Pharmacy 297350 move=:edit= 226063170 2008-07-16T17:41:55Z Oxymoron83 4414625 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.78.60.198|208.78.60.198]] ([[User talk:208.78.60.198|talk]]) to last version by ClueBot {{otheruses}} [[Image:PharmacistsMortar.svg|Mortar and pestle|thumb|The [[mortar and pestle]], an internationally recognized symbol to represent the pharmacy profession]] '''Pharmacy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''φάρμακον'' 'pharmakos' = drug) is the [[health profession]] that links the [[health science]]s with the [[chemistry|chemical science]]s, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of [[medication]]. The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing medications, and it also includes more modern services related to [[patient care]], including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. [[Pharmacist]]s, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize medication use to provide patients with positive health outcomes. The term is also applied to an establishment used for such purposes. ==Disciplines== [[Image:42-aspetti di vita quotidiana, medicine,Taccuino Sanitatis, .jpg|thumb|250px|Pharmacy, [[tacuinum sanitatis]] casanatensis (XIV century)]] The field of Pharmacy can generally be divided into three primary disciplines: *[[Pharmaceutics]] *[[Medicinal chemistry]] and [[Pharmacognosy]] *[[Pharmacy practice]] The boundaries between these disciplines and with other sciences, such as biochemistry, are not always clear-cut; and often, collaborative teams from various disciplines research together. [[Pharmacology]] is sometimes considered a fourth discipline of pharmacy. Although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Therefore it is usually considered to be a field of the broader [[science]]s. There are various specialties of pharmacy practice. Specialization in pharmacy practice is typically based on the place of practice or practice roles including: community, hospital, [[clinical|consultant]], [[locum]], drug information, regulatory affairs, industry, and academia. Other specializations in pharmacy practice recognized by the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties include: cardiovascular, [[infectious disease]], [[oncology]], pharmacotherapy, nuclear, [[nutrition]], and [[psychiatry]].<ref> Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties, [http://www.bpsweb.org/03_Specialties_Current.html, Current Specialties]</ref> The [[Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy]] certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice. The [[American Board of Applied Toxicology]] certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied [[toxicology]]. ==Pharmacists== {{main|Pharmacist}} [[Pharmacist]]s are highly-trained and skilled healthcare professionals who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients. Many pharmacists are also [[small business|small-business]] owners, owning the pharmacy in which they practice. Pharmacists are represented internationally by the [[International Pharmaceutical Federation]] (FIP). They are represented at the national level by [[professional body|professional organisations]] such as the [[Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain]] (RPSGB), the [http://www.guild.org.au Pharmacy Guild of Australia] (PGA), the [[Pakistan Pharmacists Society]](PPS) and the [[American Pharmacists Association]] (APhA). ''See also: [[List of pharmacy associations]].'' In some cases, the representative body is also the registering body, which is responsible for the [[ethics]] of the profession. Since the [http://www.the-shipman-inquiry.org.uk Shipman Inquiry], there has been a move in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to separate the two roles. ==History of pharmacy== ===Muslim pharmacy=== In the field of pharmacy, the first drugstores were opened by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim pharmacists]] in [[Baghdad]] in 754,<ref name=Hadzovic>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref> while the first [[apothecary]] shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners.<ref>Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3), pp. 3-9 [8].</ref> The advances made in the Middle East by [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] in [[botany]] and [[chemistry]] led [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] to substantially develop [[pharmacology]]. [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by [[sublimation]] and [[distillation]]. His ''Liber servitoris'' is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the `simples’ from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. Sabur [[Ibn Sahl]] (d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoedia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. [[Al-Biruni]] (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled ''Kitab al-Saydalah'' (''The Book of Drugs''), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of [[Baghdad]] and [[Cairo]], and Ibn al-Wafid (1008-1074), both of which were printed in [[Latin]] more than fifty times, appearing as ''De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus'' by `[[Mesue]]' the younger, and the ''Medicamentis simplicibus'' by `Abenguefit'. [[Peter of Abano]] (1250-1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title ''De Veneris''. Al-Muwaffaq’s contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote ''The foundations of the true properties of Remedies'', amongst others describing [[arsenious oxide]], and being acquainted with [[silicic acid]]. He made clear distinction between [[sodium carbonate]] and [[potassium carbonate]], and drew attention to the poisonous nature of [[copper]] compounds, especially copper [[vitriol]], and also [[lead]] compounds. For the story, he also mentions the [[Distilled water|distillation of sea-water]] for drinking.<ref>Levey M. (1973), ‘ Early Arabic Pharmacology’, E. J. Brill; Leiden.</ref> ===Chinese Pharmacy=== {{Main|Pharmacy in China}} The beginnings of pharmacy in China are ancient. It stemmed from [[Chinese alchemy]]. Shennong is said to have tasted hundreds of herbs to test their medical value. The most well-known work attributed to Shennong is ''The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic''. This work is considered to be the earliest Chinese pharmacopoeia. It includes 365 medicines derived from minerals, plants, and animals. Shennong is credited with identifying hundreds of medical (and poisonous) herbs by personally testing their properties, which was crucial to the development of Traditional Chinese medicine. ===Japanese pharmacy=== In ancient Japan, the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharamacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in the [[Taihō Code]] (701) and re-stated in the [[Yōrō Code]] (718). Ranked positions in the pre-[[Heian period|Heian]] Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the [[Meiji Restoration]] (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists -- and even pharmacist assistants -- were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.<ref>Titsingh, Isaac. (1834) ''Annales des empereurs du japon,'' p. 434.</ref> ==Types of pharmacy practice areas== Pharmacists practice in a variety of areas including retail, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, drug industry, and regulatory agencies. Pharmacists can specialize in various areas of practice including but not limited to: hematology/oncology, infectious diseases, ambulatory care, nutrition support, drug information, critical care, pediatrics, etc. ===Community pharmacy=== [[Image:NatMuseum.Ravenna.jpg|thumb|right|225px|19th century Italian pharmacy]] [[Image:Selvvalg.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Modern pharmacy in Norway]] A '''pharmacy''' (commonly the '''chemist''' in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]; or '''drugstore''' in [[North America]]; '''retail pharmacy''' in industry terminology; or [[Apothecary]], historically) is the place where most pharmacists practice the profession of pharmacy. It is the community pharmacy where the dichotomy of the profession exists&mdash;health professionals who are also retailers. Community pharmacies usually consist of a retail storefront with a dispensary where medications are stored and dispensed. The dispensary is subject to pharmacy legislation; with requirements for storage conditions, compulsory texts, equipment, ''etc.'', specified in legislation. Where it was once the case that pharmacists stayed within the dispensary compounding/dispensing medications; there has been an increasing trend towards the use of trained [[pharmacy technician]]s while the pharmacist spends more time communicating with patients. All pharmacies are required to have a pharmacist on-duty at all times when open. In many jurisdictions, it is also a requirement that the owner of a pharmacy must be a registered pharmacist (R.Ph.). This latter requirement has been revoked in many jurisdictions, such that many [[retailer]]s (including [[supermarket]]s and [[department store#Discount department store|mass merchandiser]]s) now include a pharmacy as a department of their store. Likewise, many pharmacies are now rather grocery store-like in their design. In addition to medicines and prescriptions, many now sell a diverse arrangement of additional household items such as [[cosmetics]], [[shampoo]], [[bandages]], [[office supplies]], [[confectionary]], and [[snack foods]]. ===Hospital pharmacy=== {{main|Hospital pharmacy}} Pharmacies within [[hospitals]] differ considerably from community pharmacies. Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relations issues. Because of the complexity of medications including specific indications, effectiveness of treatment regimens, safety of medications (i.e., drug interactions) and patient compliance issues ( in the hospital and at home) many pharmacists practicing in hospitals gain more education and training after pharmacy school through a pharmacy practice residency and sometimes followed by another residency in a specific area. Those pharmacists are often referred to as clinical pharmacists and they often specialize in various disciplines of pharmacy. For example, there are pharmacists who specialize in haematology/oncology, HIV/AIDS, infectious disease, critical care, [[emergency medicine]], toxicology, nuclear pharmacy, pain management, psychiatry, anticoagulation clinics, [[Herbalism|herbal medicine]], neurology/epilepsy management, paediatrics, neonatal pharmacists and more. Hospital pharmacies can usually be found within the premises of the hospital. Hospital pharmacies usually stock a larger range of medications, including more specialized medications, than would be feasible in the community setting. Most hospital medications are unit-dose, or a single dose of medicine. Hospital pharmacists and trained pharmacy technicians compound sterile products for patients including [[total parenteral nutrition]] (TPN), and other medications given intravenously. This is a complex process that requires adequate training of personnel, [[Quality Assurance|quality assurance]] of products, and adequate facilities. Several hospital pharmacies have decided to [[outsource]] high risk preparations and some other compounding functions to companies who specialize in compounding. ===Clinical pharmacy=== {{main|Clinical pharmacy}} [[Clinical pharmacists]] provide direct patient care services that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention.<ref>American College of Clinical Pharmacy, [http://www.accp.com/clinical_pharmacy.php Clinical Pharmacy Defined]</ref> Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside [[Hospital]]s and clinics. Clinical pharmacists often collaborate with [[Physician]]s and other healthcare professionals. Clinical pharmacists are now an integral part of the interdisciplinary approach to patient care. They work collaboratively with physicians, nurses and other healthcare personnel in various medical and surgical areas. ===Compounding pharmacy=== {{main|Compounding}} Compounding is the practice of preparing drugs in new forms. For example, if a drug manufacturer only provides a drug as a tablet, a compounding pharmacist might make a medicated [[lollipop]] that contains the drug. Patients who have difficulty swallowing the tablet may prefer to suck the medicated lollipop instead. Compounding pharmacies specialize in compounding, although many also dispense the same non-compounded drugs that patients can obtain from community pharmacies. ===Consultant pharmacy=== {{main|Consultant pharmacist}} Consultant pharmacy practice focuses more on medication regimen review (i.e. "cognitive services") than on actual dispensing of drugs. Consultant pharmacists most typically work in [[nursing home]]s, but are increasingly branching into other institutions and non-institutional settings.<ref>American Society of Consultant Pharmacists, [http://www.ascp.com/about/ascpfactsheet.cfm Frequently Asked Questions]</ref> Traditionally consultant pharmacists were usually independent business owners, though in the United States many now work for several large pharmacy management companies (primarily [[Omnicare]], [[Kindred Healthcare]] and [[PharMerica]]). This trend may be gradually reversing as consultant pharmacists begin to work directly with patients, primarily because many elderly people are now taking numerous medications but continue to live outside of institutional settings. Some community pharmacies employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide consulting services. ===Internet pharmacy=== {{main|Online pharmacy}} Since about the year 2000, a growing number of [[Internet]] pharmacies have been established worldwide. Many of these pharmacies are similar to community pharmacies, and in fact, many of them are actually operated by [[Bricks and mortar business|brick-and-mortar]] community pharmacies that serve consumers online and those that walk in their door. The primary difference is the method by which the medications are requested and received. Some customers consider this to be more convenient and private method rather than traveling to a community drugstore where another customer might overhear about the drugs that they take. Internet pharmacies (also known as Online Pharmacies) are also recommended to some patients by their physicians if they are homebound. While most Internet pharmacies sell [[prescription drug]]s and require a valid prescription, some Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs without requiring a prescription. Many customers order drugs from such pharmacies to avoid the "inconvenience" of visiting a doctor or to obtain medications which their doctors were unwilling to prescribe. However, this practice has been criticized as potentially dangerous, especially by those who feel that only doctors can reliably assess contraindications, risk/benefit ratios, and an individual's overall suitability for use of a medication. There also have been reports of such pharmacies dispensing substandard products. Of course as history has shown, substandard products can be dispensed by both Internet and Community pharmacies, so it is best that the [[Caveat emptor|buyer beware]]. Of particular concern with internet pharmacies is the ease with which people, youth in particular, can obtain [[controlled substances]] (e.g., [[Vicodin]], generically known as [[hydrocodone]]) via the internet without a prescription issued by a doctor/practitioner who has an established doctor-patient relationship. There are many instances where a practitioner issues a prescription, brokered by an internet server, for a controlled substance to a "patient" s/he has never met. In the United States, in order for a prescription for a controlled substance to be valid, it must be issued for a legitimate medical purpose by a licensed practitioner acting in the course of legitimate doctor-patient relationship. The filling pharmacy has a corresponding responsibility to ensure that the prescription is valid. Often, individual state laws outline what defines a valid patient-doctor relationship. Canada is home to dozens of licensed Internet pharmacies, many which sell their lower-cost prescription drugs to U.S. consumers, who pay the world's highest drug prices.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In recent years, many consumers in the US and in other countries with high drug costs, have turned to licensed Internet pharmacies in India, Israel and the UK, which often have even lower prices than in Canada. In the [[United States]], there has been a push to legalize importation of medications from [[Canada]] and other countries, in order to reduce consumer costs. While in most cases importation of prescription medications violates [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) regulations and federal laws, enforcement is generally targeted at international drug suppliers, rather than consumers. There is no known case of any U.S. citizens buying Canadian drugs for personal use with a prescription, who has ever been charged by authorities. ===Veterinary pharmacy=== Veterinary pharmacies, sometimes called ''animal pharmacies'' may fall in the category of hospital pharmacy, retail pharmacy or mail-order pharmacy. Veterinary pharmacies stock different varieties and different strengths of medications to fulfill the pharmaceutical needs of animals. Because the needs of animals as well as the regulations on [[veterinary medicine]] are often very different from those related to people, veterinary pharmacy is often kept separate from regular pharmacies. ===Nuclear pharmacy=== {{main|Nuclear pharmacy}} Nuclear pharmacy focuses on preparing radioactive materials for diagnostic tests and for treating certain diseases. Nuclear pharmacists undergo additional training specific to handling radioactive materials, and unlike in community and hospital pharmacies, nuclear pharmacists typically do not interact directly with patients. ===Military pharmacy=== {{main|Military pharmacy}} Military pharmacy is an entirely different working environment due to the fact that technicians perform most duties that in a civilian sector would be illegal. State laws of Technician patient counseling and medication checking by a pharmacist do not apply. ===Pharmacy informatics=== {{main|Pharmacy informatics}} Pharmacy informatics is the combination of pharmacy practice science and applied information science. Pharmacy informaticists work in many practice areas of pharmacy, however, they may also work in information technology departments or for healthcare information technology vendor companies. As a practice area and specialist domain, pharmacy informatics is growing quickly to meet the needs of major national and international patient information projects and health system interoperability goals. Pharmacists are well trained to participate in medication management system development, deployment and optimization. ==Issues in pharmacy== ===Separation of prescribing from dispensing=== In most jurisdictions (such as the [[United States]]), [[pharmacist]]s are regulated separately from [[physician]]s. Specifically, the legislation stipulates that the practice of prescribing must be separate from the practice of dispensing. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} These jurisdictions also usually specify that ''only'' pharmacists may supply scheduled [[pharmaceutical]]s to the public, and that pharmacists cannot form business [[partnership]]s with physicians or give them "kickback" payments. However, the [[American Medical Association]] (AMA) Code of Ethics provides that physicians may dispense drugs within their office practices as long as there is no patient exploitation and patients have the right to a written prescription that can be filled elsewhere. 7 to 10 percent of American physician practices reportedly dispense drugs on their own.<ref>American Association of State Compensation Insurance Funds, [http://www.aascif.org/public/jul_aug_sep06/drugs.htm Prepackaged Drugs in Workers' Compensation]</ref> In other [[jurisdiction]]s (particularly in [[Asia]]n countries such as [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Singapore]]), [[Physician|doctor]]s are allowed to dispense [[medication|drug]]s themselves and the practice of pharmacy is sometimes integrated with that of the [[physician]], particularly in traditional [[Chinese medicine]]. In Canada it is common for a medical clinic and a pharmacy to be located together and for the ownership in both enterprises to be common, but licensed separately. The reason for the majority rule is the high risk of a conflict of interest. Otherwise, the physician has a financial self-interest in "diagnosing" as many conditions as possible, and in exaggerating their seriousness, because he or she can then sell more medications to the patient. Such self-interest directly conflicts with the patient's interest in obtaining cost-effective medication and avoiding the unnecessary use of medication that may have [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side-effects]]. This system reflects much similarity to the checks and balances system of the U.S. and many other governments. A campaign for separation has begun in many countries and has already been successful (like in [[Korea]]). As many of the remaining nations move towards separation, resistance and lobbying from dispensing doctors who have pecuniary interests may prove a major stumbling block (e.g. in [[Malaysia]]). ===The future of pharmacy=== In the coming decades, pharmacists are expected to become more integral within the health care system. Rather than simply dispensing medication, pharmacists will be paid for their patient care skills.<ref>American College of Clinical Pharmacy, [http://www.accp.com/position/pos029.pdf Evidence of the Economic Benefit of Clinical Pharmacy Services: 1996–2000]</ref> This shift has already commenced in some countries; for instance, pharmacists in [[Australia]] receive remuneration from the [[Government of Australia|Australian Government]] for conducting comprehensive Home Medicines Reviews. In the United Kingdom, pharmacists (and nurses) who undertake additional training are obtaining prescribing rights. They are also being paid for by the government for [[medicine use reviews]]. In the United States, pharmaceutical care or [[Clinical pharmacy]] has had an evolving influence on the practice of pharmacy.<ref>American College of Clinical Pharmacy, [http://www.accp.com/clinical_pharmacy.php Clinical Pharmacy Defined]</ref> Moreover, the [[Doctor of Pharmacy]] (Pharm.D.) degree is now required before entering practice and many pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training following graduation. In addition, [[consultant pharmacist]]s, who traditionally operated primarily in [[nursing home]]s are now expanding into direct consultation with patients, under the banner of "senior care pharmacy."<ref>[[American Society of Consultant Pharmacists]], [http://www.ascp.com/consumers/what/ What is a Senior Care Pharmacist?]</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Pharmacy and Pharmacology}} *[[Apothecary]] *[[Bachelor of Pharmacy]], [[Master of Pharmacy]], [[Doctor of Pharmacy]] *[[Clinical pharmacy]] *[[Consultant pharmacist]] *[[Doctor of Pharmacy]] *[[Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries]] *[[Hospital pharmacy]] *[[List of pharmacies]] *[[List of pharmacy associations]] * [[List of pharmacy organizations in the United Kingdom]] *[[List of pharmacy schools]] *[[Nuclear pharmacy]] *[[Online pharmacy]] *[[Pharmaceutical company]] *[[Pharmacy (residency)]] *[[Pharmacogenetics]] *[[Pharmacogenomics]] *[[Pharmacognosy]] *[[Pharmaconomist]] *[[Pharmacy informatics]] *[[Raeapteek]] ''(one of the oldest continuously run pharmacies in Europe dating from the 15th century)'' * [[American Society for Pharmacy Law]] *[[pharmacology]] ==Symbols== The two [[symbol]]s most commonly associated with pharmacy are the [[mortar and pestle]] and the {{unicode|℞}} (''[[Rx|recipere]]'') character, which is often written as "rx" in typed text. The [[show globe]] was also used in English speaking countries until the early 20th century. Pharmacy organizations often use other symbols, such as the [[Bowl of Hygieia]], [[conical measure]]s, and [[caduceus]]es in their [[logos]]. Other symbols are common in different countries: the green [[Greek cross]] in [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Belgium]], and [[Spain]], the increasingly-rare [[Gaper]] in [[The Netherlands]], and a red stylized letter A in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] (from ''Apotheke'', the [[German language|German]] word for pharmacy, from the same [[Greek language|Greek]] root as the [[English language|English]] word 'apothecary'). <center> <gallery> Image:Bowl hygeia.svg|Bowl of Hygeia Image:Pharmacy Green Cross.svg|The green Greek Cross used in Argentina, France and the United Kingdom Image:PharmacistsMortar.svg|Mortar and pestle Image:Rx symbol.png|Recipe symbol Image:Pharmacy Germany.jpg|The red stylized "A" used in Germany and Austria Image:Caduceus.svg|Caduceus Image:Asclepius staff.svg|Rod of Asclepius Image:Red Hanging Show Globe2.jpg‎|Hanging Show Globe </gallery> </center> ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * {{ja icon}} Asai,T. (1985). ''Nyokan Tūkai''. Tokyo: Kōdan-Sha. * {{fr icon}} [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh]], Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]], 1652], ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.'' Paris: [[Royal Asiatic Society|Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland]].[http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran ...Click link for digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)] ==External links== {{commonscat|Pharmacy}} {{Wiktionary}} *[http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/pharm/pharmaziegeschichte/index-e.html Navigator History of Pharmacy] Collection of internet resources related to the history of pharmacy. *[http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/members/museum/mussheet.htm RPSGB Museum Information Sheets] Illustrated information sheets on objects in the history of pharmacy. *[http://home.swipnet.se/PharmHist/Lankar/lankar_en.html History of Pharmacy Web Pages] Perbo's History of Pharmacy Web Pages. *[http://www.drugstoremuseum.com Soderlund Pharmacy Museum] - Information about the history of the American Drugstore *[http://www.lloydlibrary.org/ The Lloyd Library] Library of botanical, medical, pharmaceutical, and scientific books and periodicals, and works of allied sciences *[http://www.aihp.org American Institute of the History of Pharmacy] American Institute of the History of Pharmacy--resources in the history of pharmacy ===Other=== *[http://www.pharmaclips.com Pharmaclips] - Medicine Information Gateway with Drug Finder and printable coupons. *[http://www.pharmweb.net PharmWeb] - Pharmaceutical Information Online.*[http://www.pharmacy.org/ The Virtual Library of Pharmacy] - Extensive index of pharmacy-related resources, including information on careers in pharmacy, pharmacy schools, pharmaceuticaul companies, associations and conferences. *[http://www.pharmacistsletter.com Pharmacist's Letter] - Unbiased, research based resource for pharmacists and pharmacy technicians on new developments in drug therapy [[Category:Pharmacy| ]] [[Category:Medicinal chemistry]] [[Category:Pharmacy|Pharmacy]] [[ar:صيدلة]] [[ast:Farmacia]] [[ca:Farmàcia]] [[cs:Farmacie]] [[da:Apotek]] [[de:Apotheke]] [[es:Farmacia]] [[eo:Apoteko]] [[ext:Botica]] [[fa:داروخانه]] [[fr:Pharmacie]] [[gl:Farmacia]] [[ia:Pharmacia]] [[he:מדעי הרוקחות]] [[lt:Farmacija]] [[hu:Gyógyszerészet]] [[ms:Farmasi]] [[nl:Apotheek]] [[ja:薬学]] [[no:Farmasi]] [[nrm:Apotiqu'sie]] [[oc:Farmacia]] [[pl:Apteka]] [[pt:Farmácia]] [[ro:Farmacie]] [[ru:Аптека]] [[simple:Pharmacy]] [[sl:Farmacija]] [[sh:Farmacija]] [[su:Farmasi]] [[fi:Apteekki]] [[sv:Farmaci]] [[th:เภสัชกรรม]] [[tr:Eczane]] [[uk:Аптека]] [[zh:药学]] [[sk:Farmácia]]