN 0-646-27794-4. *Moran, Jan (2000). "Fabulous Fragrances II: A Guide to Prestige Perfumes for Women and Men". ''Crescent House Publishing''. ISBN 0-9639065-4-2. *Turin, Luca (2006). "The Secret of Scent". ''Faber & Faber''. ISBN 0-571-21537-8. *Stamelman, Richard: "Perfume - Joy, Obsession, Scandal, Sin". ''Rizzoli''. ISBN-13:978-0-8478-2832-6. A cultural history of fragance from 1750 to the present day. ==External links== {{commons|Perfume|Perfume}} * [http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/perfume The World of Smell: An Inside Tour of the World's Largest Perfume Lab] from Time.com * [http://www.basenotes.net Basenotes]: Award-winning, online guide to the world of perfume and fragrances * [http://www.fragrantica.com/ Fragrantica] perfumes magazine, online encyclopedia of fragrances with user reviews, visual pyramid of notes and online community * [http://www.ifraorg.org/ IFRA]: International Fragrance Association * [http://www.fragrance.org The Fragrance Foundation] "FiFi" * [http://www.osmoz.com/encyclo/histparf/hist_parf/hist_parf.asp osMoz]: All on the perfumes [[Category:Perfumery| ]] [[Category:Cosmetics]] [[Category:Toiletry]] {{Link FA|sv}} [[ar:عطر]] [[an:Perfume]] [[bs:Parfem]] [[ca:Perfum]] [[cs:Parfém]] [[da:Parfume]] [[de:Parfüm]] [[et:Parfüüm]] [[es:Perfume]] [[eo:Parfumo]] [[fr:Parfum]] [[id:Parfum]] [[it:Profumo]] [[he:בושם]] [[lt:Kvepalai]] [[nl:Parfum]] [[ja:香水]] [[no:Parfyme]] [[pl:Perfumy]] [[pt:Perfume]] [[ro:Parfum]] [[ru:Парфюмерия]] [[scn:Ciàuru]] [[simple:Perfume]] [[sl:Parfum]] [[sr:Парфем]] [[fi:Hajuvesi]] [[sv:Parfym]] [[th:น้ำหอม]] [[vi:Nước hoa]] [[tr:Parfüm]] [[bat-smg:Parfomerėjė]] [[zh:香水]]