Pesticide
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/152.1.105.46|152.1.105.46]] ([[User talk:152.1.105.46|talk]]) to last version by Wavelength
A '''pesticide''' is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a [[pest (organism)|pest]].<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24, 2007), [http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/index.htm What is a pesticide?] epa.gov. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
A pesticide may be a [[chemical]] substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any [[pest (animal)|pest]]. Pests include [[insect]]s, plant [[pathogen]]s, weeds, [[mollusca|mollusks]], [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[fish]], nematodes ([[roundworm]]s) and [[microbe]]s that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a [[vector (biology)|vector]] for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals.
==Types of pesticides==
[[Image:Atrazine use map 1997.png|thumb|376px|[[Atrazine]] use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used herbicides in the United States. (From [http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/ USGS Pesticide Use Maps])]]
There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.
* [[Algicide]]s or [[Algaecide]]s for the control of [[algae]]
* [[Avicide]]s for the control of [[bird]]s
* [[Bactericide]]s for the control of [[bacteria]]
* [[Fungicide]]s for the control of [[fungus|fungi]] and [[oomycete]]s
* [[Herbicide]]s for the control of weeds
* [[Insecticide]]s for the control of [[insect]]s - these can be Ovicides (substances that kill [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s), [[Larvicide]]s (substances that kill [[larva]]e) or Adulticides (substances that kill adult insects)
* [[Miticide]]s or [[Acaricide]]s for the control of [[mite]]s
* [[Molluscicide]]s for the control of [[slug]]s and [[snail]]s
* [[Nematicide]]s for the control of [[nematode]]s
* [[Rodenticide]]s for the control of [[rodent]]s
* [[Virucide]]s for the control of [[virus]]es (e.g. [[H5N1]])
Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or [[biological pesticide]]s (biopesticides), although the distinction can sometimes blur.
Broad-spectrum pesticides are those that kill an array of species, while narrow-spectrum, or selective pesticides only kill a small group of species.<ref name="sustaining">Miller GT (2004), ''Sustaining the Earth'', 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.</ref>
A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the [[xylem]]) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison [[pollen]] and [[nectar]] in the [[flower]]s may kill needed [[pollinator]]s such as [[bee]]s.
Most pesticides work by [[poison]]ing pests.<ref>Cornell University. [http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module04/index.html Toxicity of pesticides]. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 4. Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on [[2007-10-10]].</ref>
==Uses, benefits and drawbacks==
Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful.<ref name="purdue">[http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/PPP/PPP-70.pdf The benefits of pesticides: A story worth telling]. Purdue.edu. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> For example, they are used to kill [[mosquitoes]] that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like [[west nile virus]] and [[malaria]]. They can also kill [[bee]]s, [[wasp]]s or [[ant]]s that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by [[parasites]] such as [[flea]]s.<ref name="purdue"/> Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by [[mould]]y food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive [[weed]]s in parks and wilderness areas which may cause [[natural environment|environmental]] damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control [[algae]] and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.<ref name="VCE">Helfrich, LA, Weigmann, DL, Hipkins, P, and Stinson, ER (June 1996), [http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/420-013/420-013.html#L4 Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems]. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved on [[2007-10-14]].</ref> Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses.<ref name="purdue"/> Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage [[rodents]] and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the EPA and PMRA.
Pesticides can save farmers money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the US, farmers get an estimated four-fold return on money they spend on pesticides.<ref name="Kelloggrl">Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), [http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Technical/land/pubs/eip_pap.html Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields]. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on [[2007-10-03]].</ref> One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.<ref>Kuniuki S (2001). [http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200205/000020020502A0090868.php Effects of organic fertilization and pesticide application on growth and yield of field-grown rice for 10 years]. ''Japanese Journal of Crop Science'' Volume 70, Issue 4, Pages 530-540. Retrieved [[2008-01-08]].</ref>
[[DDT]], sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to fight [[malaria]] since the 1950s. Recent policy statements by the [[World Health Organization]] have given stronger support to this approach. <ref name="who mal">World Health Organization (September 15, 2006), [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr50/en/ WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria]. Retrieved on [[September 13]], [[2007]].</ref> [[Dr. Arata Kochi]], WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."<ref name="who mal"/> However, since then, an October 2007 study has linked breast cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty.<ref>http://www.sustainableproduction.org/downloads/EnvandOccCausesofCancer-2007Update-DownloadVersion_000.pdf</ref> Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as [[malaria]], [[bubonic plague]], [[sleeping sickness]], and [[typhus]].<ref name="sustaining"/> However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to DDT was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.<ref>[http://magazine.panna.org/summer2006/inDepthDDT.html PANNA: PAN Magazine: In Depth: DDT & Malaria<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> A study for the [[World Health Organization]] in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were significantly more effective than DDT use.<ref>http://www.afronets.org/files/malaria.pdf</ref>
In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools.<ref name="sustaining"/> About 70% of the pesticides sold in the US are used in agriculture.<ref name="Kelloggrl"/>
==History==
Since before 2500 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental [[sulfur]] dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[lead]] were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, [[nicotine]] [[sulfate]] was extracted from [[tobacco]] leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, [[pyrethrum]] which is derived from [[chrysanthemum]]s, and [[rotenone]] which is derived from the roots of tropical [[vegetable]]s.<ref name="miller">Miller, GT (2002). ''Living in the Environment'' (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5</ref>
In 1939, [[Paul Hermann Müller|Paul Müller]] discovered that [[DDT]] was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world.
In the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread.<ref name="Daly">Daly H, Doyen JT, and Purcell AH III (1998), ''Introduction to insect biology and diversity'', 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. Chapter 14, Pages 279-300.</ref> Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era."<ref name="murphy">Graeme Murphy (December 1 2005), [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/grower/2005/12gn05a2.htm Resistance Management - Pesticide Rotation]. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2.3 million tonnes (2.5 million imperial tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year.<ref name="miller"/> Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing.<ref name="sustaining"/>
In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to [[biodiversity]]. [[Rachel Carson]] wrote the best-selling book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' about [[biological magnification]]. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent [[malaria]] and other tropical diseases by killing [[mosquitoes]] and other disease-carrying insects.<ref>Lobe, J (Sept 16, 2006), [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0916-05.htm "WHO urges DDT for malaria control Strategies,"] Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
==Regulation==
{{Globalize/USA}}
[[Image:Hazardous-pesticide.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Preparing for [[pesticide application]].]]
In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency.<ref name="regWillson"> Willson, Harold R ([[February 23]], [[1996]]), [http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/willson.htm Pesticide Regulations]. University of Minnesota. Retrieved on [[2007-10-15]].</ref> For example, in the [[United States]], the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a [[Toxicity Class]].
Some pesticides are considered too [[hazard]]ous for sale to the general public and are designated [[restricted use pesticide]]s. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides.<ref name="regWillson"/> Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.
In Canada, over 140 municipalities and the entire province of Quebec have now placed restrictions on the cosmetic use of synthetic lawn pesticides as a result of health and environmental concerns.<ref>http://www.flora.org/healthyottawa/BylawList.pdf</ref> The Ontario provincial government promised on [[September 24]], [[2007]] to also implement a province-wide ban on the cosmetic use of lawn pesticides, for protecting the public.<ref>[http://www.ontarioliberal.ca/en/LatestNews.aspx?id=80 Latest News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Medical and environmental groups support such a ban.<ref>http://cela.ca/uploads/f0803f62de5d2a1f673df7aaaca0e77b/ONPesticideBanStatement.pdf</ref> On [[April 22]], [[2008]], the Provincial Government of Ontario announced that it will pass legislation that will prohibit, province-wide, the cosmetic use and sale of lawn and garden pesticides.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080422.PESTICIDES22/TPStory/TPNational/Ontario/ globeandmail.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The Ontario legislation would also echo Massachusetts law requiring pesticide manufacturers to reduce the toxins they use in production.<ref>[http://www.thestar.com/News/Ontario/article/416905 TheStar.com | Ontario | Pesticide ban set to grow<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Province of Prince Edward Island is also considering such legislation.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080422.PESTICIDES22/TPStory/TPNational/Ontario/ globeandmail.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
On [[April 3]], [[2008]], the Canadian Cancer Society released opinion poll results conducted by Ipsos Reid, which established that a clear majority of residents in the provinces of British Columbia and Saskatchewan want province-wide cosmetic lawn pesticide bans, and that the majority of respondents believe that cosmetic pesticides are a threat to their health.
Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for different countries.<ref name="regWillson"/> The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002.<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, [http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Code/PM_Code.htm Programmes: International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides]. Retrieved on [[2007-10-25]].</ref> The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use.<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2002), [http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Code/Download/code.pdf International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides]. Retrieved on [[2007-10-25]].</ref>
Two other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the [[United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade]] and the [[Codex Alimentarius|United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission]]. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among participating countries.<ref name ="reynoldsjd">Reynolds, JD (1997), [http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/landuse/Vol131/REYN.HTMl International pesticide trade: Is there any hope for the effective regulation of controlled substances?] ''Florida State University Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law'', Volume 131. Retrieved on [[2007-10-16]].</ref> Both initiatives operate on a voluntary basis.<ref name ="reynoldsjd"/>
Reading and following label directions is required by law in countries such as the US and in limited parts of the rest of the world.
In the US, the [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]] (FIFRA) was first passed in 1947, giving the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] responsibility for regulating pesticides.<ref name="regWillson"/> In 1972, FIFRA underwent a major revision and transferred responsibility of pesticide regulation to the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] and shifted emphasis to protection of the environment and public health.<ref name="regWillson"/>
One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.<ref>Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, and Konradsen F (2007). [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/7/357/abstract The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: Systematic review] ''BMC Public Health'', Volume 21, Issue 7, Page 1. PMID 18154668. Retrieved [[2008-01-08]].</ref>
==Environmental effects==
{{Main|Environmental effects of pesticides}}
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food.<ref name="sustaining">Miller GT (2004), ''Sustaining the Earth'', 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.</ref> [[Pesticide drift]] occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of [[water pollution]], and some pesticides are [[persistent organic pollutants]] and contribute to [[soil contamination]].
==Health effects==
Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use.<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (August 30, 2007), [http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm Pesticides: Health and Safety. National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3]. </ref>
The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and using safer alternatives:
''<blockquote>
Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative.<ref>The American Medical Association’s Council on Scientific Affairs, 1997</ref></blockquote>''
===Farmers and workers===
There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.<ref>{{cite journal | author= McCauley LA, Anger WK, Keifer M, Langley R, Robson MG, and Rohlman D| title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/8526/8526.html Studying health outcomes in farmworker populations exposed to pesticides] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | issue=3 |pages=953–960| accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref>
The World Health Organisation and the [[UN Environment Programme]] estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe [[Pesticide poisoning|poisoning from pesticides]], about 18,000 of whom die.<ref name="sustaining"/> According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.<ref>Jeyaratnam J (1990). Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem. ''World Health Statistics Quarterly'', Volume 43, Issue 3, Pages 139-144. PMID 2238694. Retrieved [[2008-01-08]].</ref>
[[Organophosphate]] pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.<ref>Jaga K, Dharmani C. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. ''Pan American Journal of Public Health'' Volume 14, Issue 3, Pages 171–185. PMID 14653904. </ref> These are associated with acute health problems for workers that handle the chemicals, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.<ref>Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's ''Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons'' (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689.</ref> Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, [[dermatology|dermatologic]] conditions,<ref>Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Mellen BG. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. ''Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health'', Volume 9, Issue 3, Pages 221–232. PMID 12970952. </ref><ref>O'Malley MA. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. ''Occupational Medicine'' Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 327–345. PMID 9220489. </ref> cancer,<ref>Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9349828 Pesticides and childhood cancers]. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'', Volume 105, Issue 10, Pages 1068–1077. PMID 9349828.</ref> [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[neurological deficit]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Kamel F, et.al. | title=[http://dir.niehs.nih.gov/direb/studies/fwhs/pubs.htm Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2003 | volume=111 | pages=1765–1772}}</ref><ref>Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longsteth WT, Checkoway H. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1):91–95.</ref> [[miscarriage]]s, and [[birth defect]]s.<ref>Engel LS, O'Meara ES, Schwartz SM. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. ''Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health'', Volume 26, Issue 3, Pages 193–198. PMID 10901110.</ref><ref>Cordes DH, Rea DF. 1988. Health hazards of farming. ''American Family Physician'' 38:233–243 </ref><ref>Das R, Steege A, Baron S, Beckman J, Harrison R. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. ''International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health'', Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 303–312. PMID 11783860.</ref><ref>Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10346990 Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects]. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'', Volume 107, Supplement 3, Pages 409–419. PMID 10346990.</ref><ref>Garcia AM. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine'', Volume 44, Issue 6, Pages 584–594. PMID 14635235. <br />
Moses M. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37:115–130 </ref><ref>Schwartz DA, Newsum LA, Heifetz RM. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. ''Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health'', 12:51–54 </ref><ref>Stallones L, Beseler C. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97 </ref><ref>Strong, LL, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Islas I. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606 </ref><ref>Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL. 2003. [http://oem.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/60/9/634 Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis]. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642 </ref> Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and [[cancer]], perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers.<ref>Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.</ref><ref>Kamel F, Hoppin JA. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect 112:950–958.</ref>
According to researchers from the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH), licensed pesticide applicators who used chlorinated pesticides on more than 100 days in their lifetime were at greater risk of [[diabetes]]. In a paper appearing in the May, 2008, issue of the American Journal of Epidemiology, researchers said the associations between specific pesticides and incident diabetes ranged from a 20 percent to a 200 percent increase in risk. New cases of diabetes were reported by 3.4 percent of those in the lowest pesticide use category compared with 4.6 percent of those in the highest category. Risks were greater when users of specific pesticides were compared with applicators who never applied that chemical.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Montgomery MP, Kamel F, Saldana TM, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP |title=Incident diabetes and pesticide exposure among licensed pesticide applicators: Agricultural Health Study, 1993-2003. |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=167 |issue=10 |pages=235–46. |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18343878 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwn028 |unused_data=|PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE}}</ref><ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/541427/ Newswise: Long-term Pesticide Exposure May Increase Risk of Diabetes] Retrieved on June 4, 2008.</ref>
===Consumers===
{{Globalize/USA}}
There are concerns that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the [[organic food]] movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain [[pesticide residue]]s after being washed or peeled. Chemicals that are no longer used but which are resistant to breakdown for long periods may remain in soil and water and thus in food.<ref name=cornellvet>Cornell University, College of Veterinary Medicine (March 1999), [http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/FactSheet/Pesticide/fs24.consumer.cfm Consumer concerns about pesticides in food]. Fact Sheet #24. Retrieved on [[2007-10-25]].</ref>
The United Nations [[Codex Alimentarius]] Commission has recommended international standards for [[Maximum Residue Limit]]s (MRLs), for individual pesticides in food.<ref>Codex Alimentarius Commission [http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/1/CXP_020e.pdf Code of Ethics for International Trade in Food]. CAC/RCP 20-1979 (Rev. 1-1985). Retrieved on [[2007-10-25]].</ref>
In the EU, [[MRL]]s are set by [http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm DG-SANCO]. In the US, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the [[US EPA]] and are considered safe.<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (March 27, 2007), [http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm Pesticides and food: What the pesticide residue limits are on food]. epa.gov. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its breakdown products, the amount and frequency of [[pesticide application]], and how much of the pesticide (i.e., the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared.<ref>US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24th, 2007), [http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/stprf.htm Setting tolerances for pesticide residues in foods]. epa.gov. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is little information on possible [[synergistic]] effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water.<ref> Rabideau, Christine L. [http://es.epa.gov/ncer/fellow/progress/99/rabideauch00.html Multiple pesticide exposure: Immunotoxicty and oxidative tress] 2001</ref>
A study published by the [[United States National Research Council]] in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.<ref>National Research Council (1993), ''[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309048753/html/ Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children]''. National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-04875-3. Retrieved on [[2007-10-11]].</ref> A study in 2006 measured the levels of [[organophosphate|organophosphorus]] pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with [[organic food]] (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of [[organophosphorus]] pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lu C, Toepel K, Irish R, Fenske RA, Barr DB, Bravo R| title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8418/8418.pdf Organic diets significantly lower children's dietary exposure to organophosphorus pesticides.] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | issue=2|pmid=16451864 | pages=260–263|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref>
In the US, the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] estimates that between 4,000 and 20,000 cases of cancer are caused per year by pesticide residues in food in allowable amounts.<ref name="sustaining"/>
The [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/ Pesticide Data Program], a program started by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1991, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:<ref name="PDP">{{cite paper
| author = Pesticide Data Program
| title = Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005
| version =
| publisher = USDA
| date = February 2006
| url = http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf
| format = pdf
| accessdate =2007-09-15 }}</ref>
For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:
{| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center"
! Fresh Fruit and<br /> Vegetables !! Number of <br />Samples Analyzed !! Samples with<br /> Residues Detected !! Percent of <br />Samples with<br /> Detections !! Different <br />Pesticides<br /> Detected !! Different <br />Residues <br />Detected !! Total Residue<br /> Detections
|-align="center"
! Apples
| 774 || 727 || 98 || 33 || 41 || 2,619
|-align="center"
! Lettuce
| 743 || 657 || 88 || 47 || 57 || 1,985
|-align="center"
! Pears
| 741 || 643 || 87 || 31 || 35 || 1,309
|-align="center"
! Orange Juice
| 186 || 93 || 50 || 3 || 3 || 94
|}
They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that:
:''These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent''
:''compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent''
:''contained more than 1 pesticide.'' - page 34.<ref name="PDP"/>
The [[Environmental Working Group]] used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] and the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.<ref>FoodNews (2006), [http://www.foodnews.org/fulldataset.php Test Results: Complete Data Set]. Environmental Working Group, ewg.org. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
To reduce the amounts of pesticide residues in food, consumers can wash, peel, and cook their food; trim the fat from meat; and eat a variety of foods to avoid repeat exposure to a pesticide typically used on a given crop.<ref name=cornellvet/> Consumers can also buy food that is grown organically, though even organic food may have traces of pesticides.<ref name=cornellvet/>
Strawberries and tomatoes are the two crops with the most intensive use of soil fumigants. They are particularly vulnerable to several type of diseases, insects, mites, and parasitic worms. In 2003, in California alone, 3.7 million pounds of metam sodium were used on tomatoes. In recent years other farmers have demonstrated that it is possible to produce strawberries and tomatoes without the use of harmful chemicals and in a cost effective way.<ref>{{cite book | author=Levine, Marvin J. | title=Pesticides: A Toxic Time Bomb in our Midst | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-275-99127-2 | pages=213-214}}</ref>
===The public===
Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public.<ref>[[US Environmental Protection Agency]] (December 1999), [http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/spraydrift.htm Spray drift of pesticides]. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
The [[Bhopal disaster]] occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 [[ton]]s of [[methyl isocyanate]] (MIC) gas, intermediate chemical in the production of some pesticides. The disaster immediately killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = [[BBC News]] | title =
1984: Hundreds die in Bhopal chemical accident | work = On This Day: 3 December | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2698000/2698709.stm}}</ref>
In China, an estimated half million people are poisoned by pesticides each year, 500 of whom die.<ref>Lawrence, Dune (February 13, 2007), [http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/02/13/bloomberg/sxfood.php Chinese develop taste for organic food: Higher cost no barrier to safer eating]. ''Bloomberg News, International Herald Tribune'' Retrieved on [[2007-10-25]].</ref>
Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects of pesticides.<ref> Noyes, K [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm Banish Pesticides from your garden]. charityguide.org. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, [[leukemia]] and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]].<ref>Natural Resources Defense Council (October 1998), [http://www.nrdc.org/health/kids/farm/chap1.asp Health hazards of pesticides]. </ref> Often used for ridding school buildings of rodents, insects, pests, etc., pesticides only work temporarily and must be re-applied. The poisons found in pesticides are not selectively harmful to just pests and in everyday school environments children (and faculty) are exposed to high levels of pesticides and cleaning materials. "No testing has ever been done specifically pertaining to threats among children"<ref>{{cite book|last=Levine|first=Marvin J.|title=Pesticides|date=2007|accessdate=2007-04-19}}</ref>
Peer-reviewed studies now suggest [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]] effects on developing animals from [[organophosphate]] pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer [[nerve cell]]s, lower [[birth weight]]s, and lower [[Cognitive test|cognitive score]]s.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} The [[EPA]] finished a 10 year review of the [[organophosphate]] pesticides following the 1996 [[Food Quality Protection Act]], but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers.<ref> Melissa Lee Phillips (2006 October),
[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-10/spheres.html Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children?] ''Environmental Health Perspectives'', Volume 114, Issue 10, Pages A592–A595.</ref><ref>Pulaski A (May 26, 2006), [http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/2006/EPA-Pesticides-Pandering26may06.htm EPA workers blast agency's rulings on deadly pesticides: Letter sent to EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson by unions representing 9,000 EPA scientists]. ''The Oregonian'', Mindfully.org Retrieved on [[2007-10-10]].</ref>
Some scientists think that exposure to pesticides in the [[uterus]] may have negative effects on a [[fetus]] that may manifest as problems such as growth and behavioral disorders or reduced resistance to pesticide toxicity later in life.<ref>BBC News. (February 8, 2007), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/medical_notes/449303.stm Pesticides]. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
A new study conducted by the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing [[Parkinson's disease]] for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9408-pesticide-exposure-raises-risk-of-parkinsons.html Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s]<br />{{cite journal | author=Ascherio A, Chen H, Weisskopf MG, O'Reilly E, McCullough ML, Calle EE, Schwarzschild MA, Thun MJ| title=[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112660877/ABSTRACT Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease] | journal=Annals of Neurology | year=2006 | volume=60|issue=2| pages=197–203|pmid=16802290 | doi = 10.1002/ana.20904 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref>
A 2008 study from Duke University found that the Parkinson's patients were 61 percent more likely to report direct pesticide application than were healthy relatives. Both insecticides and herbicides significantly increased the risk of Parkinson's disease. <ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSCOL87119020080418 Study confirms Parkinson's-pesticides link | Health | Reuters<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
One study found that use of pesticides may be behind the finding that the rate of birth defects such as [[anophthalmia|missing]] or [[microphthalmia|very small eyes]] is twice as high in rural areas as in urban areas.<ref name="BBC">BBC News (October 1, 1998), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/184454.stm Pesticide link to eye abnormalities]. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref> Another study found no connection between eye abnormalities and pesticides.<ref name="BBC"/>
Pyrethrins, insecticides commonly used in common bug killers, can cause a potentially deadly condition if breathed in.<ref>Medline Plus (May 17, 2006), [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002832.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Insecticide]. Retrieved on [[September 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
==Continuing development==
Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from [[pesticide misuse]], but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.<ref name="VCE"/> [[Integrated pest management]], the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as [[Indonesia]], [[China]], [[Bangladesh]], the US, [[Australia]], and [[Mexico]].<ref name="sustaining"/> IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an [[ecosystem]], so that natural balances are not upset.<ref name="Daly"/> New pesticides are being developed, including biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives that are thought to reduce health and environmental risks. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
Pesticides can be created that are targeted to a specific pest's life cycle, which can be more environmentally-friendly.<ref name="potatonema">''Science Daily'', (October 11, 2001), [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011010074556.htm Environmentally-friendly pesticide to combat potato cyst nematodes]. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on [[September 19]], [[2007]].</ref> For example, [[potato cyst nematode]]s emerge from their protective cysts in response to a chemical excreted by potatoes; they feed on the potatoes and damage the crop.<ref name="potatonema"/> A similar chemical can be applied to fields early, before the potatoes are planted, causing the [[nematode]]s to emerge early and starve in the absence of potatoes.<ref name="potatonema"/>
==Alternatives==
Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of other organisms to kill pests, [[genetic engineering]], and methods of interfering with insect breeding.<ref name="sustaining"/>
Cultivation practices include [[polyculture]] (growing multiple types of plants), [[crop rotation]], planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of [[trap crop]]s that attract pests away from the real crop.<ref name="sustaining"/> In the US, farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying.<ref name="sustaining"/>
Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can include natural [[predator]]s or [[parasite]]s of the pests.<ref name="sustaining"/> [[Biological pesticides]] based on [[entomopathogenic fungi]], [[bacteria]] and [[virus]]es cause disease in the pest species can also be used.<ref name="sustaining"/>
Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by [[Sterile insect technique|sterilizing males]] of the target species and releasing them, so that they [[mating|mate]] with females but do not produce offspring.<ref name="sustaining"/> This technique was first used on the [[Cochliomyia hominivorax|screwworm fly]] in 1958 and has since been used with the [[medfly]], the [[tsetse fly]],<ref>(July 2007), [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biocontrols.html The biological control of pests]. Retrieved on [[September 17]], [[2007]].</ref> and the [[gypsy moth]].<ref>[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-401/ch17.htm SP-401 Skylab, Classroom in Space: Part III - Science Demonstrations, Chapter 17: Life Sciences]. History.nasa.gov. Retrieved on [[September 17]], [[2007]].</ref> However, this can be a costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types of insects.<ref name="sustaining"/>
In India, traditional pest control methods include using [[Panchakavya]], the "mixture of five products." The method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to use by the organic farming community.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. For example, [[Sweden]] has halved its use of pesticides with hardly any reduction in crops.<ref name="sustaining"/> In Indonesia, farmers have reduced pesticide use on rice fields by 65% and experienced a 15% crop increase.<ref name="sustaining"/>
==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:4; column-count:4;">
* [[Agrichemical]]s
* [[Avicide]]
* [[Biological pesticide]]
* [[Chlorbenside]]
* [[Daminozide]] or [[Alar]]
* [[DDT]]
* [[Endangered arthropod]]
* [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]]
* [[Fungicide]]
* [[Herbicide]]
* [[Insecticide]]
* [[Integrated Pest Management]]
* [[List of environmental health hazards]]
* [[National Pesticide Information Center]]
* [[Non-pesticide management]]
* [[Nonpoint source pollution]]
* [[Organophosphate]]
* [[Pesticide application]]
* [[Pesticide formulation]]
* [[Pesticide misuse]]
* [[Pesticide poisoning]]
* [[Pesticide resistance]]
* [[Pesticide toxicity to bees]]
* [[Protectant]]
* [[Reference dose]]
* [[Rodenticide]]
* [[Soil contamination]]
* ''[[The Pesticide Question]]: Environment, Economics and Ethics'' (book)
* [[Transgenic maize]] [[Bt corn]]
* [[UK Pesticides Campaign]]
* [[Water pollution]]
</div>
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
{{Horticulture and Gardening}}
===Books===
* {{cite book | author=Greene, Stanley A.; Pohanish, Richard P. (editors) | title=Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals | publisher=SciTech Publishing, Inc | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-8155-1516-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) | title=Pesticide residues in food and drinking water | publisher=J. Wiley | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-471-48991-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Hond, Frank et.al. | title=Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives | publisher=Blackwell Science | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-632-05659-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Kegley, Susan E.; Wise, Laura J. | title=Pesticides in fruits and vegetables | publisher=University Science Books | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-935702-46-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Levine, Marvin J. | title=Pesticides: A Toxic Time Bomb in our Midst | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-275-99127-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Ware, George W.; Whitacre, David M. | title=Pesticide Book | publisher=Meister Publishing Co | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-892829-11-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Watson, David H. (editor) | title=Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food | publisher=Woodhead Publishing | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-85573-734-5}}
===Journal Articles===
* {{cite journal | author=Walter A. Alarcon, et.al. | title=Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools | journal=Journal of the American Medical Association | year=July 2005 | volume=294 | pages=455–465 | doi=10.1001/jama.294.4.455 | pmid=16046652}}
* Tomlin, C.D.S. (Ed.) 2000 ''The Pesticide Manual'' 12th Edition, British Crop Protection Council, Bracknell, UK, 1250 pp.
===News===
* {{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = M| title = E.P.A. recommends limits on thousands of uses of pesticides | work = | pages = | publisher = New York Times | date = August 4, 2006 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/04/washington/04pest.html | accessdate = 2006-08-24 }}
* {{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = M| title = Unions say E.P.A. bends to political pressure | work = | pages = | publisher = New York Times | date = 2006-08-02 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/02/washington/02pest.html | accessdate = 2007-10-10 }}
* {{cite journal | author=Kaiser, J| title=Endocrine disrupters trigger fertility problems in multiple generations | journal=Science | year=June 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1391–1392| doi=10.1126/science.308.5727.1391a| pmid=15933166}}
* {{cite journal | author=Kaiser, J| title=House would foil human pesticide studies | journal=Science | year=May 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1234| doi=10.1126/science.308.5726.1234b| pmid=15919959}}
* {{cite journal | author=Webster, P | title=Study finds heavy contamination across vast Russian Arctic | journal=Science | year=Dec 2004 | volume=306 | pages=1875|pmid=15591171 | doi=10.1126/science.306.5703.1875a }}
* {{cite journal | author=Stokstad, E| title=EPA criticized for study of child pesticide exposure | journal=Science | year=Nov 2004 | volume=306 | pages=961|pmid=15528421| doi=10.1126/science.306.5698.961}}
* {{cite journal | author=Helmuth, L| title=Pesticide causes Parkinson's in rats | journal=Science | year=Nov 2000 | volume=290 | pages=1068 | doi = 10.1126/science.290.5494.1068a <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}
* {{cite journal | author=Adam, D | title=Pesticide use linked to Parkinson's disease | journal=Nature | year=Nov 2000 | volume=408 | pages=125 | doi=10.1038/35041740}}
==External links==
===General information===
* [http://www.dropdata.org International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)]
* [http://www.pan-uk.org/ PAN-UK]. Working to eliminate the dangers of toxic pesticides, our exposure to them, and their presence in the environment where we live and work.
* [http://npic.orst.edu National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)] Information about pesticide-related topics.
* [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/ Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides] - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides.
* Cdms.net. [http://www.cdms.net/manuf/manuf.asp All Supporting Agro-Chemical Manufacturers] a list of [[EPA]] pesticide labels for pesticides by trade name.
* [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_pesticides.html Compendium of Pesticide Common Names: Classified Lists of Pesticides] Lists of pesticide names by type.
* Pesticide Action Network. [http://www.pesticideinfo.org PAN Pesticides Database]. Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form.
* Croplifeamerica.org, [http://www.croplifeamerica.org US trade association representing the crop protection and pest control industry]
* US Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. [http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/pesticide_use_maps_1997/ 1997 pesticide use map] Shows estimates of pesticide type and intensity of pesticide use by business of mass food production.
===Pesticide regulatory authorities===
* [http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ US EPA]
* [http://www.pesticides.gov.uk UK Pesticides Safety Directorate]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/plant/protection/evaluation/index_en.htm European Commission pesticide information]
* [http://www.waterkeeper.ca/content/fish/pesticide_legislation_suggests.php Lake Ontario Waterkeeper] (May 21, 2008) -- Pesticide legislation suggests industry lobby is still alive and well
===Human health===
* Centers for Disease Control [http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/pesticides/links.htm Pesticides]. Compiled information on health effects of pesticides.
* NIH encyclopedia pages with [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002430.htm emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure]
* [http://www.durango-software.com Durango Software] - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use
* Environmental Working Group (July 14, 2005), [http://archive.ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.php The Pollution in Newborns].
* [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Download.htm Pesticide Residues in Food] - Data and Summary reports from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] on pesticide residues in food sold in the United States.
* [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00017.pdf Pesticides: Use, Effects, and Alternatives to Pesticides in Schools] (pdf) from the United States General Accounting Office
*[http://www.greenpeace.org/china/en/campaigns/food-and-agriculture/pesticides/pesticides-and-health Pesticides and Health -- Greenpeace China]
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