Physical science
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'''Physical science''' is an encompassing term for the branches of [[natural science]] and [[science]] that study non-living systems, in contrast to the [[biology|biological]] sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena.
== Basic principles of the physical sciences ==
The foundations of the physical sciences rests upon key concepts and [[theory#Science|theories]], each of which explains and/or models a particular aspect of the behavior of nature.
===Basic principles of astronomy===
[[Astronomy]] is the [[science]] of [[celestial bodies]] and their interactions in [[space]]. Its studies includes the following:
*The life and characteristics of [[stars]] and [[galaxy|galaxies]]
*[[Physical cosmology|Origins of the universe]]. Physical science uses the [[Big Bang]] theory as the commonly accepted scientific [[theory]] of the origin of the [[universe]]
*A [[heliocentric theory|heliocentric solar system]]. Ancient and primitive cultures saw the earth as the center of the solar system or universe ([[geocentrism]]). In the 16th century, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] advanced the ideas of [[heliocentrism]], recognizing the sun as the center of the solar system.
*The structure of the [[solar system]], [[planets]], [[comets]], [[asteroid]]s, and [[meteors]]
*The [[Earth#shape|shape]] and [[Earth#structure|structure]] of [[Earth]] (roughly spherical, see also [[Spherical Earth]])
*[[Earth#Earth in the Solar System|Earth in the Solar System]]
*[[Time#Measurement|Time measurement]]
*The composition and features of the [[Moon]]
*Interactions of the [[Earth#The Moon|Earth and Moon]]
''(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with [[astrology]], which assumes that people's destiny and human affairs in general are correlated to the apparent positions of astronomical objects in the sky -- although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers embrace the [[scientific method]], while astrologers do not.)''
===Basic principles of chemistry===
[[Chemistry]] is the [[science]] of [[matter]] mainly at the micro-level. Chemistry can be called "the central science" because it connects the other natural sciences, such as astronomy, physics, material science, biology, and geology. Its studies include the following:
*[[Atomic theory]]
**Principles of [[quantum mechanics]]
**The discovery and classification of [[Chemical element|pure elements]]
**[[Dmitri Mendeleev|Dmitri Mendeleev's]] creation of [[The Periodic Table|The Periodic Table of Chemical Elements]] showing the relationship of [[chemical element]]s
**Properties of [[periodic table#groups|groups]], especially [[metals]], and [[nonmetal]]s
*[[Water]] and its [[water (molecule)#Physics and chemistry of water|properties]]
**Structure of the [[water (molecule)|water molecule]]
**Properties of [[water (molecule)#Water as a solvent|water solutions]], such as [[acids]], [[base (chemistry)|bases]], [[acid-base reaction theories]], and [[salts]]
*[[Chemical element]]s, [[chemical reaction]]s, and [[Chemistry#energy|energy transformations]]
**[[Chemical bonds]]
**[[Chemical formula]] based on chemical notation developed by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Jöns Jakob Berzelius's]]
**[[Chemical compounds]]
**[[Chemical equations]]
**[[Chemical thermodynamics]]
*[[Nuclear chemistry]]
**The nature of the [[atomic nucleus]]
**Characterization of [[radioactive decay]], originally discovered by [[Henri Becquerel]]
*[[Organic chemistry]], considered to have started in [[1828]] with the synthesis of [[urea]] by [[Friedrich Woehler]]
**[[Hydrocarbons]]
**Hydrocarbon derivatives
**[[Functional group|Organic chemistry functional groups]]
===Basic principles of earth science===
[[Earth science]] is the [[science]] of the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]], the only known [[life]]-bearing planet. Its studies include the following:
*[[Rock (geology)|Rocks]] and [[minerals]]
*The [[water cycle]] and the process of [[transpiration]]
*[[Freshwater]], [[surface water]], [[groundwater]]
*[[Oceanography]]
*[[Geology]]
**[[Weathering]] and [[erosion]]
**[[Rock (geology)|Rocks]]
*[[Soil science]]
**[[Pedogenesis]]
**[[Soil fertility]]
*Earth's [[tectonics|tectonic]] structure
*[[Geomorphology]] and [[geophysics]]
**[[Seismology|Seismology: Stress, strain, and earthquakes]]
**Characteristics of [[mountains]] and [[volcanoes]]
*Characteristics and formation of [[fossils]]
*[[Atmospheric sciences|Atmosphere of earth]]
**[[Atmospheric pressure]] and [[winds]]
**[[Evaporation]], [[condensation]], and [[humidity]]
**[[Fog]] and [[clouds]]
*[[Meteorology]], [[weather]], [[climatology]], and [[climate]]
**[[Hydrology]], [[clouds]] and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]
**[[Air masses]] and [[weather fronts]]
**Major storms: [[thunderstorm]]s, [[tornado]]es, and [[hurricane]]s
**[[Climate#classifications|Major climate groups]]
*[[Speleology]]
**[[Cave]]
===Basic principles of physics===
[[Physics]] is the "fundamental science" because the other [[natural science]]s ([[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[geology]], etc.) deal with systems that obey the laws of physics.
The physical laws of [[matter]], [[energy]], and the [[fundamental forces|forces]] of nature govern the [[interaction]]s between particles (such as [[molecules]], [[atoms]], or [[subatomic particle]]s). Some basic principles of physics are:
*Describing and measuring [[Motion (physics)|motion]]
**[[Newton's laws of motion]]
**[[Force]]s, [[weight]], and [[mass]]
**[[Momentum]] and [[conservation of momentum]]
*The [[gravity|theory of gravity]]
*[[Energy]], [[mechanical work|work]], and [[power (physics)|power]]
**[[Motion (physics)|Motion]], position, and [[energy]]
*Energy forms
**[[Conservation of energy|Energy conservation]], [[energy conversion|conversion]], and transfer.
**[[Energy source]]s
*[[Kinetic theory|Kinetic Molecular Theory]]
**[[Phase (matter)|Phases of matter]] and [[phase change]]s
**[[Temperature]] and [[thermometer]]s
**[[Energy]] and [[heat]]
**Heat flow: [[Heat conduction|conduction]], [[convection]], and [[thermal radiation|radiation]]
**The Three [[Laws of thermodynamics]]
*The principles of [[waves]] and [[sound]]
*The principles of [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[electromagnetism]]
*The principles, sources, and properties of [[light]]
==Notable physical scientists==
* '''[[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Abu Rayhan al-Biruni]]''' - a [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Islamic science|scientist]] who is regarded as the father of [[geodesy]], has been described as the "first [[anthropology|anthropologist]]", and is considered one of the earliest [[Geology|geologists]].
* '''[[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhazen]]''' - an [[Iraq]]i [[Islamic science|scientist]] who wrote the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', is regarded as the father of [[optics]] and the pioneer of the [[scientific method]], and has been described as the "first [[scientist]]".
* '''[[Archimedes]]''' - a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. He is considered to be the first mathematical [[physicist]] on record. He established the laws of [[statics]], [[buoyancy]], and [[center of gravity]].
* '''[[Aristotle]]''' - the last of the three great influential [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] philosophers, although not considered to be a scientist by today's standards, nevertheless, he influenced the development of the later [[scientific method]] by espousing the view that knowledge should be based on [[empiricism]] instead of [[intuition (knowledge)|intuition]] or [[faith]].
* '''[[Aryabhata]]''' - Aryabhata was the first in the line of brilliant mathematician-astronomers of classical Indian mathematics, whose major work was the ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' and the ''Aryabhatta-siddhanta''. Aryabhatiya presented a number of innovations in mathematics and astronomy in verse form, which were influential for many centuries.
* '''[[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Bacon, Francis]]''' - an [[Elizabethan]] [[philosopher]], is credited with the philosophical advocation for the [[Baconian method]], an early forerunner of the [[scientific method]].
* '''[[Robert Boyle|Boyle, Robert]]''' - an [[Irish people|Irish]] [[natural philosopher]], is regarded as the "[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of modern chemistry]]" due to his distinction between [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]]. His namesake is [[Boyle's Law|Boyle's Law of an ideal gas]], which he discovered, but his contributions to physical science include the definition of a [[chemical element]], the propagation of sound, among others.
* '''[[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus, Nicolaus]]''' - a [[Polish people|Polish]] [[mathematician]] and [[economist]], is considered by many to be the "[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of modern astronomy]]" due to his detailed explanation of the [[heliocentric]] ([[Sun]]-centered) [[solar system]].
* '''[[Marie Curie|Curie, Marie (maiden name: Sklodowska)]]''' - a [[Polish people|Polish]]-born [[France|French]] [[chemist]], was the first female [[Nobel laureate]], the first two-time Nobel laureate, and one of only two individuals to receive the [[Nobel prize]] in two different fields. She and her husband, [[Pierre Curie]] discovered the two elements [[Polonium]] and [[Radium]].
* '''[[Albert Einstein|Einstein, Albert]]''' - a theoretical [[physicist]], is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. He proposed the theory of relativity and was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics, among other accomplishments.
* '''[[Leonhard Euler|Euler, Leonhard]]''' - [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] and [[physicist]], considered to be one of the greatest [[mathematicians]] of all times. His contributions to [[science]] includes the [[Euler-Bournoulli beam equation]] and [[Euler equations]].
* '''[[Galileo|Galilei, Galileo]]''' - an [[astronomer]] and [[physicist]], is considered the "[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of modern physics]]," "[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of modern science]]", and "[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of science]]" due, in large part, to his [[Galileo#Church Controversy|conflict]] with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] over the authority of [[science]]. However, he has equally impressive scientific contributions to the fields of [[mechanics]], [[astronomy]], and mathematical physics.
* '''[[Geber]]''' - an [[Arab]] [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemist]] regarded as the father of [[chemistry]], due to his introduction of an [[experiment]]al method in the field, and for freeing it from superstition and turning it into a science.
* '''[[James Hutton|Hutton, James]]''' - a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [[geologist]], is considered to be the "father of modern geology," for his formulation of [[uniformitarianism]], that the same geological processes operating today operated in the distant past. Based upon that assumption, he maintained that the age of the earth must be much older than a few thousand years.
* '''[[Isaac Newton|Newton, Sir Isaac]]''' - a [[scientist]] and [[mathematician]], is most renowned for his description of the [[laws of motion]] and [[law of universal gravitation]].
* '''[[Linus Pauling|Pauling, Linus]]''' - an [[United States|American]] [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemist]] and [[biochemistry|biochemist]], widely regarded as the premier chemist of the twentieth century. A pioneer in the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry, and one of the founders of [[molecular biology]].
* '''[[Thales|Thales of Miletus]]''' - a [[pre-Socratic]] [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]], is considered to be the father of [[science]] becaused he first encouraged [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] explanations of the world, without the [[supernatural]].
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