Photovoltaics
652531
226156719
2008-07-17T02:06:39Z
Tabletop
173687
Spell univrsity => university
{{Merge|Solar cell|Talk:Photovoltaic module#Merge discussion|date=July 2008}}
[[Image:Mafate Marla solar panel dsc00633.jpg|250px|right]]
[[Image:Gleisdorf.Solarbaum.jpg|thumb|200px|Photovoltaic 'tree' in [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Austria]]]]
{{Renewable energy sources}}
'''Photovoltaics''' ('''PV''') is the field of technology and research related to the application of [[solar cell]]s for [[energy]] by converting [[sunlight]] directly into [[electricity]].
Due to the growing need for [[solar energy]], the manufacture of [[solar cell]]s and [[photovoltaic array]]s has expanded dramatically in recent years.
<ref>[http://www.solarbuzz.com/FastFactsGermany.htm German PV market]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=47861 BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/read_article.aspx?id=17025&ch=biztech Large-Scale, Cheap Solar Electricity]</ref>
Photovoltaic production has been doubling every two years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year since 2002, making it the world’s fastest-growing energy technology. At the end of 2007, according to preliminary data, cumulative global production was 12,400 [[megawatt]]s.
<ref>Earth Policy Institute (2007). [http://www.earth-policy.org/Indicators/Solar/2007.htm Solar Cell Production Jumps 50 Percent in 2007]</ref>
Roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of [[grid-tied electrical system]]s. Such installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)
<ref>[http://www.huliq.com/18313/ge-invests-delivers-one-of-worlds-largest-solar-power-plants GE Invests, Delivers One of World's Largest Solar Power Plants]</ref>
or built into the roof or walls of a building, known as [[Building-integrated photovoltaic|Building Integrated Photovoltaic]] or BIPV for short.<ref>[http://www.buildingsolar.com/technology.asp Building integrated photovoltaics]</ref> Financial incentives, such as preferential [[Feed-in Tariff|feed-in tariff]]s for solar-generated electricity and [[net metering]], have supported solar PV installations in many countries including [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.solarbuzz.com/FastFactsGermany.htm German PV market]</ref>
==Overview==
[[Image:Solar cell.png|right|thumb|200px|Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly from sunlight]]
[[Image:Solar land area.png|thumb|200px|Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are normally propped up at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels needed to generate all of the worlds energy using 8% eff. PVs.]]
[[Image:EU-Glob opta presentation.png|thumb|200px|Map of solar electricity potential in Europe]]
Photovoltaics is best known as a method for generating [[solar power]] by using [[solar cell]]s packaged in [[photovoltaic module]]s, often electrically connected in multiples as [[solar photovoltaic array]]s to convert energy from the [[sun]] into [[electricity]]. To explain the photovoltaic solar panel more simply, photons from sunlight knock electrons into a higher state of energy, creating electricity.
The term ''photovoltaic'' denotes the unbiased operating mode of a [[photodiode]] in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce [[direct current]] electricity from light, which can be used to power equipment or to [[Rechargeable battery|recharge a battery]]. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other [[spacecraft]], but today the majority of [[photovoltaic module]]s are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an [[inverter (electrical)|inverter]] is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off grid power for remote dwellings, roadside emergency telephones, [[remote sensing]], and [[cathodic protection]] of [[Pipeline transport|pipelines]].
Cells require protection from the environment and are packaged usually behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form [[photovoltaic module]]s, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in arrays. Although the selling price of modules is still too high to compete with grid electricity in most places, significant financial incentives in Japan and then Germany triggered a huge growth in demand, followed quickly by production.
== Current development ==
The most important issue with solar panels is [[capital cost]] (installation and materials). Newer alternatives to standard crystalline silicon modules including casting wafers instead of sawing,<ref>[http://www.evergreensolar.com/app/en/technology/ A Better Way to Make Solar Power]</ref> thin film (CdTe<ref>[http://www.firstsolar.com/company_overview.php Company Information Overview]</ref> CIGS,<ref>[http://www.wuerth-solar.de/website/frames.php?parLANG=EN&parKAT=239 The technology at a glance]</ref> amorphous Si,<ref>[http://www.uni-solar.com/interior.asp?id=66 Converting sunlight to electricity]</ref> microcrystalline Si), [[concentrator photovoltaic|concentrator modules]], [[Andrew Blakers|'Sliver' cells]], and continuous printing processes. Due to [[Returns to scale|economies of scale]] solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more — as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come. As early as 2006, the average cost per installed watt for a residential sized system was about USD 7.50 to USD 9.50 NATIONWIDE * (This is a fact published by a SEIA Report available at http://www.seia.org/), including panels, inverters, mounts, and electrical items.<ref>[http://www.solarpowerfor.us/solar-photovoltaic-panels.html Solar Photovoltaic Panels]</ref> In 2006 investors began offering free solar panel installation in return for a 25 year contract to purchase electricity at a fixed price, normally set at or below current electric rates.<ref>[http://www.mmarenewableventures.com/Programs/Solar.html MMA Renewable Ventures Solar Energy Program]</ref><ref>[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=49104 U.S. Retailers Save with Solar PV & Energy Efficiency]</ref>
==Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals==
{{seealso|Deployment of solar power to energy grids}}
{{wikinews2|PV Taiwan 2007 starts with photovoltaic solutions and applications|PV Taiwan 2007: ITRI Taiwan awards winners of Jinyi Award and shows the solutions on photovoltaic industry}}
World solar photovoltaic (PV) market installations reached a record high of 2.8 gigawatts peak (GWp) in 2007.<ref name="buzz">[http://www.solarbuzz.com/Marketbuzz2008-intro.htm MarketBuzz 2008: Annual World Solar Photovoltaic Industry Report].</ref>
The three leading countries (Germany, Japan and the USA) represent nearly 89% of the total worldwide PV installed capacity. On Wed [[1 August]] [[2007]], word was published of construction of a production facility in China, which is projected to be one of the largest wafer factories in the world, with an annual capacity of around 1,500MW.<ref>{{cite journal | author = [http://www.engagingchina.com/blog/cmd=view_user/username=gnairn Geoff Nairn] | date = 2007-08-01 Wed 18:14 CEST | title = Shiny prospects for solar equipment makers | journal = [http://www.engagingchina.com/blog EngagingChina] | url = http://www.engagingchina.com/blog/_archives/2007/8/1/3133012.html | accessdate = 2008-02-14}}</ref>
Germany was the fastest growing major PV market in the world during 2006 and 2007. In 2007, over 1.3 GWp of PV was installed. The German PV industry generates over 10,000 jobs in production, distribution and installation. By the end of 2006, nearly 88% of all solar PV installations in the EU were in grid-tied applications in Germany. The balance is off-grid (or stand alone) systems.<ref>[http://www.solarbuzz.com/FastFactsGermany.htm German PV market]</ref>
Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts peak).<ref>{{cite book | title = Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering | author = Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedus | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=u-bCMhl_JjQC&pg=PT326&ots=JCxK40jS5E&dq=wp+%22watts+peak%22+definition&sig=DCn_ieGxE81wn1kBMtowVsnrEPQ | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | year = 2003 | isbn = 0471491969}}</ref> The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors.<ref>[http://www.pvwatts.org/ The PVWatts Solar Calculator]</ref> Solar photovoltaic array [[capacity factor]]s are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.<ref>[http://www.utilipoint.com/issuealert/print.asp?id=1728 UtiliPoint International, Inc. 'Issue alert - What is a megawatt?]</ref> Therefore the 2006 installed base peak output would have provided an average output of 1.2 GW (assuming 20% × 5,862 MWp). This represented 0.06 percent of global demand at the time.<ref>[http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table62.xls Total electric power consumption]</ref><!-- Latest figures are for 2005, 15,747 Billion kWh, however increase has been about 4%/year. Since there are approximately 8760 hrs/yr this is about 1.87 Million MW average. -->
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{| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|+ '''Produced, Installed & Total Photovoltaic Peak Power Capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2006'''
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]]<br><small>[[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.</small>
! Cells<br>Made<br>
! Modules<br>Made<br>
! off<br>grid<br>Δ
! on<br>grid<br>Δ
! Installed<br>2006<br>
! off<br>grid<br>Σ
! on<br>grid<br>Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total<br>06<br>
! Wp/capita<br>Total<br>
! Module<br>Price<br>[[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr<br>[[Insolation]]<br>
! [[Feed-in Tariff]]<br>[[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h<br>
|-
| align=left|{{flag|World}}
| 2,523<!--2,522.53-->
| 2,092<!--2,091.715-->
| 97.48<!--97.478-->
| 1,452<!--1,451.67552-->
| 1,549<!--1,549.15352-->
| 712.7<!--712.687-->
| 5,150<!--5,149.558-->
| 5,862<!--5,862.245-->
| 0.879
| 2.5-11.2
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |0800-2902
| 0-59.3
|-
| align=left|{{flag|European Union}}
| 653.7
| 593.9<!--593.925-->
| 16.91<!--16.907-->
| 1,032<!--1,032.484-->
| 1,049<!--1,049.391-->
| 112.3<!--112.285-->
| 3,108<!--3,108.49-->
| 3,221<!--3,220.775-->
| 6.533
| 3.0-8.04
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |0800-2200
| 0-56.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}<ref name="NSR-Germany">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Wissing | first = Lothar | coauthors = Jülich, Forschungszentrum & Jülich, Projektträger | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Germany 2006 - Version 2 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/germany/index.htm NSRs for Germany] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06deunsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends">{{cite journal | last = Bründlinger | first = Roland | coauthors = Cowley, Paul & Watt, Greg et al. (See:Table 11 – IEA PVPS Task 1 national report authors) | date = 2007-August | title = Trends In Photovoltaic Applications - Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/rep1_16.htm IEA PVPS T1-16:2007] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep1_16.pdf | accessdate = 2007-11-05}}</ref>
| 514.0
| 341.0
| 3
| 950
| 953
| 32
| 2,831
| 2,863
| 34.78
| 4.0-5.3
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000-1300<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA">{{cite journal | last = Sherwood | first = Larry | coauthors = Les Nelson, Fred Morse, Jeff Wolfe, Chris O’Brien | date = 2006 | title = US Solar Industry - Year In Review - 2006 | journal = [http://www.seia.org/ Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)] & [http://www.prometheus.org/ The Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development] | url = http://www.seia.org/Year_in_Solar_2006.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref>
| 51.8-56.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}<ref name="NSR-Japan">{{cite journal | last = Ikki | first = Osamu | coauthors = Matsubara, Koji | date = [[2007-05-25]] | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Japan 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/japan/index.htm NSRs for Japan] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06jpnnsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 919.8
| 645.4<!--645.41-->
| 1.531
| 285.1
| 286.6
| 88.59
| 1,620
| 1,709
| 13.37
| 2.96
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-1600
| Ended(2005)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}<ref name="NSR-USA">{{cite journal | last = Pedigo | first = Susannah | coauthors = Maycock, Paul D. & Bower, Ward | date = [[2007-08-30]] | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The United States Of America 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/usa/index.htm NSRs for The USA] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06usansr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 201.6
| 200.5
| 37
| 108
| 145
| 270
| 354
| 624
| 2.058
| 2.98
| style="background-color: GreenYellow"|0900-2150<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA"/>
| 1.2-31.04(CA)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 75.3
|
| 9.1
| 51.4
| 60.5
| 17.8
| 100.4
| 118.2
| 2.620
| 3.0-4.5
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1600-2200
| 18.38-44.04
|-
| align=left|{{flag|China}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
<!--Page 18 Quote:"15 MW of new capacity were reportedly installed taking the cumulative capacity to date to 85 MW [...] for PV modules in 2006. Note that China’s total cumulative capacity includes more than 12 MW of ‘PV products’ (calculators, garden lights, torches, etc.); this category of application is not generally reported by IEA PVPS countries and is not included in the applications analysis presented in this report." Note: the report on China discusses modules & off-grid systems only.
Page 24 Quote:"[...]China reportedly expanding cell production to over 380 MW in 2006,[...]Similarly, China accounts for the lion’s share of non-PVPS module production, with an apparent production of over 510 MW in 2006."-->
| 380
| 510
| 15
|
| 15
| 73
|
| 73
| 0.055
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1300-2300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}<ref name="NSR-Australia">{{cite journal | last = Watt | first = Muriel | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Australia 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/australia/index.htm NSRs for Australia] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06ausnsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-16}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 36.0
| 7.6
| 7.576
| 2.145
| 9.721
| 60.54
| 9.765
| 70.30
| 3.327
| 4.5-5.4
| style="background-color: Gold" |1450-2902<ref>{{cite journal | last = Blakers | first = Andrew W. | date = 2000 | title = Solar and Wind Electricity in Australia | journal = Australian Journal of Environmental Management, Vol 7, pp 223-236, 2000 | url = http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/Solar&Wind.pdf | accessdate = 2008-02-14 | format = {{Dead link|date=June 2008}} – <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3A+intitle%3ASolar+and+Wind+Electricity+in+Australia&as_publication=Australian+Journal+of+Environmental+Management%2C+Vol+7%2C+pp+223-236%2C+2000&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref>
| 0-26.4(SA'08)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}<ref name="NSR-Netherlands">{{cite journal | last = Swens | first = Job | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The Netherlands 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/netherlands/index.htm NSRs for The Netherlands] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nldnsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 18.0
| 2.6
| 0.278
| 1.243
| 1.521
| 5.713
| 46.99
| 52.71<!--52.705-->
| 3.217
| 3.3-4.5
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000-1200
| 1.21-9.7
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}<ref name="NSR-Italy">{{cite journal | last = Guastella | first = Salvatore | coauthors = Castello, Salvatore & Anna De Lillo | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Italy 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/italy/index.htm NSRs for Italy] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06itansr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 11.0
| 27.0
| 0.5
| 12
| 12.5
| 12.8
| 37.2
| 50
| 0.846
| 3.2-3.6
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1400-2200
| 36.0-49.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}<ref name="NSR-France">{{cite journal | last = Claverie | first = André | coauthors = Equer, Bernard | date = [[2007-07-15]] | title = Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Applications in France National Survey Report 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/index.htm NSRs for France] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/FRANCE%20NSR%20PV%202006.pdf | accessdate = 2008-03-13}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 33.5
| 36.0
| 1.478
| 9.412
| 10.89
| 21.55
| 22.38
| 43.93
| 0.685
| 3.2-5.1
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1100-2000
| 30.0-55.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}<ref name="NSR-Korea">{{cite journal | last = Yoon | first = Kyung-Hoon | coauthors = Kim, Donghwan & Yoon, Kyung Shick | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Korea 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/korea/index.htm NSRs for The Republic of Korea] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06kornsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 18.0
| 16.9
| 0.28
| 20.93
| 21.21
| 5.943
| 28.79
| 34.73
| 0.716
| 3.50-3.84
| style="background-color: Lime" |1500-1600
| 56.5-59.3
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Thailand}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
<!--Page 19 Quote:"based on a programme for roll-out of 24 MW of PV to some 200 000 remote homes during 2004 and 2005,[...]30 MW have reportedly been installed to date" Note: this may indicate an off-grid Δ of 6 MW, Σ to 30 MW
Page 24 Quote:"[...]Thailand (20 MW) are also noteworthy module manufacturing countries."-->
|
| 20
| 6
|
| 6
| 30
|
| 30
| 0.477
| 2.5<ref name="NSR-Germany"/>
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200-2400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}<ref name="NSR-Switzerland">{{cite journal | last = Hüsser | first = Pius | coauthors = Hostettler, Thomas | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report on PV Power Applications in Switzerland 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/switzerland/index.htm NSRs for Switzerland] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06chensr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-12-11}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0.03
| 0.03
| 0.15
| 2.5
| 2.65
| 3.4
| 26.3
| 29.7
| 3.955
| 3.18-3.30
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-2000
| 9.53-50.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
|
| 0.274
| 1.29
| 1.564
| 3.169
| 22.42
| 25.59
| 3.076
| 3.6-4.3
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-2000
| >0<!--"Green Electricity Act 2006 came into effect[...] by OeMAG, a company established by the
Austrian Ministry of Economy[...] in November 2006," Rates not yet published.-->
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Luxembourg}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF">{{cite journal | last = EurObserv'ER | first = (Includes Some Discredited/Preliminary Sources) | date = 2007-April | title = EurObserv’ER - Photovoltaic Energy Barometer | journal = [http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/ Systèmes Solaires - Le Journal des Énergies Renouvelables n° 178] | pages = pp. 49–70 | url = http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro178.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2007-09-07}}</ref>
|
|
|
| 0.042
| 0.042
|
| 23.60
| 23.60
| 50.54
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}<ref name="NSR-Canada">{{cite journal | last = Ayoub
| first = Josef | coauthors = Martel, Sylvain & Dr. Dignard-Bailey, Lisa | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Canada 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/canada/index.htm NSRs for Canada] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06cannsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-16}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0
| 2.35
| 3.354
| 0.384
| 3.738
| 18.98
| 1.508
| 20.48
| 0.620
| 3.76
| style="background-color: Cyan" |0900-1750
| 0-29.48(ON)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
|
| 0.938
| 0.116
| 1.054
| 19.59
| 0.155
| 19.75
| 0.185
| 5.44-6.42
| style="background-color: Gold" |1700-2600
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}<ref name="NSR-United Kingdom">{{cite journal | last = Davidson | first = Sarah | date = 2007-October | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in the United Kingdom 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/index.htm NSRs for The United Kingdom] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/UK_IEA_PVPS_NSR_2006.pdf | accessdate = 2008-03-16}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 1.9
| 89.4
| 0.376
| 3.007
| 3.383
| 1.3
| 12.96
| 14.26
| 0.232
| 3.67-5.72
| style="background-color: Cyan" |0900-1300
| 0-11.74(exprt)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|India}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><!--Page 19 Quote:"In 2006, reportedly 60 000 PV homelighting systems, 6 000 PV street lights and 27 500 solar lanterns were allocated under the government subsidy programmes. A further 300 kW of largerscale stand-alone plants and some 90 kW of PV pumps, as well as almost 200 kW of grid-connected PV were also supported by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy). In the past, the Ministry’s programmes have typically accounted for around half of the total installed national PV capacity." Note: this may indicate an off-grid Δ of 6 MW or more, Σ to 12 MW or more, as this was the 2nd year of the Ministry’s programmes
Page 24 Quote:"India (65 MW)[...]are also noteworthy module manufacturing countries."-->
| 43.4<ref name="Eco-Economy Indicators-PVNews">{{cite journal | last = Prometheus Institute | first = Preliminary Data Hearsay Reference | date = 2007-April | title = Eco-Economy Indicators: SOLAR POWER - Data - 23rd Annual Data Collection - Final | journal = PVNews, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 8-9 | url = http://www.earthpolicy.org/Indicators/Solar/2007_data.htm#table3 | accessdate = 2008-04-14}}</ref>
| 65
| 6
|
| 6
| 12
|
| 12
| 0.010
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1700-2500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}<ref name="NSR-Norway">{{cite journal | last = Bugge | first = Lars | coauthors = Salvesen, Fritjof | date = [[2007-05-30]] | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Norway 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/norway/index.htm NSRs for Norway] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nornsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 37.0
| 0
| 0.35
| 0.053
| 0.403
| 7.54
| 0.128
| 7.668
| 1.624
| 11.2
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0800-0950
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Greece}}<ref name="Presentation-Balkans">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Zachariou | first = Alexander | date = [[2007-04-19]] | title = PV Market and Industry in the Balkans | journal = [http://www.pvmed.org/ PV Med] - [http://www.pvmed.org/index.php?id=162 Presentations Day 2] | url = http://www.pvmed.org/uploads/media/0704200900C_05_ZACHARIOU.pdf | accessdate = 2008-03-14}}</ref><ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 1.049
| 0.201
| 1.25
| 5.081
| 1.613
| 6.694
| 0.601
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1500-1900
| 40.0-50.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}<ref name="NSR-Sweden">{{cite journal | last = Malm | first = Ulf | coauthors = Stolt, Lars | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/sweden/index.htm NSRs for Sweden] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06swensr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
| 55.4
| 0.302
| 0.301
| 0.613
| 4.285
| 0.555
| 4.84
| 0.529
| 3.24-7.02
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0900-1050
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Belgium}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 2.103
| 2.103
| 0.053
| 4.108
| 4.161
| 0.398
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000-1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Finland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.064
| 0.064
| 3.779
| 0.287
| 4.066
| 0.768
|
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0800-1050
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bangladesh}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
<!--Page 18 Quote:"initial target was
to finance 50 000 SHS (solar home systems) by the end of June 2008. The
target was surpassed [in June 2005] [...].
Most active amongst the POs (partner organizations) to
date is Grameen Shakti, which has financed over
73 000 SHS sales (over 3,6 MW) up to May 2007.
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)
has supported sales of more than 25 000 systems,
with the other POs accounting for a further 18 000
systems to date." Note: this may indicate an off-grid Δ of 1.134 MW, Σ to >3.6 MW, or much more -->
|
|
| 1.134
|
| 1.134
| 3.6
|
| 3.6
| 0.023
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900-2100
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sri Lanka}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
<!--Page 19 Quote:"Approximately 3,6 MW of PV solar home systems
(over 80 000 units) have been installed in Sri Lanka
to the end of 2006 [... while] almost 1 MW of PV to 21 000 households [up to the end of] 2002" Note: this may indicate an off-grid Δ of 0.65 MW, Σ to ~3.6 MW-->
|
|
| 0.65
|
| 0.65
| 3.6
|
| 3.6
| 0.187
|
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200-2400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.25
| 0.227
| 0.477
| 2.691
| 0.775
| 3.466
| 0.326
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1600-2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}<ref name="NSR-Denmark">{{cite journal | last = Ahm | first = Peter | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Denmark 2006 - Version 04 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/denmark/index.htm NSRs for Denmark] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06dnknsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0
| 0.525
| 0.04
| 0.21
| 0.25
| 0.335
| 2.565
| 2.9
| 0.531
| 5.36-8.04
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0900-1100
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Nepal}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
<!--Page 19 Quote:"Over 60 000 solar home systems, amounting to
2 MW of generation capacity, were installed in Nepal
between 2001 and end of 2005 [...] [For 2006] Funds
were set aside to support a nominal 10 000 additional
solar home systems. By mid May 2007, almost
13 000 SHS had registered for interim subsidies." Note: this should indicate an off-grid Δ of 0.333 MW, Σ to 2.333 MW-->
|
|
| 0.333
|
| 0.333
| 2.333
|
| 2.333
| 0.083
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900-2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}<ref name="NSR-Israel">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Siderer | first = Yona | coauthors = Dann, Roxana | date = 2007 May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Israel 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/israel/index.htm NSRs for Israel] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06isrnsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0
| 0
| 0.275
|
| 0.275
| 1.294
| 0.025
| 1.319
| 0.183
| 4.3
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200-2400
| 13.13-16.40
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Cyprus}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.08
| 0.44
| 0.52
| 0.45
| 0.526
| 0.976
| 1.142
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900-2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Czech Republic}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
| 42<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><!--Page 24 Quote:"[...]Czech Republic (42 MW)[...]are also noteworthy module manufacturing countries."-->
|
| 0.241
| 0.241
| 0.15
| 0.621
| 0.771
| 0.075
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}}<ref name="NSR-Malaysia">{{cite journal | last = Gulabrai | first = Lalchand | coauthors = Ruoss, Daniel; Chen, Wei-nee; Ir Ahmad Hadri Haris | date = 2007-April | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Malaysia 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/malaysia/index.htm NSRs for Malaysia] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06mysnsr.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref>{{?}}
| 0
| 0
|
| .00452
| 0.00452
|
| 0.486
| 0.486
| 0.018
| 4.73
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950-2250
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Poland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.027
| 0.087
| 0.114
| 0.319
| 0.112
| 0.431
| 0.011
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovenia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.183
| 0.183
| 0.098
| 0.265
| 0.363
| 0.180
|
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1300-1500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Ireland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
|
|
| 0.3
|
| 0.3
| 0.070
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000-1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bulgaria}}<ref name="Presentation-Balkans"/>{{?}}
|
|
| 0.12
|
| 0.12
| 0.2
|
| 0.2
| 0.026
|
| style="background-color: Lime" |1300-1800
| 38.5-40.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Hungary}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
|
|
| 0.09
| 0.065
| 0.155
| 0.015
|
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1300-1500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovakia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.004
|
| 0.004
| 0.064
|
| 0.064
| 0.012
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1200-1400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malta}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.033
| 0.033
|
| 0.048
| 0.048
| 0.118
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |2100-2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Lithuania}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.023
|
| 0.023
| 0.04
|
| 0.04
| 0.012
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Estonia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.005
|
| 0.005
| 0.008
|
| 0.008
| 0.006
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Latvia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.001
|
| 0.001
| 0.006
|
| 0.006
| 0.003
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100-1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><!--Page 24 Quote:"[...]on
the annual national PV cell production tables. Taiwan accounted for a further 170 MW."-->
| 170
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1700-1900
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Philippines}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><!--Page 24 Quote:"[...]the Philippines with close to 63 MW of cell production in 2006."-->
| 63
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950-2250
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Africa}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><!--Page 24 Quote:"[...]South Africa (30 MW)[...]are also noteworthy module manufacturing countries."-->
|
| 30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950-2250
|
<!--
| Chile
|-
| Bolivia
|-
| Saudi Arabia
|-
| Algeria
|-
| Libya
|-
| Egypt
|-
| Mauritania
|-
| Mali
|-
| Niger
|-
| Chad
|-
| Sudan
|-
| Romania(EU27)
-->
|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]]<br><small>[[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.</small>
! Cells<br>Made
! Modules<br>Made
! off<br>grid<br>Δ
! on<br>grid<br>Δ
! Installed<br>2006
! off<br>grid<br>Σ
! on<br>grid<br>Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total<br>06
! Wp/capita<br>Total
! Module<br>Price<br>[[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr<br>[[Insolation]]
! [[Feed-in Tariff]]<br>[[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h
|}
Notes: While National Report(s) may be cited as source(s) within an International Report, any contradictions in data are resolved by using only the most recent report's data. Exchange rates represent the 2006 annual average of daily rates (OECD Main Economic Indicators June 2007)<br>Module Price: Lowest:2.5 EUR/Wp<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/> (2.83 USD/Wp<ref name="Exchange Rates">[http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/ FRB: G.5A Release-- Foreign Exchange Rates, Release Dates]</ref>) in Germany 2003. Uncited insolation data is lifted from maps dating 1991-1995.<br>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/pvpower/download/pvpower26.pdf PV Power (2007-June)]<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/><ref name="Baro178-ASP">{{cite journal | last = EurObserv'ER | first = (Includes Some Discredited/Preliminary Sources) | date = 2007-April | title = EurObserv’ER - Photovoltaic Energy Barometer | journal = [http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/ Systèmes Solaires - Le Journal des Énergies Renouvelables n° 178] | pages = pp. 49–70 | url = http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/erec/baro178.asp | format = [[ASP]] | accessdate = 2007-09-07}}</ref> [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries IEA PVPS website].
==Applications of PV==
[[Image:SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg|thumb|right|11 MW Serpa solar power plant in Portugal]]
{{Main|Photovoltaic system}}
===PV power stations===
{{Main|Photovoltaic power stations}}
The Table below provides details of some of the largest photovoltaic plants in the world. As shown, Germany has a 10 MW photovoltaic system in Pocking, and a 12 MW plant in Arnstein, with a 40 MW power station planned for Muldentalkreis. Portugal has an 11 MW plant in Serpa and a 62 MW power station is planned for Moura. A 20 MW power plant is also planned for Beneixama, Spain. The photovoltaic power station proposed for Australia will use heliostat concentrator technology and will not come into service until 2010. It is expected to have a capacity of 154 MW when it is completed in 2013.<ref>[http://www.solarsystems.com.au/HCPV_Technology.html Solar Systems Facts Sheet]</ref>
<br clear=all>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''World's largest PV power plants<ref>[http://www.pvresources.com/en/top50pv.php World's largest photovoltaic power plants]</ref>'''
|-
! DC Peak Power
! Location
! Description
! GW·h/year
|-
| 154 MW** || [[Mildura]]/[[Swan Hill]], [[Australia]]<ref>[http://www.solarsystems.com.au/154MWVictorianProject.html 154 MW Victoria (Australia) Project]</ref> || Heliostat Concentrator Photovoltaic technology <br> (see [[Solar power station in Victoria]])|| 270
|-
| 62 MW* || [[Moura]], [[Portugal]]<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/renewable/Story/0,2763,1570304,00.html Portugal plans biggest solar station]</ref><ref>[http://www.investinportugal.pt/MCMSAPI/HomePage/NewsRoom/The+world+s+largest+photovoltaic+power+plant+in+Moura++Portugal.htm THE WORLD'S LARGEST PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANT IN MOURA, PORTUGAL]</ref>|| BP, [[Yingli Green Energy]]<br>(see [[Girassol solar power plant]])|| 88
|-
| 40 MW* || [[Muldentalkreis]], [[Germany]]<ref>[http://www.sonnenseite.com/index.php?pageID=6&news:oid=n6986&template=news_detail.html Large photovoltaic plant in Muldentalkreis]</ref><ref>[http://www.juwi.de/international/information/press/PR_Solar_Power_Plant_Brandis_2007_02_eng.pdf World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany]</ref> || 550,000 thin-film modules (First Solar) (see [[Waldpolenz Solar Park]]) || 40
|-
| 23 MW || [[Murcia]], [[Spain]]<ref name=top50/><ref>[http://www.luzentia.es/en/Promociones/index.asp La Hoya de los Vicentes]</ref> || Hoya de Los Vincentes || 41.6
|-
| 21 MW || [[Calavéron]], [[Spain]]<ref name=top50/> || [[Solarpark Calaveron]] || 40
|-
| 20 MW || [[Trujillo]], [[Spain]]<ref name=top50/> || [[Planta Solar La Magascona]]<br>SunPower trackers 120,000 Atersa modules ||
|-
| 20 MW || [[Beneixama]], [[Spain]]<ref>[http://www.sonnenseite.com/index.php?pageID=6&news:oid=n7093&template=news_detail.html Large photovoltaic plant in Beneixama]</ref><ref>[http://www.city-solar-ag.com/index.php?id=191 Photovoltaic plant in Beneixama]</ref><ref>[http://www.sonnenseite.com/upload/v1_img_n7301_6_large.jpg Image of world's largest solar plant]</ref> || Tenesol, Aleo and Solon solar modules with Q-Cells cells (see [[Beneixama photovoltaic power plant]] || 30
|-
| 18 MW* || [[Olivenza]], [[Spain]]<ref>[http://www.aredi.org/_coreModules/content/contentDisplay.aspx?contentID=2974 SunPower to Build 18-Megawatt Olivenza Solar Power Plant in Spain]</ref> || SunPower T20 tracking system<br>(see [[Olivenza solar electric power plant]]) || 32
|-
| 14 MW || [[Nellis Air Force Base|Nellis AFB]], [[Nevada]]<ref>[http://www.nellis.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123079933 Nellis activates Nations largest PV Array]</ref> || SunPower T20 tracking system<br>(see [[Nellis Solar Power Plant]]) || 30
|-
| 13.8 MW || [[Salamanca]], [[Spain]]<ref name=top50>[http://www.pvresources.com/en/top50pv.php Large photovoltaic power plants]</ref> || (see [[Planta Solar de Salamanca]]) ||
|-
| 12.7 MW || [[Murcia]], [[Spain]]<ref name=top50/> || (see [[Lobosillo Solar Park]]) ||
|-
| 12 MW || [[Arnstein]], [[Germany]]<ref>[http://www.heise.de/tr/artikel/bilderstrecke/49/0 The largest photovoltaic plant]</ref> || 1464 SOLON mover <br> (see [[Erlasee Solar Park]]) || 14
|-
| 11 MW || [[Serpa]], [[Portugal]]<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = GE, SunPower, Catavento team on plant | work = | publisher = BusinessWeek | date = [[2007-03-28]] | url =http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D8O57HCO0.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-03-29 }}</ref> || 52,000 solar modules <br> (see [[Serpa solar power plant]])|| n.a.
|-
| 10 MW || [[Pocking]], Germany || 57,912 solar modules <br> (see [[Pocking Solar Park]]) || 11.5
|-
| 9.5 MW || [[Milagro]], Spain|| (see [[Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant]]) || 14
|}
:<nowiki>*</nowiki> Under construction; <nowiki>**</nowiki> Proposed
===PV in buildings===
{{main|Building-integrated photovoltaic}}
[[Image:Solar panels on house roof.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Photovoltaic solar panels on a house roof.]]
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power,<ref>[http://www.buildingsolar.com/technology.asp buildingsolar.com: Building Integrated Photovoltaics], Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, accessed: 2007-03-23.</ref> and are one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic industry.<ref>[http://www.terrasolar.com/bipv.html Terrasolar], accessed: 2007-03-23.</ref> Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building, and roof tiles with integrated PV cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be [[wiktionary:retrofit|retrofitted]] into existing buildings; in this case they are usually fitted on top of the existing roof structure. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building.
Where a building is at a considerable distance from the public electricity supply (or [[grid]]) - in remote or mountainous areas – PV may be the preferred possibility for generating electricity, or PV may be used together with wind, diesel generators and/or hydroelectric power. In such [[off-the-grid|off-grid]] circumstances batteries are usually used to store the electric power.
===PV in transport===
{{main|Photovoltaics in transport}}
PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Recent advances in solar cell technology, however, have shown the cell's ability to administer significant hydrogen production, making it one of the top prospects for alternative energy for automobiles.
===PV in standalone devices===
[[Image:TicketParkingMeter.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Solar parking meter.]]
PV has been used for many years to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power LCD displays make it possible to power a calculator for several years between battery changes, making solar calculators less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently, due to increasing cost of labour for connection of mains electricity or a regular maintenance programme. In particular, parking meters,<ref>[http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com.au/contractors/parking/parkeon/ Parkeon parking meters]</ref> emergency telephones,<ref>Security Products, December 2006, p42</ref> and temporary traffic signs.
== Economics of PV ==
{{Original research|section|date=September 2007}}
{{see also|Renewable energy commercialization}}
[[Image:Us pv annual may2004.jpg|right|thumb|US average daily solar energy insolation received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell.]]
=== Power costs ===
The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit of cost. The results of a sample calculation can be found on pp. 52, 53 of the 2007 DOE report describing the plans for solar power 2007-2011 [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/set_myp_2007-2011_proof_1.pdf]. For a 10 MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to 0.22/kWh.
The table below is a pure mathematical calculation. It illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This varies by geographic region because the average [[insolation]] depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.
Panels can be mounted at an angle based on latitude, which can add to total energy output.<ref>[http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10830 EERE's Consumer Guide: Siting Your Small Solar Electric System]</ref> [[Solar tracking]] can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% [[interest rate]], 1% operating and maintenance cost, and [[Depreciation#Straight-line depreciation|depreciation]] of the capital outlay over 20 years).
<!--The calculation is the following for $3,000/kW<sub>p</sub>, 2,000 kWh/year, 4% interest and 1% cost of operation: Money costs: $3,000 * 0.04 = $120/year, depreciation: $3,000/20 years = $150/year, cost of operation: $3,000 * 0.01 = $30/year, sum: $120/year + $150/year + $30/year = $300/year. Now divide $300/year by the kWh/year ==> 300$/year / 2,000kWh/year = 15 cent/kWh.-->
<!--Excel spreadsheet (format results to one decimal place):
$D$1=0.04
$E$1=20
$F$1=0.01
B5: 2400
C5: 2200
D5: 2000
E5: 1800
F5: 1600
G5: 1400
H5: 1200
I5: 1000
J5: 800
A6 : 200
A7 : 600
A8 : 1000
A9 : 1400
A10: 1800
A11: 2200
A12: 2600
A13: 3000
A14: 3400
A15: 3800
A16: 4200
A17: 4600
A18: 5000
First cell: =$A6*(($D$1+$F$1)+1/$E$1)/B$5*100
Fill table by dragging down and across.
-->
<!--Cells with a cost less than or equal to $0.15/kWh have been arbitrarily colored green, ones greater than or equal to $0.30/kWh red, and those in between yellow in order to show a gradient. It does not imply that green is good, only that green is better than red. -->
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table showing average cost in cents/kWh over 20 years for solar power panels
|- {{highlight1}}
! bgcolor="#FFFFFF" | || colspan=9|Insolation
|-
! Cost || 2400 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small> || 2200 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small> || 2000 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small> || 1800 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>|| 1600 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>|| 1400 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>|| 1200 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>|| 1000 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>|| 800 <br><small>kWh/kWp•y</small>
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 200 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 0.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 0.9
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 1.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 1.1
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 1.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 1.4
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 1.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 2.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 2.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 600 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 2.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 2.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 3.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 3.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 3.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 4.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 5.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 6.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 7.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 1000 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 4.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 4.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 5.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 5.6
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 6.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 7.1
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 8.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 10.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 12.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 1400 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 5.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 6.4
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 7.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 7.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 8.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 10.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 11.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 14.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 17.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 1800 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 7.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 8.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 9.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 10.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 11.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 12.9
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 15.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 18.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 22.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 2200 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 9.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 10.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 11.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 12.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 13.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 15.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 18.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 22.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 27.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 2600 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 10.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 11.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 13.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 14.4
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 16.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 18.6
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 21.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 26.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 32.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 3000 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 12.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 13.6
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 15.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 16.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 18.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 21.4
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 25.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 30.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 37.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 3400 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#00FF00"| 14.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 15.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 17.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 18.9
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 21.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 24.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 28.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 34.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 42.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 3800 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 15.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 17.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 19.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 21.1
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 23.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 27.1
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 31.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 38.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 47.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 4200 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 17.5
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 19.1
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 21.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 23.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 26.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 30.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 35.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 42.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 52.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 4600 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 19.2
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 20.9
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 23.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 25.6
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 28.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 32.9
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 38.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 46.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 57.5
|-
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFEEBB"| 5000 <small>$/kWp</small>
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 20.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 22.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 25.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"| 27.8
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 31.3
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 35.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 41.7
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 50.0
| align="right" bgcolor="#FF0000"| 62.5
|}
=== Grid parity ===
{{See|Low cost solar cell}}
Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than [[Mains electricity|grid power]], is achieved first in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in [[California]] and [[Japan]].<ref>[http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9013609&contentId=7005395 Going for grid parity]2005 article</ref>
Grid parity has been reached in [[Hawaii]] and other islands that otherwise use [[diesel fuel]]
to produce electricity.
[[George W. Bush]] has set 2015 as the date for grid parity in the USA.<ref>[http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9019305&contentId=7035199 Gaining on the grid]</ref><ref>[http://www.bp.com/popupimage.do?img_path=liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/frontiers/STAGING/local_assets/images/fr19solar_parity570x417.jpg%20&alt_tag=Graphic%20about%20grid%20parity,%20when%20the%20cost%20of%20solar%20energy%20equals%20that%20of%20grid%20electricity The Path to Grid Parity] (Graphic)</ref>
General Electric's Chief Engineer predicts grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015. Other companies predict an earlier date.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSL1878986220071019 reuters.com]</ref>
.
===Financial incentives ===
{{main|PV financial incentives}}
The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to grow the industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.
Three incentive mechanisms are used (often in combination):
* investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system,
* [[Feed-in Tariff]]s (FIT)/[[Net metering]]: the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate.
* [[Renewable Energy Certificates]] ("RECs")
With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customer bases. While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the encouragement of quality. Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time, thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance. Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers, such as [[Austin Energy]] in [[Texas]], which offers $4.50/watt installed up to $13,500.<ref>[http://www.austinenergy.com/Energy%20Efficiency/Programs/Rebates/Solar%20Rebates/index.htm Solar Rebate Program]</ref>
With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls upon the consumer. They reward the number of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time, but because the rate is set by the authorities, it may result in perceived overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour under a feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity. Net metering" refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.
Where price setting by supply and demand is preferred, RECs can be used. In this mechanism, a renewable energy production or consumption target is set, and the consumer or producer is obliged to purchase renewable energy from whoever provides it the most competitively. The producer is paid via an REC. In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy, since the lowest bidder will win. However, uncertainties about the future value of energy produced are a brake on investment in capacity, and the higher risk increases the cost of capital borrowed.
The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1.1 GW.<ref>[http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/isr/22.htm oja-services.nl]</ref>
In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a law known as the 'EEG' (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz) which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price. The principle behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users. The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006, and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.
Subsequently Spain, Italy, Greece and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries. The French FIT offers a uniquely high premium (EUR 0.55/kWh) for building integrated systems. California, Greece, France and Italy have 30-50% more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive.
In 2006 California approved the '[[California Solar Initiative]]', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems. The small-system FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the alternate "EPBB" residential investment incentive is modest, averaging perhaps 20% of cost. All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed.
At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (Canada) began its [http://www.powerauthority.on.ca/sop/ Standard Offer Program], the first in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This guarantees a fixed price of $0.42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years. Unlike [[net metering]], all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. The generator then purchases any needed electricity at the current prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055 per kWh). The difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract.
The price per kilowatt hour or per peak kilowatt of the FIT or investment subsidies is only one of three factors that stimulate the installation of PV. The other two factors are insolation (the more sunshine, the less capital is needed for a given power output) and administrative ease of obtaining permits and contracts.
Unfortunately the complexity of approvals in California, Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better.
In some countries, additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV.
* France + EUR 0.25/kWh (EUR 0.30 + 0.25 = 0.55/kWh total)
* Italy + EUR 0.04-0.09 kWh
* Germany + EUR 0.05/kWh (facades only)
==Environmental impacts==
Unlike [[fossil fuel]] based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution. This is often referred to as the energy input to output ratio. In some analysis, if the energy input to produce it is higher than the output it produces it can be considered environmentally more harmful than beneficial. Also, placement of photovoltaics affects the environment. If they are located where photosynthesizing plants would normally grow, they simply substitute one potentially renewable resource ([[biomass]]) for another. It should be noted, however, that the biomass cycle converts solar radiation energy to electrical energy with significantly less efficiency than photovoltaic cells alone. And if they are placed on the sides of buildings (such as in [[CIS Tower|Manchester]]) or fences, or rooftops (as long as plants would not normally be placed there), or in the desert they are purely additive to the renewable power base.
===Greenhouse gases===
[[Life cycle analysis|Life cycle]] [[greenhouse gas]] emissions are now in the range of 25-32 g/[[kWh]] and this could decrease to 15 g/kWh in the future.<ref name="ECN2006">
Alsema, E.A.; Wild - Scholten, M.J. de; Fthenakis, V.M.
''[http://www.ecn.nl/publicaties/default.aspx?nr=ECN-RX--06-016 Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation - a critical comparison of energy supply options]'' ECN, September 2006; 7p.
Presented at the 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Dresden, Germany, 4-8 September 2006.</ref>
For comparison, a [[combined cycle]] gas-fired power plant emits some 400 g/kWh and a coal-fired power plant 915 g/kWh and with [[carbon capture and storage]] some 200 g/kWh.<!--figures for coal need to include mining and transporting coal--> Only nuclear power and wind are better, emitting 6-25 g/kWh and 11 g/kWh on average. Using renewable energy sources in manufacturing and transportation would further drop photovoltaic emissions.
===Cadmium===
One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of [[cadmium]] in [[Cadmium telluride]] (CdTe) modules (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to [[bioaccumulation|accumulate]] in ecological [[food chain]]s. The amount of cadmium used in thin-film PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m²) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 [[microgram]]/kWh over the whole life-cycle.<ref name="ECN2006"/> Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and [[lignite]] combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and [[natural gas]] 0.2 microgram/kWh.
Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal, cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated.
=== Energy Payback Time and Energy Returned on Energy Invested===
The [[energy payback time]] is the time required to produce an amount of energy as great as what was consumed during production. The energy payback time is determined from a [[life cycle analysis]] of energy.
Another key indicator of environmental performance, tightly related to the energy payback time, is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build ''and maintain'' the equipment. This ratio is called the [[EROEI|energy returned on energy invested]] (EROEI). Of course, little is gained if it takes as much energy to produce the modules as they produce in their lifetimes. This should not be confused with the economic return on investment, which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.
Life-cycle analyses show that the energy intensity of typical solar photovoltaic technologies is rapidly evolving. In 2000 the energy payback time was estimated as 8 to 11 years<ref> Andrew Blakers and Klaus Weber, [http://www.ecotopia.com/apollo2/pvepbtoz.htm “The Energy Intensity of Photovoltaic Systems”], Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University, 2000. </ref>, but more recent studies suggest that technological progress has reduced this to 1.5 to 3.5 years for crystalline silicon PV systems
<ref name="ECN2006"/>.
Thin film technologies now have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1.5 years (S.Europe).<ref name="ECN2006"/> With lifetimes of such systems of at least 30 years, the EROEI is in the range of 10 to 30.
They thus generate enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times (6-31 reproductions, the EROEI is a bit lower) depending on what type of material, [[balance of system]] (or BOS), and the geographic location of the system.<ref> Joshua Pearce and Andrew Lau, [http://jupiter.clarion.edu/~jpearce/Papers/netenergy.pdf “Net Energy Analysis For Sustainable Energy Production From Silicon Based Solar Cells”], Proceedings of American Society of Mechanical Engineers Solar 2002: Sunrise on the Reliable Energy Economy, editor [[Rebecca Campbell-Howe|R. Campbell-Howe]], 2002. </ref>
==Disadvantages==
*Solar electricity is often more expensive than electricity generated by other sources.
*Solar electricity is not available at night and is less available in cloudy weather conditions. Therefore, a [[Intermittent power source#Solar energy|storage or complementary power system]] is required.
*Limited power density: Average daily insolation in the contiguous U.S. is 3-7 kW·h/m²<ref>[http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/atlas/serve.cgi NREL Map of Flat Plate Collector at Latitude Tilt Yearly Average Solar Radiation]</ref><ref>[http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/cfm/faqs/third_level.cfm/name=Photovoltaics/cat=The%20Basics#Q43 Solar Energy Technologies Program: Solar FAQs] US Department of Energy. Retrieved on [[24 August]] [[2007]],</ref><ref>[http://www.engineeringtalk.com/news/spo/spo103.html Solar panel achieves high efficiency]</ref> and on average lower in Europe.
*Solar cells produce [[Direct Current|DC]] which must be converted to [[Alternating Current|AC]] (using a [[grid tie inverter]]) when used in currently existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 4-12%.<ref>[http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/codes_algs/PVWATTS/system.html Renewable Resource Data Center - PV Correction Factors]</ref>
==Advantages==
*The 89 [[Orders of magnitude (power)#Petawatt (1015 watt)|petawatts]] of sunlight reaching the earth's surface is plentiful - almost 6,000 times more - compared to the 15 [[Orders of magnitude (power)#Terawatt (1012 watt)|terawatt]]s of average power consumed by humans.<ref name="Smil">[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/25/36760950.pdf#search=%22worldwide%20consumption%20of%20energy%2013%20TW%20smil%22 Vaclav Smil - Energy at the Crossroads]</ref> Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m²) among renewable energies.<ref name="Smil" />
*Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development.<ref>[http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/thin_film/docs/environmental_aspects_of_pv_power_systems_iea_workshop.pdf Environmental Aspects of PV Power Systems]</ref>
*Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
*Solar electric generation is economically superior where grid connection or fuel transport is difficult, costly or impossible. Examples include satellites, island communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
*When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid loading, and can eliminate the need for local battery power for use in times of darkness and high local demand; such application is encouraged by [[net metering]]. Time-of-use net metering can be highly favorable to small photovoltaic systems.
*Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses were approximately 7.2% in 1995).<ref>[http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-1-3-2.pdf U.S. Climate Change Technology Program - Transmission and Distribution Technologies]</ref>
*Once the initial [[capital cost]] of building a solar power plant has been spent, [[operating cost]]s are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
*Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research-money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is much room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental [[high efficiency solar cells]] already have efficiencies of over 40% and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass production costs are rapidly falling.<ref>[http://solarcellsinfo.com/blog/archives/1018 solarcellsinfo.com]</ref>
==Photovoltaics companies==
{{Seealso|List of photovoltaics companies}}
<!--Note to editors - please trim this to the top ten or so and watch out for link spam. -->
Major photovoltaics companies include [[BP Solar]], [[Isofoton]], [[Kyocera]], [[Q-Cells]], [[Sanyo]], [[Sharp Solar]], [[SolarWorld]], [[SunPower]], [[Suntech]], and [[Yingli Green Energy]].<ref>[http://www.enf.cn/magazine/issue9/brand.html ENF Brand Awards]</ref><ref>[http://www.eco-web.com/index/category/9.1.html Photovoltaic Solar Cells]</ref><ref>[http://www.solarbuzz.com/solarindex/CellManufacturers.htm World solar cell manufacturers]</ref>
[[BP]] has been involved in [[solar power]] since 1973 and its subsidiary, [[BP Solar]], is now one of the world's largest solar power companies with production facilities in the [[United States]], [[Spain]], [[Solar power in India|India]] and [[Australia]], employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide.<ref>[http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=7810 Solar Power Profitability: BP Solar]</ref> BP Solar is a major worldwide manufacturer and installer of [[photovoltaic]] [[solar cells]] for electricity.<ref>[http://www.bp.com/modularhome.do?categoryId=4260&contentId=7004852 Welcome to BP Solar]</ref> The company has begun constructing two new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plants, one at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, [[Madrid]], and the second at its joint venture facility, Tata BP Solar, in [[Bangalore]], India.<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=47861 BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India]</ref>
[[Isofoton]] is a Spanish company that designs and manufactures high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon cells and panels, as well as [[concentrated photovoltaics]] (CPV). Isofoton is present in over 60 countries, having subsidiaries in America, Africa, Asia, and Europe.
[[Kyocera]] Corporation has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. 500 MW is about three times the current output of 180 MW, and the company will reinforce production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through FY2010. Through this production enhancement, Kyocera looks to meet increasing demand across the world for solar cells.<ref>[http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20070419/131210/ Kyocera to Triple Solar Cell Production to 500 MW in FY2010]</ref><ref>[http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/business/articles/0418biz-kyocera0418.html Solar firm to double capacity]</ref>
[[Nanosolar]] has been named Innovator of the Year for 2007 by Popular Science Magazine, in connection with its PowerSheet flexible solar film. Nanosolar manufactures PowerSheet by printing a solar-activated ink onto metal sheets in a low-cost, continuous process. Nanosolar is building a plant in San Jose, CA and one near Berlin, Germany. It promises to deliver solar film that will be low enough in cost to be at cost parity with power from the electrical grid.
[[Q-Cells]] is the world's second largest cell manufacturer, based in Thalheim, Germany.<ref>[http://www.qcells.de/cmadmin_2_477_0.html Q-cells]</ref>
[[Renewable Energy Corporation]] (REC) is based in Norway, and was established in 1996. Over a relatively short period, REC has become the world's largest producer of polysilicon and wafers for PV applications. REC is involved in all steps of the value chain, from production of solar grade silicon to wafer, cell and module production. The company has customers all over the globe and seven production plants in three different countries. It operates on three different continents and has approximately 1,100 employees.<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/partner/story;jsessionid=DA31EEA7021F7107C50B1323E9A5C374?id=39872 Evergreen Solar and Q-Cells Announce Partnership with REC]</ref>
[[Sanyo#Solar Cell Plant|Sanyo Electric]] produced $213 million worth of solar cells at its plant in Hungary in 2006, and expects to triple its production capacity to 720,000 units in 2008.<ref>[http://www.imedinews.ge/en/news_read/31263 Japan's Sanyo expands Hungary solar plant]</ref>
[[Schott]] is one of the world largest producers of solar photovoltaic technologies. SCHOTT employs over 900 people and has worldwide production capacity of over 130 MW.
[[Sharp Solar]] is the world's largest photovoltaic module and cell manufacturer, which manufactures in Japan, and near Wrexham, UK. Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline [[solar cell]]s which are used for many applications, from satellites to lighthouses, and industrial applications to residential use. Sharp began researching solar cells in 1959 with mass production first beginning in 1963. Production capacity amounted to 324 MW in 2004.<ref>[http://www.advancedenergysolution.com/catalog/solar/sharp.htm Sharp Solar Modules]</ref><ref>[http://www.sharpinbusiness.co.uk/promotions.asp?id=20 Sharp Solar celebrates five years as world number one]</ref>
[[SolarWorld]] is headquartered in Bonn, Germany, and purchased Shell Solar's crystalline silicon activities in 2006.
[[SunPower]] Corporation designs and manufactures high-efficiency silicon solar cells and solar panels based on an all-back-contact "All-Black" design. They install them through their subsidiary PowerLight. Recent projects include the [[Nellis Solar Power Plant]], the largest PV installation in North America.
[[Suntech Power]] is based in Wuxi, China, where construction of a 1 GW module plant has begun. Year-end production capacity for 2007 is expected to be 480 MW.<ref>[http://www.suntech-power.com/News/tabid/99/Default.aspx?id=285&Module=597 Suntech Reports First Quarter 2007 Financial Results]</ref>
[[Yingli Green Energy]] is currently one of the largest manufacturers of PV products in China, with an annual production capacity of 200 megawatts of polysilicon ingots and wafers, cells and PV modules, as of July 2007. Yingli Green Energy sells PV modules under its own brand name, Yingli Solar, to PV system integrators and distributors located in various markets around the world, including Germany, Spain, China and the United States.
==Photovoltaic industry associations==
* [http://www.asif.org/ ASIF: Spanish PV Industry Association]''in Spanish only''
* [http://www.enr.fr/ SER: french renewable energy Industry organization]''in French only''
* [http://www.solarwirtschaft.de BSW: German Solar Industry Association]''in German, with English summary''
* [http://www.cansia.ca Canadian Solar industry Association]
* [http://www.epia.org/ EPIA: European Photovoltaic Industry association]
* [http://www.jpea.gr.jp/ JPEA: Japanese Photovoltaic Energy Association] ''in Japanese only''
* [http://www.seia.org SEIA: Solar Energy Industries Association] US trade association of solar energy manufacturers, dealers, distributors, contractors
* [http://www.semi.org/pv SEMI: Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International] Global industry association with offices in Austin, Beijing, Brussels, Hsinchu, Moscow, San Jose (Calif.), Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, Tokyo and Washington, D.C.
==Photovoltaics research institutes==
There are many research institutions and departments at universities around the world who are active in photovoltaics research.
<ref>[http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/ School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.poly.asu.edu/ptl/ Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory]</ref>
Countries which are particularly active include [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]], [[China]], and the [[USA]].
Some universities and institutes which have a photovoltaics research department.
* [http://emat-solar.lbl.gov/ Solar Energy Materials Research Group] at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LBNL Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]
* [http://www.eupd-research.com/en/home/ EuPD Research, Worldwide PV Market Research]
*[http://www.bnl.gov/cfn/ The Center for Functional Nanomaterials] at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]
* [http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar Solar Energy Laboratory] at [[University of Southampton]]
* [http://www.nrel.gov National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL]
* [http://www.e2tac.org/ Energy & Environmental Technology Application Center] at the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering [[SUNY at Albany]]
* [http://www.ise.fhg.de Institut für Solare Energiesysteme ISE] at the [[Fraunhofer Institute]]
* [http://www.ecn.nl/en/zon/ Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN)]
* [http://www.imperial.ac.uk/research/exss/ Imperial College London: Experimental Solid State Physics]
* [http://www.ies.upm.es/ Instituto de Energía Solar], at [http://www.upm.es/ Universidad Politécnica de Madrid]
* [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/el/research/crest/ Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology], at [http://www.lboro.ac.uk Loughborough University]
* [[School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering]] at [[University of New South Wales|The University of New South Wales]]
* [http://solar.anu.edu.au Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems] at the [[Australian National University]]
* [http://www.epfl.ch/ Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne] Prof. Graetzel invented dye sensitized cells here
* [http://www.hut.fi/Units/AES Advanced Energy Systems] at [[Helsinki University of Technology]]
* [http://www.imr.salford.ac.uk/ Institute of Materials Research, Salford University]
* [http://www.shu.ac.uk/research/meri/electronic/ The Centre for Electronic Devices and Materials] at [[Sheffield Hallam University]]
* [http://me.queensu.ca/people/harrison/research/solar/index.htm The Solar Caliometry Lab] at [[Queen's University]]
* [http://www2.unine.ch/pv Institute of microtechnology] at [http://www2.unine.ch University of Neuchatel Switzerland]
* [http://www.uni-konstanz.de/photovoltaics/ University of Konstanz]
* [http://www.poly.asu.edu/ptl/ Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory]
* [http://www.udel.edu/iec Institute of Energy Conversion] at [http://www.udel.edu University of Delaware]
* [http://www.localpower.org World Alliance for Decentralized Energy]
* [[Florida Solar Energy Center]] at [http://www.ucf.edu University of Central Florida]
* [http://www.lios.at Linz Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS)]
==See also==
{{EnergyPortal}}
{{Portal|Environment|The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg|30}}
{{Portalpar|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* [[Active solar]]
* [[Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics]]
* [[Concentrator photovoltaics]]
* [[Deployment of solar power to energy grids]]
* [[Distributed Energy Resources]]
* [[Electranet]]
* [[Fluorescent solar collector]]
* [[Green technology]]
* [[Grid-tied electrical system]]
* [[High efficiency solar cells]]
* [[Islanding]]
* [[Low cost solar cell]]
* [[Maximum power point tracker]]
* [[Microgeneration]]
* [[Microgeneration Certification Scheme]]
* [[Photoelectrochemical cell]]
* [[Photovoltaic and renewable energy engineering in Australia]]
* [[Photovoltaics in transport]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Renewable energy in the European Union]]
* [[Solar vehicle]]
* [[Solar thermal energy]]
* [[Solar energy]]
* [[Solar cell]]
* [[Photovoltaic module|Solar panel]]
* [[Solar air conditioning]]
* [[World Council for Renewable Energy]]
</div>
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
;Publicly funded free data sources
* [http://www.eupvplatform.org EU PV Technology Platform - forum for stakeholders to influence EU policy,]
* [http://www.epia.org/05Publications/OtherPublications.htm PV Status Report 2006] : Comprehensive global overview by Arnulf Jager-Waldau, European Commission.
* [http://www.iea-pvps.org/statistics/index.htm Trends in photovoltaic applications in selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2004]
* http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep_ar06.pdf IEA PVPS annual report 2006
* [http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/countries/ Information pertaining to photovoltaic solar electricity in each of the IEA PVPS member countries]
* [http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/ Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS)]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/ US Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy]
* [http://www.dsireusa.org DSIRE] Listing of US state, local, utility, and federal incentives for renewable energy and [[energy efficiency]].
* [http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/generate_your_own_energy/types_of_renewables/solar_electricity Energy Saving Trust (UK) - What is Solar electricity?]
* [http://www.findsolar.com/ Find Solar] US solar estimator and solar pro locator (joint partnership with DOE).
;Organizations
* [http://www.33pvsc.org/ IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference].
;Trade Press and commercial databases
* [http://www.eupd-research.com EuPD-Research] PV Market research, news provider, worldwide markets
* [http://www.solarbuzz.com Solarbuzz] Online news
* [http://www.photon-magazine.com/ Photon International] International PV magazine, also has local editions for Germany and Spain
* [http://www.enf.cn/ ENF Ltd] PV Market Research and Industry Directory
* [http://www.nytimes.com/energychallenge/ New York Times ongoing series on moving to a clean energy future]
;Trade shows
* [http://www.photovoltaic-conference.com/ European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference] 1st to [[5 September]] [[2008]]
* [http://www.snec.org.cn/indexe.asp Shanghai PV Power Expo] May 6-8, 2009
* [http://www.solarpowerconference.com/ Solar Power 2008 San Diego] October 13-16, 2008
* [http://www.pvexpo.jp/2009_eng/index.phtml Tokyo PV Expo] February 25-27, 2009
* [http://www.worldfutureenergysummit.com/ World Future Energy Summit Dubai] 19-21 January 2009
;Others
*[http://sustainablex.com/index.php/Portal:Solar Domestic and commercial solar manufacturers directory and information wiki, SustainableX.com]
* [http://www.jobinyvon.com/Thin-Film/Applications/Photovoltaics '''Thin Film Photovoltaics Characterization''']
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm How Stuff Works: Solar cells.]
* [http://www.virtualsecrets.com/build-a-solar-panel.html DIY Project "Build A Solar Panel"]
* [http://www.solar-is-future.com solar-is-future.com - Information about Solar Power and Photovoltaics]
* [http://www.neocoop.eu Information about Solar Energy in Italy]
* [http://www.fatspaniel.com/live-sites/index.html Live monitoring] see also [http://www.google.com/corporate/solarpanels/home Google Solar Panel Project]<!-- Any others, particularly from Europe? -->
* [http://www.pvmonitor.net Real-Time Performance Diagnostics]
* {{cite web|url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/BoiLu.shtml|title=Power Consumption of a Home|year=2003|first=Boi|last=Lu|work=The Physics Factbook}}
* [http://www.solardirect.com/pv/pv.htm Photovoltaics]
* [http://www.energyatlas.org Energy Atlas of the West]
* [http://www.pvresources.com/en/top50pv.php World's largest photovoltaic power plants]
*[http://www.juwi.de/international/information/press/PR_Solar_Power_Plant_Brandis_2007_02_eng.pdf World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany]
* [http://www.tucsonelectric.com/Company/News/PressReleases/ReleaseTemplate.asp?idRec=3 Global Solar Completed 1.4 MW Solar Power Station; Signs Agreement to Enlarge System to 2.4 MW]
* [http://www.solar-software.com/onlineberechnung/pv/pv_online.html Online calculation]
* [http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=48378&src=rss Plastic solar panels reach 6% efficiency]
* [http://www.photovoltaic-conference.com European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference]
* [http://www.ppltraining.co.uk/courses/niceic-solar-photovoltaic-solar-pv-course-89.htm New UK NICEIC Solar PV Course]
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