Physical attractiveness
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'''Physical attractiveness''' is the perception of the physical traits of an individual [[human]] [[person]] as pleasing or [[beauty|beautiful]]. It can include various implications, such as [[sexual attractiveness]] and [[physique]]. Judgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or [[society]] or time period, and partly a matter of individual subjective [[preference]].
Despite the existence of universally agreed upon signs of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women do.<ref name=BussBook>{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=57, 58, 60-63|chapter= |}}</ref> This can be explained by [[evolutionary psychology]] as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on [[secondary sexual characteristics]], as well as general indicators of fitness (for example, symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features.<ref name=BussBook/> There appear to be universal standards regarding attractiveness, such that raters agree who is and isn't attractive both within and across cultures and ethnicity.<ref>[http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/langloislab/newformat/META.PDF Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review,"] J.H. Langlois, L. Kalakanis, A.J. Rubenstein, A. Larson, M. Hallam, & M. Smoot, ''Psychological Bulletin'', 2000, 126, 390-423.</ref>
Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.<ref>Lorenz, Kate. (2005). "[http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/07/08/looks/ Do Pretty People Earn More?]" CNN.com</ref> In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physical attractiveness is adistinct from; humans often regard children and young individuals—both human and animal—as being highly attractive for various reasons, but without [[sexual attraction]].
==Universal correlates==
Strong correlations between attractiveness and particular physical properties have been found across cultures. Despite significant variation, there nonetheless exists a tremendous degree of agreement among cultures as to what is perceived as attractive when it is associated with human health. Healthier looking skin is universally associated with attractiveness. Some studies have shown that symmetry of features is related to perceived physical attractiveness, such that the more symmetrical one's face the higher the attractiveness ratings.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/102350 "The Biology of Beauty,"] Geoffery Cowley, ''Newsweek,'' June 3, 1996</ref> Other studies have shown that the more "average" one's face is, the higher the physical attractiveness ratings.<ref>[http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/langloislab/NewFormat/Morph.html "Attractive faces are only average,"] Langlois, J.H. & Roggman, L.A. (1990). ''Psychological Science,'' Volume 1, pp. 115-121.</ref><ref>Rubenstein, A.J., Langlois, J.H., & Roggman, L.A. (2002). What makes a face attractive and why: The role of averageness in defining facial beauty. In G. Rhodes & L.A. Zebrowitz (Eds.), Facial attractiveness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives. Ablex: Westport, CT.</ref><ref>Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L.A., & Musselman, L. (1994). What is average and what is not average about attractive faces? Psychological Science, 5, 214-220.</ref> Specifically, researchers from the [[University of Texas]] say, "We propose that a facial configuration close to the population mean is fundamental to attractiveness. This idea is derived from two theories, [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]], and cognitive averaging theory."<ref>[http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/langloislab/newformat/WhyPrefs.html "Why do we prefer attractive faces?,"] Langlois Social Development Lab, retrieved May 4, 2008.</ref>
Research on infants aged two to six months suggests that preferences for attractive faces are biological (because infants have yet to be socialized with regard to what is and isn't attractive).<ref>Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L.A., Casey, R.J., & Ritter, J.M. (1987). Infant preferences for attractive faces: Rudiments of a stereotype? ''Developmental Psychology'', 23, 363-369.</ref> Several studies have shown that infants as young as two months have an express preference for faces rated as attractive by adults, as compared to those rated unattractive by adults.<ref>[http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/langloislab/newformat/Prefs.html "Infants' differential social responses to attractive and unattractive faces,"] Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L.A., Rieser-Danner, L.A. (1990). ''Developmental Psychology'', 26, 153-159.</ref><ref>Langlois, J.H., Ritter, J.M., Roggman, L.A., & Vaughn, L.S. (1991). Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. ''Developmental Psychology'', 27, 79-84.</ref>
== Determinants of male physical attractiveness ==
===Physique===
Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.<ref name= "Archives of Sexual Behavior">Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981</ref> Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.<ref name= "Archives of Sexual Behavior">Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981</ref> Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception.<ref>[http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002608.html ParaPundit: Erroneous Views Of Western Men On Female Ideals For Male Bodies?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> A normal level of the [[hormone]] [[testosterone]] is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction.
A near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a ''v''-shaped [[torso]]: a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a ''v''-shaped torso generally holds true. Consistently, men with a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.75 or lower are viewed as considerably more attractive than men with more even waists and shoulders. <ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article855409.ece Women seduced by ‘V man’ with a matted chest from timesonline.com</ref>
It has been shown that women prefer more [[masculinity|masculine]] men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more [[femininity|feminine]] men during other parts of the cycle.<ref name="fertility">{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/376321.stm | title = Women's choice of men goes in cycles | work = BBC News | accessdate = 30 November | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> This distinction supports the [[sexy son hypothesis]], which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers.<ref>[http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2003/Oct03/r102203 University of Michigan<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Masculine facial features are characterized by a strong brow, a larger nose, a high forehead and a broad jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced.
Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the [[Human height|height]] of the man.<ref name= "Pierce">Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000</ref> Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing. This preference can be explained by [[evolutionary psychology]] as the fact that ancestral women who were attracted to tall, physically powerful men benefited from better protection and therefore gained evolutionary [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]].<ref name="height">{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=38-40 |chapter= |}}</ref> Additionally, height in men is associated with status in many cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them.<ref name="height"> This preference was passed on genetically. As a corollary, short men are viewed as unattractive for both casual and intended long-term relationships. Studies of women's personal ads support the existence of this preference; in one study of ads requesting height in a mate, 80 percent requested a height of 6 feet or taller. However, this percentage only was of ads specifying height in the first place, and therefore possibly self-selected and/or biased by a third factor such as female height.<ref name="height"/>
Recent research has found that women are [[statistically]] more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long-term commitment, while the opposite is true when a short-term relationship is intended.<ref name= "Sohn">Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, </ref> [[Cosmopolitan Magazine]] published an article stating that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times their own height. In addition, it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their [[menstrual cycle]] at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves or taller, other factors also determine male attractiveness.<ref name= "Sohn">Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, </ref>
== Determinants of female physical attractiveness ==
The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for [[reproduction]] and sustenance. These include correlates of [[fertility]] such as ''youth'',<ref name="youth">{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=51-54 |chapter= |}}</ref> ''[[waist-hip ratio]]'',<ref name= "Singh">Singh, D 1993</ref> ''mid upper arm circumference'',<ref name= "The economist"> Girl power; Human evolution.(Mothers, malnutrition and daughters) Economist (US), The, May, 22, 2003</ref> ''body mass proportion''<ref name= "Toove">Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998</ref> and ''facial symmetry''.<ref name= "Berscheid">Berscheid and Reis, 1998</ref><ref name= "Fink">Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002)</ref>
====Signals of youth====
Because female [[fecundity]] typically declines after the late twenties, youth is an important aspect of physical attractiveness<ref>Sex Differences: Developmental and Evolutionary Strategies by Linda Mealey and Mother Nature by Sarah Hrdy.</ref>. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife, with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates.<ref name="youth"/> The reasons for this preference are currently debated.
This preference for youth has also led to a preference of [[neoteny|neotenic]] and [[baby face|youthful-appearing]] features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women.<ref name="youth"/> Large breasts have also been shown to be attractive to men in Western societies, with the explanation that larger breasts will more explicitly show the aging process, hence an "honest" indicator of fertility.<ref>http://www.uoregon.edu/~sugiyama/docs/LSsugiyama-buss_c09CEforrequests.pdf Lawrence S. Sugiyama</ref>
====Proportion of body mass to body structure====
The [[Body Mass Index]] (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.<ref name= "Toove">Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998</ref> The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing.<ref name= "Cunningham">Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B., & Wu, C.H. 1995</ref><ref name="build">{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=55,56 |chapter= |}}</ref> Men don't seem to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status.<ref name="build"/>
However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.<ref name="build"/>
The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for [[Human positions|erect posture]].<ref name= "Furnham">Furnham, Adrian, Gianna Caroline Fischer, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland 1998</ref
====Waist-hip ratio====
{{main|waist-hip ratio}}
Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness ''across all cultures''.<ref name="build"/> <!--Women with a 0.7 WHR ([[waist]] circumference that is 70% of the [[hip]] circumference) are invariably rated as more attractive by men, regardless of their culture.<ref name= "Singh">Singh, D 1993</ref> The ratio is shown to have a very high correlation to female fertility, thereby unknowingly guiding men's evolutionary choices.<ref>{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=56 |chapter= |}}</ref>-->Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Sophia Loren]], and the [[Venus de Milo]] all have ratios around 0.7.<ref>[http://www.focused-on-fitness.com/health/bmi-waist-hip-ratio.php BMI and Waist-hip Ratio: The Magic Number for Health and Beauty<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In other cultures, preferences vary,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=J Cosmet Dermatol|date=June 2006|volume=5|issue=2|pages=190–4|title=The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness|last=Fisher|first=M.L. |coauthors= Voracek M.|accessdate=2007-08-04|pmid=17173598|doi=10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x}}</ref> ranging from 0.6 in China,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Am J Hum Biol|date= January 2007 |volume=19|issue=1|pages=88–95|pmid=17160976|title=Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China|last=Dixson |first=B.J.|coauthors=Dixson A.F., Li B., Anderson M.J.|accessdate=2007-08-04|doi=10.1002/ajhb.20584}}</ref> to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Personality and Individual Differences| last=Marlowe|first= F.|coauthors=Wetsman, A. |date=2001|title=Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology|volume=30|issue=3|pages=481–489|accessdate=2007-08-04|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ehbe-lab/acrobatfiles/preferred%20waist.pdf|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|last=Marlowe|first=F.W.|coauthors=Apicella, C.L. and Reed, D.|date=2005|title=Men’s Preferences for Women’s Profile Waist-Hip-Ratio in Two Societies|volume=26|pages=458–468|accessdate=2007-08-04| url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/profilewhr.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Arch Sex Behav|date=June 2007|volume=36|issue=3|pages=369–75|title=Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon| last=Dixson |first=B.J.|coauthors=Dixson A.F., Morgan B., Anderson M.J.|accessdate=2007-08-04|pmid=17136587|doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8}}</ref> and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Eat Behav|date=August 2007|volume=8|issue=3|pages=319–33|title=Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?| last=Freedman|first=R.E.| coauthors=Carter M.M., Sbrocco T., Gray JJ.|accessdate=2007-08-04|pmid=17606230|doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Eat Behav.|date=July 2004|volume=5|issue=3|pages=191–8|title=Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples|last=Freedman|first=R.E. |coauthors=Carter M.M., Sbrocco T., Gray J.J.|accessdate=2007-08-04|pmid=15135331|doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002}}</ref>
====Height====
Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2190461.stm BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’”]</ref> An advantage to smaller size may be that it is be seen as more youthful, and males find [[pedomorphic]] characteristics in females attractive.<ref>[http://www.humanevolution.net/a/marriage.html Beauty, Romance, Marriage and Divorce<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Another possible (but unproven) explanation is that shorter females may reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2190461.stm BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’”]</ref>
====Prototypicality as beauty====
{{seealso|Koinophilia}}
{{seealso|Averageness}}
Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more common features a face bears, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive. This may be a result of the familiarity of common facial features, an example of the [[mere exposure effect]]. When many faces are combined into a [[Averageness|composite image]] (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite.<ref name="evolution">{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages=54,55 |chapter= |}}</ref> One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the [[prototype]]. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This may reveal an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous."<ref name= "Berscheid">Berscheid and Reis, 1998</ref> However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features.
Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this "[[Prototype|prototypicality]]." This may show the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explain the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a [[gene pool]].
====Skin tone====
Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with many determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred. For some time after the Victorian era, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} In the 20th and 21st centuries Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active outdoor lifestyle or frequent vacations in the sun, thus better (implied) physical health or wealth.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
In eastern parts of Asia, including [[Southeast Asia]], this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of [[neoteny]]. Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In those periods, Chinese brides were often described and praised to suitors as being fair-skinned, a trait usually only associated with girls from royalty or nobility who could afford to stay indoors most of the time.
==Social effects of attractiveness==
When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy, and attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is probably due to [[self-fulfilling prophecy]]; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.<ref name= "Cash">Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977</ref><ref name= "Clark">Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979)</ref>
Physical attractiveness can have real effects. A survey conducted by [[London Guildhall University]] of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/07/08/looks/ Do Pretty People Earn More from cnn.com</ref> People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. Another study indicated that physical attractiveness in men plays an even larger role for salary than it does for women, contributing as much as 40% to earnings.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} It is thought that these figures are similar around most of [[Europe]], including [[France]], [[Germany]] and [[Spain]]. It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance.
Some have proposed that discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance should be referred to as [[Lookism]].
Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the [[legal system]], having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.<ref name= "DeSantis">De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; 1999</ref><ref name= "Cash">Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977</ref><ref name= "Clark">Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979)</ref>
Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of [[sexual behavior]], some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more [[one-night stand]]s. They are also prone to [[infidelity]] and are more likely to have [[open relationships]].<ref>Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187</ref> Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.<ref>[http://www.biology.about.com/od/evolution/a/aa110207a.htm biology.about.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.evoyage.com/BillsEssays/HumanPenis.html evoyage.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.breastoptions.com/average.html breastoptions.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time100/builder/future/future.html time.com]</ref>
== See also ==
{{Wiktionarypar|physique|hotness|handsomeness|belle|beau|beautiful|cuteness}}
*[[Erotic capital]]
*[[Human physical appearance]]
*[[Body proportions]]
*[[Sexual attraction]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References and bibliography==
<div class="references-small">
* Barber, N. (1995). [http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/lkellner/Research%20Methods/The%20evolutionary%20psychology%20of%20physical%20attractiveness-%20Sexual%20selection%20and%20human%20morphology.pdf The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology.] ''Ethology and Sociobiology'', 16, 395-424.
* Buss, D. M. (1985). Human mate selection. American Scientist, 73, 47-51.
* Buss, D. M. (1992). Do women have evolved preferences for men with resources? Ethology and Sociobiology, 12, 401-408.
*{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|origyear=1994|format=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |language=English|pages= |chapter= |}}
* Buss, D. M., & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]], 50, 559-570.
* Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; (1977) "Sexism and 'beautyism' in personnel consultant decision making." ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 62, 301-310.
* Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979) "Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships." ''[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]]'', 37, 12-24.
* Cunningham, M.R. (1990) "What do women want." ''Journal of personality & social psychology'', 59, 61-72.
* Cunningham, M.R.; Roberts, A.R.; Barbee, A. P.; Duren P.B.; & Wu, C.H.; (1995) "Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours: Consistency and Variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness". ''Journal of Personality & social psychology'', 68, 261 - 279.
* De Santis, A.; and Kayson, W. A.; (1999) "Defendants charactersitics of attractiveness, race, & sex and sentencing decisions." ''Psychological reports'', 81. 679 - 683.
* Ellen Berscheid and Harry T. Reis. "Attraction and Close Relationships". In Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey, editors, ''Handbook of Social Psychology'', pages 193-281. New York: McGrawHill, 1998.
* Etcoff, Nancy (1996) ''Survival of the Prettiest:the science of beauty'', New York , Anchor Books ISBN 0385-47942-5
* Fanzio, S. L., & Herzog, M. E. (1987). Judging physical attractiveness: What body aspects do we use? [[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]], 13, 19-33.
* Feinberg DR, Jones BC, Law Smith MJ, Moore FR, DeBruine LM, Cornwell RE, Hillier SG, Perrett DI. Horm Behav. 2006 Feb;49(2):215-22. Epub 2005 Aug 1.
* Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002). Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Attractiveness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(5). 154-158.
* Fisher, Helen. (2004) ''Why We Love : The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love'', Henry Holt and Co.,
* Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland (1998) The role of body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size in judgments of female attractiveness. Sex Roles 39:311-26.
* Grammer, K., Fink, B., Møller, A.P. & Thornhill, R. (2003). Darwinian Aesthetics: Sexual Selection and the Biology of Beauty. Biological Reviews, 78(3), 385-407.
* Harper, B. "Beauty, Statute and the Labour Market: A British Cohort Study", ''Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics'', 62, December 2000, pp773-802. [http://www.shortsupport.org/News/0301.html Press release and summary]
* Hughes, S.M., & Gallup, G.G. (2003). Sex differences in morphological predictors of sexual behavior. Shoulder to hip and waist to hip ratios. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24(3), 173-178.
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</div>
==External links==
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/071222_beauty.htm
|title=Science gives beauty some of its mystery back—for now
|date=[[December 22]], [[2007]]
|publisher=world-science.net
|accessdate=2008-04-29}}
* [http://www.savethemales.ca/000161.html Beautiful Women: Sex and Social Control]
* [http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/080610-bikini-effect.html The Bikini Effect Makes Men Impulsive]
* [http://www.uexpress.com/focusonthefamily/index.html?uc_full_date=20010729 It's Not Always Smooth Sailing For The Physically Attractive]
{{nudity}}
[[Category:Physical attractiveness]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Human sexuality]]
[[de:Attraktivität]]
[[iu:ᐃᓄᒃᑦᓯᐊᖅ/inuktsiaq]]
[[lt:Lytinis patrauklumas]]
[[pl:Atrakcyjność fizyczna]]
[[pt:Beleza humana]]