Peru
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{{Infobox Country
|native_name = ''República del Perú''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small>
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru
|common_name = Peru
|image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
|image_map = LocationPeru.svg
|national motto =
|national_anthem = "''[[National Anthem of Peru|Somos libres, seámoslo siempre]]''"{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}<br/>"We are free, may we always be so"</small>
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]<sup>1</sup>
|demonym = Peruvian
|capital = [[Lima]]
|latd=12 |latm=2.6 |latNS=S |longd=77 |longm=1.7 |longEW=W
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Peru|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Alan García|Alan García Pérez]]
|leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Peru|Vice President]]
|leader_name2 = [[Luis Giampietri|Luis Giampietri Rojas]]
|leader_title3 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Peru|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name3 = [[Jorge Del Castillo]]
|leader_title4 = [[Congress of Peru|President of Congress]]
|leader_name4 = [[Luis Gonzales|Luis Gonzales Posada]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from [[Spain]]
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_date1 = [[July 28]], [[1821]]
|established_event2 = Recognized
|established_date2 = [[December 9]], [[1824]]
|area_rank = 20th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 1,285,220
|area_sq_mi = 496,222 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|percent_water = 8.80
|population_census = 28,220,764
|population_census_year = 2007 <!--(Peru 2007 Census)-->
|population_density_km2 = 22
|population_density_sq_mi = 57 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank = 183rd
|GDP_PPP = $207.985 billion <!--IMF 2007-->
|GDP_PPP_rank = 51st
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,410
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 79th
|GDP_nominal = $101.504 billion <!--IMF 2007-->
|GDP_nominal_rank = 55th
|GDP_nominal_year = 2007
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,616
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 87th
|HDI = {{increase}}0.773
|HDI_rank = 87th
|HDI_year = 2005
|HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
|Gini = 54.6
|Gini_year = 2002
|Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">high</font>
|currency = [[Peruvian nuevo sol|Nuevo Sol]]
|currency_code = PEN
|time_zone = [[Time in Peru|PET]]
|utc_offset = -5
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.pe]]
|calling_code = 51
|footnote1 = [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.
}}
'''Peru''' ({{lang-es|Perú}}, {{lang-qu|Piruw}}, {{lang-ay|Piruw}}), officially the '''Republic of Peru''' ({{Audio-es|República del Perú|Es - República del Perú.ogg}}, {{IPA2|reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu}}), is a country in western [[South America]]. It is bordered on the north by [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]], on the east by [[Brazil]], on the southeast by [[Bolivia]], on the south by [[Chile]], and on the west by the [[Pacific Ocean]].
Peruvian territory was home to the [[Norte Chico civilization]], one of the oldest in the world, and to the [[Inca Empire]], the largest state in [[Pre-Columbian|Pre-Columbian America]]. The [[Spanish Empire]] conquered the region in the 16th century and established a [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Viceroyalty]], which included most of its South American colonies. After [[Independence of Peru|achieving independence]] in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.
Peru is a [[representative democratic]] [[republic]] divided into [[Administrative divisions of Peru|25 regions]]. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the [[Andes]] mountains and the tropical forests of the [[Amazon Basin]]. It is a [[developing country]] with a medium [[Human Development Index]] score and a poverty level around 40%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.
The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is [[multiethnic society|multiethnic]], including [[Indigenous Peoples in Peru|Amerindians]], [[European ethnic groups|European]]s, [[Black people|Africans]] and [[Asians]]. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|native languages]]. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.
==Etymology==
The word ''Peru'' is derived from ''Birú'', the name of a local ruler who lived near the [[Bay of San Miguel]], [[Panama]], in the early 16th century.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 83.</ref> When his possessions were visited by [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 84.</ref> Thus, when [[Francisco Pizarro]] explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 86.</ref> The [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Crown]] gave the name legal status with the 1529 ''[[Francisco Pizarro#Capitulación de Toledo|Capitulación de Toledo]]'', which designated the newly encountered [[Inca Empire]] as the province of Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 87.</ref> Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which became Republic of Peru after [[Peruvian War of Independence|independence]].
==History==
{{main|History of Peru}}
The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref>[[Tom Dillehay]] et al, "The first settlers", p. 20.</ref> The oldest known complex society in Peru, the [[Norte Chico civilization]], flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.<ref>Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021.</ref> These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as [[Chavín culture|Chavin]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Mochica Culture|Mochica]], [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Huari Culture|Wari]], and [[Chimú culture|Chimu]]. In the 15th century, the [[Incas]] emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the [[Inca empire|largest empire]] in [[pre-Columbian America]].<ref>Terence D'Altroy, ''The Incas'', pp. 2–3.</ref> Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as [[irrigation]] and [[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]]; [[camelid]] husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]] and [[redistribution (cultural anthropology)|redistribution]] because these societies had no notion of [[market]] or money.<ref>Enrique Mayer, ''The articulated peasant'', pp. 47–68.</ref>
[[Image:Peru Machu Picchu Sunrise 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Machu Picchu]], the "Lost City of the Incas"]]
In 1532, a group of ''[[conquistador]]s'' led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|defeated]] Inca Emperor [[Atahualpa]] and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years later, the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Crown]] established the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which included most of its South American colonies.<ref>''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias'', vol. II, pp. 12–13.</ref> Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and [[Amerindian|Indian]] [[Mita (Inca)|forced labor]] as its primary workforce.<ref>Peter Bakewell, ''Miners of the Red Mountain'', p. 181.</ref> Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.<ref>Margarita Suárez, ''Desafíos transatlánticos'', pp. 252–253.</ref> However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.<ref>Kenneth Andrien, ''Crisis and decline'', pp. 200–202.</ref> In response, the Crown enacted the [[Bourbon Reforms]], a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.<ref>Mark Burkholder, ''From impotence to authority'', pp. 83–87.</ref> The new laws provoked [[Túpac Amaru II]]'s rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.<ref>Scarlett O'Phelan, ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru'', p. 276.</ref>
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by [[South American wars of independence|wars of independence]], Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, [[independence of Peru|independence]] was achieved only after the military campaigns of [[José de San Martín]] and [[Simón Bolívar]].<ref>Timothy Anna, ''The fall of the royal government in Peru'', pp. 237–238.</ref> During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.<ref>Charles Walker, ''Smoldering ashes'', pp. 124–125.</ref> National identity was forged during this period, as [[Simón Bolívar|Bolivarian]] projects for a [[Congress of Panama|Latin American Confederation]] foundered and a [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation|union with Bolivia]] proved ephemeral.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Between silver and guano'', p. 12.</ref> Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed [[Guano Era (Peru)|a period of stability]] under the presidency of [[Ramón Castilla]] due to increased state revenues from [[guano]] exports.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', pp. 5–6.</ref> However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', p. 9.</ref>
[[Image:Angamos.jpg|thumb|right|[[Battle of Angamos|Angamos]], a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.]]
Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 [[War of the Pacific]], losing the provinces of [[Arica Province|Arica]] and [[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]] in the treaties of [[Treaty of Ancón|Ancón]] and [[Treaty of Lima|Lima]]. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the [[Civilista Party]], which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of [[Augusto B. Leguía]].<ref>Ulrich Mücke, ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru'', pp. 193–194.</ref> The [[Great Depression]] caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA).<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 262–276.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.<ref>David Palmer, ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition'', p. 93.</ref>
In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]], staged a coup against president [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry|Fernando Belaunde]]. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.<ref>George Philip, ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals'', pp. 163–165.</ref> In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]], who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.<ref>Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107.</ref> During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and [[Internal conflict in Peru|massive political violence]].<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 406–407.</ref> Under the presidency of [[Alberto Fujimori]] (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial [[Peruvian general election, 2000|2000 elections]].<ref>BBC News, ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]''. Retrieved on [[July 21]], [[2007]].</ref> Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is [[Alan García]].<ref>The Economist, ''[http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displayBackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 Peru]''. Retrieved on [[July 18]], [[2007]].</ref>
==Government==
{{main|Government of Peru|Politics of Peru}}
[[Image:Peru Lima Congreso Detail centre.jpg|thumb|right|Congress sits in the ''Palacio Legislativo'' in Lima.]]
Peru is a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] republic with a [[multi-party system]]. Under the current constitution, the President is the [[head of state]] and [[head of government|government]]; he or she is elected for five years and may not immediately be re-elected.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article N° 112.</ref> The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article N° 122.</ref> There is a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article N° 90.</ref> Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Articles N° 107–108.</ref> The judiciary is nominally independent,<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Articles N° 146.</ref> though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.<ref>Jeffrey Clark, [http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm ''Building on quicksand'']. Retrieved on [[July 24]], [[2007]].</ref>
The Peruvian government is [[directly elected]], and voting is [[compulsory voting|compulsory]] for all citizens aged 18 to 70.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article N° 31.</ref> [[Peruvian general election, 2006|General elections held in 2006]] ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate [[Alan García]] of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance|Peruvian Aprista Party]] (52.6% of valid votes) over [[Ollanta Humala]] of [[Union for Peru]] (47.4%).<ref>{{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, [http://www.onpe.gob.pe/resultados2006/2davuelta/onpe/presidente/rep_resumen_pre.onpe ''Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006'']. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]].</ref> Congress is currently composed of the [[APRA|Peruvian Aprista Party]] (36 seats), [[Peruvian Nationalist Party]] (23 seats), [[Union for Peru]] (19 seats), [[National Unity (Peru)|National Unity]] (15 seats), the Fujimorista [[Alliance for the Future (Peru)|Alliance for the Future]] (13 seats), the Parliamentary Alliance (9 seats) and the Democratic Special Parliamentary Group (5 seats).<ref>{{es icon}} Congreso de la República del Perú, [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/organizacion/grupos.asp ''Grupos Parlamentarios'']. Retrieved on [[January 5]], [[2008]].</ref>
[[Peruvian foreign relations]] have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.<ref>Ronald Bruce St John, ''The foreign policy of Peru'', pp. 223–224.</ref> There is still an [[Chilean-Peruvian Maritime Dispute of 2006--2007|ongoing dispute]] with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4405402.stm ''Peru–Chile border row escalates'']. Retrieved on [[May 16]], [[2007]].</ref> Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the [[Andean Community of Nations]]. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the [[Organization of American States]] and the [[United Nations]]. The [[Peruvian military]] is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.<ref>Ministerio de Defensa, ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional'', p. 90.</ref> The armed forces are subordinate to the [[Ministry of Defence (Peru)|Ministry of Defense]] and to the President as [[Commander-in-Chief]]. [[Conscription]] was abolished in 1999 and replaced by [[voluntary military service]].<ref>''Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'', Articles N° 29, 42 and 45.</ref>
==Regions==
{{main|Administrative divisions of Peru}}
{{Imageframe|width=300|content= {{Peru Labelled Area Map}} |caption=Clickable map of the regions of Peru.|link=Image:Scalable Vectorized Adminstrative Map of Perú JMK.SVG|align=right}}
Peru is divided into [[Regions of Peru|25 regions]] and the [[Lima Province|province of Lima]]. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article N° 11.</ref> These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article N° 10.</ref> The province of Lima is administered by a city council.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article N° 66.</ref>
'''Regions''':
{| style="background:none;"
|-
|
* [[Amazonas Region|Amazonas]]
* [[Ancash Region|Ancash]]
* [[Apurímac Region|Apurímac]]
* [[Arequipa Region|Arequipa]]
* [[Ayacucho Region|Ayacucho]]
* [[Cajamarca Region|Cajamarca]]
* [[Callao Region|Callao]]
* [[Cusco Region|Cusco]]
* [[Huancavelica Region|Huancavelica]]
* [[Huánuco Region|Huánuco]]
* [[Ica Region|Ica]]
* [[Junín Region|Junín]]
* [[La Libertad Region|La Libertad]]
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* [[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque]]
* [[Lima Region|Lima]]
* [[Loreto Region|Loreto]]
* [[Madre de Dios Region|Madre de Dios]]
* [[Moquegua Region|Moquegua]]
* [[Pasco Region|Pasco]]
* [[Piura Region|Piura]]
* [[Puno Region|Puno]]
* [[San Martín Region|San Martín]]
* [[Tacna Region|Tacna]]
* [[Tumbes Region|Tumbes]]
* [[Ucayali Region|Ucayali]]
|
|}
'''Province''':
* [[Lima Province|Lima]]
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Peru}}
[[Image:GEOPERUMAP.SVG|thumb|left|upright|Topographic map of Peru]]
Peru covers 1,285,220 km² (496,193 [[square miles|sq mi]]), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
The [[Andes]] mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The ''costa'' (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The ''sierra'' (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the ''[[Altiplano]]'' plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) [[Huascarán]].<ref>AndesHandbook, [http://www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 ''Huascarán'']. Retrieved on [[August 12]], [[2007]].</ref> The third region is the ''selva'' (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the [[Amazon rainforest]] that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 16.</ref>
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three [[drainage basin|basins]]. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the [[Amazon River]] are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the ''sierra''. Rivers that drain into [[Lake Titicaca]] are generally short and have a large flow.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 31.</ref> Peru's longest rivers are the [[Ucayali]], the [[Marañón River (Peru)|Marañón]], the [[Içá|Putumayo]], the [[Yavarí River|Yavarí]], the [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]], the [[Urubamba River|Urubamba]], the [[Mantaro River|Mantaro]], and the [[Amazon River|Amazon]].<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 21.</ref>
[[Image:Alpamayo.jpg|thumb|right|The peaks of the Andes are the source of many Peruvian rivers.]]
Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the [[Humboldt Current]] causes great climatic diversity within the country. The ''costa'' has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 24–25.</ref> In the ''sierra'', rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 25–26.</ref> The ''selva'' is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 26–27.</ref> Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them [[endemism|endemic]].<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 50.</ref> The Peruvian government has established several [[list of national parks in Peru|protected areas]] for their preservation.
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Peru}}
[[Image:Callao.jpg|thumb|left|The seaport of [[Callao]] is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.]]
Peru is a [[developing country]] with a 2005 [[Human Development Index]] score of 0.773.<ref>United Nations Development Programme, [http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ ''Human Development Report 2007/2008''], p. 230. Retrieved on [[November 28]], [[2007]].</ref> Its 2006 [[per capita income]] was US$3,374;<ref>International Monetary Fund, [http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/data/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2006&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=%2C&br=1&pr1.x=20&pr1.y=14&c=512%2C941%2C914%2C446%2C612%2C666%2C614%2C668%2C311%2C672%2C213%2C946%2C911%2C137%2C193%2C962%2C122%2C674%2C912%2C676%2C313%2C548%2C419%2C556%2C513%2C678%2C316%2C181%2C913%2C682%2C124%2C684%2C339%2C273%2C638%2C921%2C514%2C948%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C624%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C283%2C228%2C853%2C924%2C288%2C233%2C293%2C632%2C566%2C636%2C964%2C634%2C182%2C238%2C453%2C662%2C968%2C960%2C922%2C423%2C714%2C935%2C862%2C128%2C716%2C611%2C456%2C321%2C722%2C243%2C965%2C248%2C718%2C469%2C724%2C253%2C576%2C642%2C936%2C643%2C961%2C939%2C813%2C644%2C199%2C819%2C184%2C172%2C524%2C132%2C361%2C646%2C362%2C648%2C364%2C915%2C732%2C134%2C366%2C652%2C734%2C174%2C144%2C328%2C146%2C258%2C463%2C656%2C528%2C654%2C923%2C336%2C738%2C263%2C578%2C268%2C537%2C532%2C742%2C944%2C866%2C176%2C369%2C534%2C744%2C536%2C186%2C429%2C925%2C178%2C746%2C436%2C926%2C136%2C466%2C343%2C112%2C158%2C111%2C439%2C298%2C916%2C927%2C664%2C846%2C826%2C299%2C542%2C582%2C443%2C474%2C917%2C754%2C544%2C698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a= Countries]. Retrieved on [[August 3]], [[2007]].</ref> 39.3% of its total population is poor, including 13.7% that is extremely poor.<ref>2007 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''La pobreza en el Perú en el año 2007'', p. 3.</ref> Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide [[hard currency]] to finance imports and external debt payments.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', p. 4.</ref> Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian [[distribution of income]] have proven elusive.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', p. 321.</ref>
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] introduced radical reforms, which included [[agrarian reform]], the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an [[economic interventionism|economic planning system]], and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of [[income redistribution]] and the end of [[dependency theory|economic dependence on developed nations]].<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', pp. 318–319.</ref> Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the [[liberalization|liberalizing]] government of [[Alberto Fujimori]] ended [[price controls]], [[protectionism]], restrictions on [[foreign direct investment]], and most state ownership of companies.<ref>John Sheahan, ''Searching for a better society'', p. 157.</ref> Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/dmdocuments/Estadistica/Cuadros/Anuales/ACuadro_06.xls ''Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006'']. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
[[tertiary sector of industry|Services]] account for 53% of Peruvian [[gross domestic product]], followed by [[secondary sector of industry|manufacturing]] (22.3%), [[primary sector of industry|extractive industries]] (15%), and taxes (9.7%).<ref>2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''], p. 204. Retrieved on [[June 25]], [[2007]].</ref> Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved [[terms of trade]], and rising investment and consumption.<ref>{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''], pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on [[June 25]], [[2007]].</ref> Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a [[United States-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement|free trade agreement with the United States]], which was signed on [[April 12]], [[2006]].<ref>Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, [http://ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html ''United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement''], [[April 4]], [[2006]]. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]].</ref> Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''], pp. 60–61. Retrieved on [[July 3]], [[2007]].</ref>
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Peru}}
[[Image:Quechuawomanandchild.jpg|thumb|right|Peruvian woman and child of [[Indigenous peoples in Peru|Amerindian]] ancestry]]
With about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the [[List of South American countries by population|fourth most populous country in South America]] as of 2007.<ref>United Nations, {{PDFlink|[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf ''World Population Prospects'']|2.74 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 2875952 bytes -->}}, pp. 44–48. Retrieved on [[July 29]], [[2007]]</ref> Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050'', pp. 37–38, 40.</ref> As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050'', p. 45.</ref> Major cities include [[Lima]], [[Arequipa]], [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], [[Chiclayo]], [[Piura]], [[Iquitos]], [[Chimbote]], [[Cusco]], and [[Huancayo]], all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the [[Peru 1993 Census|1993 census]].<ref>{{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, [http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0018/cap31002.htm ''Migraciones Internas en el Perú'']. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]]</ref>
Peru is a [[multiethnic society|multiethnic nation]] formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. [[Indigenous peoples in Peru|Amerindians]] inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish Conquest]] in the 16th century; their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly due to [[infectious disease]]s.<ref>Noble David Cook, ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620'', p. 114.</ref> [[Spaniards]] and [[Black people|Africans]] arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been a gradual [[European ethnic groups|European]] immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.<ref>Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.</ref> [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.<ref>Magnus Mörner, ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America'', p. 131.</ref> Other immigrant groups include [[Arabs]] and [[Japanese people|Japanese]].
Spanish, the first language of 80.3% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 1993, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is [[Quechua]], spoken by 16.5% of the population in 1993. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 3% and 0.2% of Peruvians, respectively.<ref>{{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, [http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0007/CAP0209.HTM ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú'']. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]]</ref> The 2006 National Continuous Census conducted by the National Statistics Institute (INEI) finds that 85 percent of the population that identified with a religion is Catholic and 11 percent Protestant; the remaining 4 percent includes Adventists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Israelites of the New Universal Pact.<ref> US Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90264.htm ''International Religious Freedom Report 2007'']. Retrieved on [[June 14]], [[2008]]</ref> Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%).<ref>{{es icon}} Portal Educativo Huascarán, [http://www.huascaran.edu.pe/web/visitante/comunidad/articulos2007/analfabetismo ''El analfabetismo en cifras'']. Retrieved on [[May 15]], [[2007]]</ref> [[Primary education|Primary]] and [[secondary education]] are [[compulsory education|compulsory]] and free in public schools.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article N° 17.</ref>
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Peru}}
[[Image:Cuzqueña2.jpg|upright|thumb|Anonymous [[Cuzco School]] painting, 18th century]]
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,<ref>Víctor Andrés Belaunde, ''Peruanidad'', p. 472.</ref> though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. [[Peruvian arts|Peruvian artistic traditions]] date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of [[Pre-Inca cultures]]. The Incas maintained these crafts and made [[Architecture of Peru|architectural]] achievements including the construction of [[Machu Picchu]]. [[Baroque]] dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, ''Art of colonial Latin America'', pp. 72–74.</ref> During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the [[Cuzco School]] are representative.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, ''Art of colonial Latin America'', p. 263.</ref> Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of ''[[Indigenismo]]'' in the early 20th century.<ref>Edward Lucie-Smith, ''Latin American art of the 20th century'', pp. 76–77, 145–146.</ref> Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been [[Eclecticism in art|eclectic]] and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.<ref>Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.</ref>
[[Peruvian literature]] has its roots in the oral traditions of [[pre-Columbian]] civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included [[chronicle]]s and [[Christian literature|religious literature]]. After independence, [[Costumbrism]] and [[Romanticism]] became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of [[Ricardo Palma]].<ref>Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.</ref> In the early 20th century, the ''Indigenismo'' movement produced such writers as [[Ciro Alegría]],<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.</ref> [[José María Arguedas]],<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.</ref> and [[César Vallejo]].<ref>Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253.</ref> During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], a leading member of the [[Latin American Boom]].<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.</ref>
[[Image:Ceviche de pulpo.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Ceviche]]'' is a citrus marinated seafood dish.]]
[[Peruvian cuisine]] is a blend of [[Native American cuisine#Native American cuisine of South America|Amerindian]] and [[Spanish food]] with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.<ref>Tony Custer, ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine'', pp. 17–22.</ref> Common dishes include ''[[anticuchos]]'', ''[[ceviche]]'', ''[[humita]]s'', and ''[[pachamanca]]''. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.<ref>Tony Custer, ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine'', pp. 25–38.</ref> Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.<ref>Embassy of Peru in the United States, [http://www.peruvianembassy.us/do.php?p=94 ''Peruvian Gastronomy - History'']. Retrieved on [[May 27]], [[2008]]</ref>
[[Peruvian music]] has Andean, Spanish and African roots.<ref>Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.</ref> In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the ''[[quena]]'' and the ''[[tinya]]'' were two common instruments.<ref>Dale Olsen, ''Music of El Dorado'', pp. 17–22.</ref> Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the ''[[charango]]''.<ref>Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340.</ref> African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the ''[[Cajon|cajón]]'', a percussion instrument.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265.</ref> [[Peruvian folk dances]] include ''[[marinera]]'', ''[[tondero]]'', ''[[danza de tijeras]]'' and ''[[huayno]]''.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.</ref>
==See also==
{{Peru topics|state=uncollapsed}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
<div class="references-small">
;Etymology
* {{es icon}} Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. ''El nombre del Perú''. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
;History
* Andrien, Kenneth. ''Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985.
* Anna, Timothy. ''The fall of the royal government in Peru''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
* Bakewell, Peter. ''Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 1545–1650''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984.
* BBC News. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]''. [[November 20]], [[2000]].
* Burkholder, Mark. ''From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias, 1687–1808''. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977.
* D'Altroy, Terence. ''The Incas''. Malden: Blackwell, 2002.
* Dillehay, Tom, Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.), ''Andean archaeology''. Malden: Blackwell, 2004, pp. 16–34.
* Gootenberg, Paul. ''Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
* Gootenberg, Paul. ''Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
* Haas, Jonathan, Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". ''Nature'' 432: 1020–1023 (December 23, 2004).
* Klarén, Peter. ''Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
* Mayer, Enrique. ''The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes''. Boulder: Westview, 2002
* Mücke, Ulrich. ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004.
* O'Phelan, Scarlett. ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru''. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985.
* Palmer, David. ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition''. New York: Praeger, 1980.
* Philip, George. ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals''. London: University of London, 1978.
* {{es icon}} ''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias''. Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1973
* Schydlowsky, Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), ''The Peruvian experiment reconsidered''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, pp. 94–143.
* {{es icon}} Suárez, Margarita. ''Desafíos transatlánticos''. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001.
* The Economist. ''[http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displayBackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 Peru]''. [[June 12]], [[2007]].
* Walker, Charles. ''Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840''. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999.
;Government
* BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4405402.stm ''Peru–Chile border row escalates'']. [[November 4]], [[2005]].
* Clark, Jeffrey. [http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm ''Building on quicksand: the collapse of the World Bank's judicial reform project in Peru'']. New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 2000.
* {{es icon}} Congreso de la República del Perú. [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/organizacion/grupos.asp ''Grupos Parlamentarios''].
* {{es icon}} [http://www.tc.gob.pe/legconperu/constitucion.html ''Constitución Política del Perú'']. [[December 29]], [[1993]].
* {{es icon}} {{DOClink|[http://www.ccffaa.mil.pe/INFORMACION/Ley27178_Ley__ServicioMilitar.doc ''Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'']}}. [[September 28]], [[1999]].
* {{es icon}} Ministerio de Defensa. ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional''. Lima: Ministerio de Defensa, 2005
* {{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales. [http://www.onpe.gob.pe/elecciones2006/elec2006.php ''Elecciones 2006''].
* St John, Ronald Bruce. ''The foreign policy of Peru''. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992.
;Regions
* {{es icon}} {{PDFlink|[http://www.pmde.gob.pe/taller/Compilacion%20normativa/DESCENTRALIZACI%C3%93N/LEY%20N%C2%BA%2027867_LEY%20ORG%C3%81NICA%20DE%20GOBIERNOS%20LOCALES.pdf ''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'']|305 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 312417 bytes -->}}. [[November 16]], [[2002]].
;Geography
* AndesHandbook. [http://www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 ''Huascarán'']. [[June 2]], [[2002]].
* {{es icon}} Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico''. Lima: Auge, 1996.
* {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. {{PDFlink|[http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0638/Libro.pdf ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'']|8.31 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 8714189 bytes -->}}. Lima: INEI, 2005.
;Economy
* {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=501&Itemid=500 ''Cuadros Anuales Históricos''].
* {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/bcr/Memoria-Anual/Memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006'']. Lima: BCR, 2007.
* {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. {{PDFlink|[http://www.inei.gob.pe/documentosPublicos/Informe_Tecnico_Pobreza2007.pdf ''La pobreza en el Perú en el año 2007'']}}. Lima: INEI, 2007.
* International Monetary Fund. [http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/data/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2006&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=%2C&br=1&pr1.x=20&pr1.y=14&c=512%2C941%2C914%2C446%2C612%2C666%2C614%2C668%2C311%2C672%2C213%2C946%2C911%2C137%2C193%2C962%2C122%2C674%2C912%2C676%2C313%2C548%2C419%2C556%2C513%2C678%2C316%2C181%2C913%2C682%2C124%2C684%2C339%2C273%2C638%2C921%2C514%2C948%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C624%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C283%2C228%2C853%2C924%2C288%2C233%2C293%2C632%2C566%2C636%2C964%2C634%2C182%2C238%2C453%2C662%2C968%2C960%2C922%2C423%2C714%2C935%2C862%2C128%2C716%2C611%2C456%2C321%2C722%2C243%2C965%2C248%2C718%2C469%2C724%2C253%2C576%2C642%2C936%2C643%2C961%2C939%2C813%2C644%2C199%2C819%2C184%2C172%2C524%2C132%2C361%2C646%2C362%2C648%2C364%2C915%2C732%2C134%2C366%2C652%2C734%2C174%2C144%2C328%2C146%2C258%2C463%2C656%2C528%2C654%2C923%2C336%2C738%2C263%2C578%2C268%2C537%2C532%2C742%2C944%2C866%2C176%2C369%2C534%2C744%2C536%2C186%2C429%2C925%2C178%2C746%2C436%2C926%2C136%2C466%2C343%2C112%2C158%2C111%2C439%2C298%2C916%2C927%2C664%2C846%2C826%2C299%2C542%2C582%2C443%2C474%2C917%2C754%2C544%2C698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a= Countries]. April 2007.
* Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. [http://ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html ''United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement'']. [[April 4]], [[2006]].
* Sheahan, John. ''Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950''. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
* Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. ''Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978.
* United Nations Development Programme, [http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ ''Human Development Report 2007/2008'']. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
;Demographics
* Cook, Noble David. ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
* {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050''. Lima: INEI, 2001.
* {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. [http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0018/n00.htm ''Migraciones Internas en el Perú'']. Lima: INEI, 1995.
* {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. [http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0007/2600.HTM ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú'']. Lima: INEI, 1994.
* Mörner, Magnus. ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967.
* {{es icon}} Portal Educativo Huascarán. [http://www.huascaran.edu.pe/web/visitante/comunidad/articulos2007/analfabetismo ''El analfabetismo en cifras'']. [[April 3]], [[2007]].
* United Nations. {{PDFlink|[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf ''World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision. Highlights'']|2.74 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 2875952 bytes -->}}. New York: United Nations, 2007.
* Vázquez, Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mörner, ''Race and class in Latin America''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 73–95.
;Culture
* Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. ''Art of colonial Latin America''. London: Phaidon, 2005.
* Bayón, Damián. "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 393–454.
* {{es icon}} Belaunde, Víctor Andrés. ''Peruanidad''. Lima: BCR, 1983.
* Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.
* Custer, Tony. ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine''. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003.
* Embassy of Peru in the United States. [http://www.peruvianembassy.us/all-about-peru-the-culture-peruvian-gastronomy.php ''The Peruvian Gastronomy''].
* Lucie-Smith, Edward. ''Latin American art of the 20th century''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993.
* Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45.
* Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225.
* Olsen, Dale. ''Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
* {{es icon}} Romero, Raúl. "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, ''La música en el Perú''. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, 1985, pp. 215–283.
* Romero, Raúl. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), ''Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition''. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp. 383–423.
* Turino, Thomas. "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments''. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1993, vol. I, p. 340.
</div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Peru}}
; Government
* {{es icon}} [http://www.peru.gob.pe/ Web portal] of the Peruvian Government
* {{es icon}} [http://www.peru.gob.pe/gobierno/list_instituciones_alfabetico.asp Directory] of Peruvian Government websites
; General reference
* [[BBC News|BBC]] country profile of [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm Peru]
* {{CIA World Factbook link|pe|Peru}}
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry on [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Peru]
* [http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ Peru web directory]
; Other
* {{wikitravel|Peru}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Peru/}}
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