Plant
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TimVickers
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{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Plants
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|520}}[[Cambrian]] to recent, but [[#Fossils|see text]]
| image = Diversity of plants image version 3.png
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption =
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| unranked_regnum = [[Archaeplastida]]
| regnum = '''Plantae'''
| regnum_authority = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1866<ref>{{cite book | author = Haeckel G | year = 1866 | title = Generale Morphologie der Organismen | publisher = Verlag von Georg Reimer | location = Berlin | pages = vol.1: i–xxxii, 1–574, pls I–II; vol. 2: i–clx, 1–462, pls I–VIII}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Divisions
| subdivision =
'''[[Green algae]]'''
* [[Chlorophyta]]
* [[Charophyta]]
'''[[Embryophyte|Land plants]] (embryophytes)'''
* '''[[Bryophyte|Non-vascular land plants]] (bryophytes)'''
** [[Marchantiophyta]]—liverworts
** [[Hornwort|Anthocerotophyta]]—hornworts
** [[Moss|Bryophyta]]—mosses
** [[extinction|†]][[Horneophytopsida]]
* '''[[Vascular plant]]s (tracheophytes)'''
** [[extinction|†]][[Rhyniophyta]]—rhyniophytes
** [[extinction|†]][[Zosterophyllophyta]]—zosterophylls
** [[Lycopodiophyta]]—clubmosses
** [[extinction|†]][[Trimerophytophyta]]—trimerophytes
** [[fern|Pteridophyta]]—ferns and horsetails
** [[extinction|†]][[Progymnospermophyta]]
** '''[[Spermatophyta|Seed plants]] (spermatophytes)'''
*** [[extinction|†]][[Pteridospermatophyta]]—seed ferns
*** [[Pinophyta]]—conifers
*** [[Cycad]]ophyta—cycads
*** [[Ginkgophyta]]—ginkgo
*** [[Gnetophyta]]—gnetae
*** [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]—flowering plants
[[extinction|†]]'''[[Nematophytes]]'''
}}
'''Plants''' are organisms belonging to the [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] '''Plantae'''. They include familiar [[organism]]s such as [[tree]]s, [[herb]]s, [[bushes]], [[grasses]], [[vine]]s, [[fern]]s, [[moss]]es, and [[green algae]]. About 350,000 [[species]] of plants, defined as [[seed plant]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[fern]]s and [[fern allies]], are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are [[flowering]] and 18,000 [[bryophytes]] (see [[#Diversity|table below]]). '''Green plants''', sometimes called '''metaphytes''' or ''viridiplantae'', obtain most of their energy from [[Electromagnetic radiation|sunlight]] via a process called [[photosynthesis]].
==Definition==
[[Aristotle]] divided all living things between plants (which generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile to catch their food). In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]' system, these became the [[kingdom (biology)|Kingdoms]] Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and [[Animalia]] (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the [[fungus|fungi]] and several groups of [[algae]] were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts, both technical and popular.
When the name Plantae or plants is applied to a specific taxon, it is usually referring to one of three concepts. From smallest to largest in inclusiveness, these three groupings are:
* [[Embryophyte|Land plant]]s, also known as Embryophyta or Metaphyta. As the narrowest of plant categories, this is further delineated below.
* '''Green plants''' - also known as '''Viridiplantae''', '''Viridiphyta''' or '''Chlorobionta''' - comprise the above Embryophytes, [[Charophyta]] (i.e., primitive [[stonewort]]s), and [[Chlorophyta]] (i.e., [[green algae]] such as [[sea lettuce]]). It is this [[clade]] which is mainly the subject of this article.
* [[Archaeplastida]] - also known as Plantae ''[[sensu lato]]'', Plastida or Primoplantae - comprises the green plants above, as well as [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae) and [[Glaucophyta]] (simple glaucophyte algae). As the broadest plant clade, this comprises most of the [[eukaryote]]s that eons ago acquired their [[chloroplast]]s directly by engulfing [[cyanobacteria]].
Informally, other creatures that carry out photosynthesis are called plants as well, but they do not constitute a formal taxon and represent species that are not closely related to true plants. There are around 375,000 species of plants, and each year more are found and described by science.
===Algae===
[[Image:Haeckel Siphoneae.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Green algae]] from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904.]]
{{main|Algae}}
Most [[algae]] are no longer classified within the Kingdom Plantae.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Margulis | first=L. | year=1974 | title=Five-kingdom classification and the origin and evolution of cells | journal=Evolutionary Biology | volume=7 | pages=45–78 }}</ref><ref name="Raven 2005" /> The algae comprise several different groups of organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis, each of which arose independently from separate non-photosynthetic ancestors. Most conspicuous among the algae are the [[seaweed]]s, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble terrestrial plants, but are classified among the [[green alga|green]], [[red alga|red]], and [[brown alga]]e. Each of these algal groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms.
Only two groups of algae are considered close relatives of land plants ([[embryophyte]]s). The first of these groups is the [[Charophyta]] ([[desmid]]s and stoneworts), from which the embryophytes developed.<ref name="Bremer 1985">{{cite journal | last=Bremer | first=K. | year=1985 | title=Summary of green plant phylogeny and classification | journal=Cladistics | volume=1 | pages=369–385 }}</ref><ref name="Mishler and Churchill 1985">{{cite journal | last=Mishler | first=Brent D. | coauthors = S. P. Churchill | year=1985 | title=Transition to a land flora: phylogenetic relationships of the green algae and bryophytes | journal=Cladistics | volume=1 | pages=305–328 }}</ref><ref name="Mishler 1994">{{cite journal | last=Mishler | first=Brent D. | coauthors=Louise A. Lewis; Mark A. Buchheim; Karen S. Renzaglia; D. J. Garbary; Carl F. Delwiche; F. W. Zechman; T. S. Kantz; & Ron L. Chapman | year=1994 | title=Phylogenetic relationships of the "green algae" and "bryophytes" | journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden | volume=81 | pages=451–483 | doi=10.2307/2399900 }}</ref> The [[sister group]] to the combined embryophytes and charophytes is the other group of green algae ([[Chlorophyta]]), and this more inclusive group is collectively referred to as the green plants or [[Viridiplantae]]. The Kingdom Plantae is often taken to mean this [[monophyletic]] grouping. With a few exceptions among the green algae, all such forms have cell walls containing [[cellulose]], have [[chloroplast]]s containing [[chlorophyll]]s ''a'' and ''b'', and store food in the form of [[starch]]. They undergo closed [[mitosis]] without [[centriole]]s, and typically have [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with flat cristae.
The [[chloroplast]]s of green plants are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting they originated directly from endosymbiotic [[cyanobacteria]]. The same is true of two additional groups of algae: the [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae) and [[Glaucophyta]]. All three groups together are generally believed to have a common origin, and so are classified together in the taxon [[Archaeplastida]]. In contrast, most other algae (e.g. [[heterokont]]s, [[haptophyte]]s, [[dinoflagellate]]s, and [[euglenid]]s) have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the green plants, presumably acquiring chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae.
===Fungi===
{{main|Fungi}}
[[Fungus|Fungi]] were previously included in the plant kingdom, but are now seen to be more closely related to animals. Unlike embryophytes and algae, fungi are not photosynthetic, but are [[saprotrophs]]: obtaining food by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials. Most fungi are formed by microscopic structures called [[hyphae]], which may or may not be divided into cells but contain [[eukaryotic]] [[cell nucleus|nuclei]]. Fruiting bodies, of which [[mushroom]]s are most familiar, are the reproductive structures of fungi. They are not related to any of the photosynthetic groups, but are close relatives of [[animal]]s. Therefore, the [[fungi]] are in a kingdom of their own.
==Diversity==
About 350,000 [[species]] of plants, defined as [[seed plant]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[fern]]s and [[fern allies]], are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are [[flowering plant]]s, 16,000 [[bryophyte]]s, 11,000 [[fern]]s and 8,000 [[green algae]].
{| class="wikitable" align="left" style="margin-left:1em"
|+'''Diversity of living plant divisions'''
|-
! style="background:lightgreen" align="center" | Informal group
! style="background:lightgreen" align="center" | Division name
! style="background:lightgreen" align="center" | Common name
! style="background:lightgreen" align="center" | No. of living species
|-
| rowspan=2 style="background:lightgray" valign="top" | [[Green algae]]
| '''[[Chlorophyta]]'''
| align="left" | [[green algae]] (chlorophytes)
| align="right" | 3,800 <ref>Van den Hoek, C., D. G. Mann, & H. M. Jahns, 1995. ''Algae:An Introduction to Phycology''. pages 343, 350, 392, 413, 425, 439, & 448 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-30419-9</ref>
|-
| '''[[Charophyta]]'''
| align="left" | [[green algae]] ([[desmid]]s & charophytes)
| align="right" | 4,000 - 6,000 <ref>Van den Hoek, C., D. G. Mann, & H. M. Jahns, 1995. ''Algae:An Introduction to Phycology''. pages 457, 463, & 476. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-30419-9</ref>
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightgray" valign="top" | [[Bryophyte]]s
| '''[[Marchantiophyta]]'''
| align="left" | liverworts
| align="right" | 6,000 - 8,000 <ref>Crandall-Stotler, Barbara. & Stotler, Raymond E., 2000. "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". page 21 ''in'' A. Jonathan Shaw & Bernard Goffinet (Eds.), ''Bryophyte Biology''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-66097-1</ref>
|-
| '''[[Anthocerotophyta]]'''
| align="left" | hornworts
| align="right" | 100 - 200 <ref>Schuster, Rudolf M., ''The Hepaticae and Anthocerotae of North America'', volume VI, pages 712-713. (Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1992). ISBN 0-914-86821-7.</ref>
|-
| '''[[Moss|Bryophyta]]'''
| align="left" | mosses
| align="right" | 12,000 <ref name="Goffinet & Buck 2004">{{cite journal | last=Goffinet | first = Bernard | coauthors = William R. Buck | year=2004 | title=Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification | journal=Monographs in Systematic Botany | volume=98 | pages=205–239 | publisher= Missouri Botanical Garden Press }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 style="background:lightgray" valign="top" | [[Pteridophyte]]s
| '''[[Lycopodiophyta]]'''
| align="left" | club mosses
| align="right" | 1,200 <ref name="Raven 2005">Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.</ref>
|-
| '''[[Pteridophyta]]'''
| align="left" | ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails
| align="right" | 11,000 <ref name="Raven 2005" />
|-
| rowspan=5 style="background:lightgray" valign="top" | [[Seed plant]]s
| '''[[Cycadophyta]]'''
| align="left" | cycads
| align="right" | 160 <ref>Gifford, Ernest M. & Adriance S. Foster, 1988. ''Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants'', 3rd edition, page 358. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1946-0.</ref>
|-
| '''[[Ginkgophyta]]'''
| align="left" | ginkgo
| align="right" | 1 <ref>Taylor, Thomas N. & Edith L. Taylor, 1993. ''The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants'', page 636. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-13-651589-4.</ref>
|-
| '''[[Pinophyta]]'''
| align="left" | conifers
| align="right" | 630 <ref name="Raven 2005" />
|-
| '''[[Gnetophyta]]'''
| align="left" | gnetophytes
| align="right" | 70 <ref name="Raven 2005" />
|-
| '''[[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]'''
| align="left" | flowering plants
| align="right" | 258,650 <ref>lnternational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2006. ''[http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:Summary Statistics]''</ref>
|}
{{-}}
===Phylogeny===
A proposed phylogeny of the Plantae after Kenrick and Crane<ref>Kenrick, Paul & Peter R. Crane. 1997. ''The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study.'' (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press). ISBN 1-56098-730-8.</ref> is as follows, with modification to the Pteridophyta from Smith et al.<ref>Smith, Alan R., Kathleen M. Pryer, E. Schuettpelz, P. Korall, H. Schneider, & Paul G. Wolf. (2006). "[http://www.pryerlab.net/publication/fichier749.pdf A classification for extant ferns]". ''Taxon'' 55(3): 705-731.</ref> The [[Prasinophyceae]] may be a paraphyletic basal group to all green plants.
{{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
|1={{clade
|1=[[Prasinophyceae]] (micromonads)
|2={{clade
|label1=Streptobionta
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Embryophyte]]s
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=Stomatophytes
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Polysporangiophyte|Polysporangiates]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Vascular plant|Tracheophytes]]
|1={{clade
<!-- SECTION move to left; too much indenting -->
|label1=Eutracheophytes
|1={{clade
|label1=Euphyllophytina
|1={{clade
|label1=Lignophytia
|1={{clade
|1='''[[Spermatophyta|Spermatophytes]]''' (seed plants)
|2=[[Progymnospermophyta]] †
}}
|label2='''[[Fern|Pteridophyta]]'''
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Pteridopsida]] (true ferns)
|2=[[Marattiopsida]]
|3=[[Equisetopsida]] (horsetails)
|4=[[Psilotopsida]] (whisk ferns & adders'-tongues)
|5=[[Cladoxylopsida]] †
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Lycophytina
|2={{clade
|1='''[[Lycopodiophyta]]'''
|2=[[Zosterophyllophyta]] †
}}
}}
|2=[[Rhyniophyta]] †
<!-- END SECTION return to full indenting -->
}}
}}
|2=''[[Aglaophyton]]'' †
|3=[[Horneophytopsida]] †
}}
}}
|2='''[[Moss|Bryophyta]]''' (mosses)
|3='''[[Anthocerotophyta]]''' (hornworts)
}}
}}
|2='''[[Marchantiophyta]]''' (liverworts)
}}
}}
|2='''[[Charophyta]]'''
}}
}}
|3={{clade
|label1='''[[Chlorophyta]]'''
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Trebouxiophyceae]] (Pleurastrophyceae)
|2=[[Chlorophyceae]]
}}
|2=[[Ulvophyceae]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
===Embryophytes===
{{main|Embryophyte}}
[[Image:Ferns02.jpg|250px|thumb|''[[Dicksonia antarctica]]'', a species of [[tree fern]].]]
Most familiar are the [[multicellular]] land plants, called [[embryophyte]]s. They include the [[vascular plant]]s, plants with full systems of [[leaf|leaves]], [[Plant stem|stems]], and [[root]]s. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called ''[[bryophytes]]'', of which [[moss]]es and [[Marchantiophyta|liverworts]] are the most common.
All of these plants have [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells with [[cell wall]]s composed of [[cellulose]], and most obtain their energy through [[photosynthesis]], using [[light]] and [[carbon dioxide]] to synthesize food. About three hundred plant species do not photosynthesize but are [[parasite]]s on other species of photosynthetic plants. Plants are distinguished from [[green alga]]e, which represent a mode of photosynthetic life similar to the kind modern plants are believed to have evolved from, by having specialized reproductive organs protected by non-reproductive tissues.
Bryophytes first appeared during the early [[Palaeozoic]]. They can only survive where moisture is available for significant periods, although some species are desiccation tolerant. Most species of bryophyte remain small throughout their life-cycle. This involves an alternation between two generations: a [[haploid]] stage, called the [[gametophyte]], and a [[diploid]] stage, called the [[sporophyte]]. The sporophyte is short-lived and remains dependent on its parent gametophyte.
Vascular plants first appeared during the [[Silurian]] period, and by the [[Devonian]] had diversified and spread into many different land environments. They have a number of adaptations that allowed them to overcome the limitations of the bryophytes. These include a cuticle resistant to desiccation, and vascular tissues which transport water throughout the organism. In most the sporophyte acts as a separate individual, while the gametophyte remains small.
The first primitive seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns) and Cordaites, both groups now extinct, appeared in the late Devonian and diversified through the Carboniferous, with further evolution through the [[Permian]] and [[Triassic]] periods. In these the gametophyte stage is completely reduced, and the sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a [[seed]], which develops while on the parent plant, and with fertilisation by means of [[pollen]] grains. Whereas other vascular plants, such as ferns, reproduce by means of spores and so need moisture to develop, some seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions.
Early seed plants are referred to as gymnosperms (naked seeds), as the seed embryo is not enclosed in a protective structure at pollination, with the pollen landing directly on the embryo. Four surviving groups remain widespread now, particularly the [[conifer]]s, which are dominant [[tree]]s in several [[biome]]s. The angiosperms, comprising the [[flowering plant]]s, were the last major group of plants to appear, emerging from within the gymnosperms during the [[Jurassic]] and diversifying rapidly during the [[Cretaceous]]. These differ in that the seed embryo (angiosperm) is enclosed, so the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the protective seed coat; they are the predominant group of flora in most biomes today.
=== Fossils ===
{{Main|Paleobotany|Evolutionary history of plants}}
[[Image:Petrified forest log 1 md.jpg|250px|thumb|A petrified log in [[Petrified Forest National Park]].]]
Plant [[fossil]]s include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, [[pollen]], [[spores]], [[phytolith]]s, and [[amber]] (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. [[Pollen]], [[spores]] and algae ([[dinoflagellates]] and [[acritarchs]]) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.
The earliest fossils clearly assignable to Kingdom Plantae are fossil green algae from the [[Cambrian]]. These fossils resemble calcified multicellular members of the [[Dasycladales]]. Earlier [[Precambrian]] fossils are known which resemble single-cell green algae, but definitive identity with that group of algae is uncertain.
The oldest known [[trace fossil]]s of embryophytes date from the [[Ordovician]], though such fossils are fragmentary. By the [[Silurian]], fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the [[lycophyte]] ''[[Baragwanathia longifolia]]''. From the Devonian, detailed fossils of [[rhyniophyte]]s have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The [[Devonian period]] also saw the evolution of what many believe to be the first modern tree, ''[[Archaeopteris]]''. This fern-like tree combined a woody trunk with the fronds of a fern, but produced no seeds.
The [[Coal Measures]] are a major source of [[Palaeozoic]] plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; [[coal]] itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]], the stumps of ''[[Lepidodendron]]'' trees are found in their original growth positions.
The fossilized remains of conifer and angiosperm roots, stems and branches may be locally abundant in lake and inshore sedimentary rocks from the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Caenozoic]] eras. [[Coast Redwood|Sequoia]] and its allies, [[magnolia]], [[oak]], and [[Arecaceae|palms]] are often found.
[[Petrified wood]] is common in some parts of the world, and is most frequently found in arid or desert areas where it is more readily exposed by [[erosion]]. Petrified wood is often heavily silicified (the organic material replaced by [[silicon dioxide]]), and the impregnated tissue is often preserved in fine detail. Such specimens may be cut and polished using [[lapidary]] equipment. Fossil forests of petrified wood have been found in all continents.
Fossils of seed ferns such as ''[[Glossopteris]]'' are widely distributed throughout several continents of the [[southern hemisphere]], a fact that gave support to [[Alfred Wegener]]'s early ideas regarding [[Continental drift]] theory.
==Life processes==
===Growth===
Most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through a process known as [[photosynthesis]], plants use the energy in [[sunlight]] to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into simple [[sugars]]. These sugars are then used as building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Plants rely on soil primarily for support and water (in quantitative terms), but also obtain [[nitrogen]], [[phosphorus]] and other crucial elemental nutrients. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots for [[respiration]]. However, a few specialized vascular plants, such as [[Mangrove]]s, can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions.
[[Image:Leaf 1 web.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[leaf]] is the primary site of [[photosynthesis]] in plants.]]
==== Factors affecting growth ====
The genotype of a plant affects its growth, for example selected varieties of wheat grow rapidly, maturing within 110 days, whereas others, in the same environmental conditions, grow more slowly and mature within 155 days.<ref name=Robbins>Robbins, W.W., Weier, T.E., ''et al'', ''Botany:Plant Science'', 3rd edition , Wiley International, New York, 1965.</ref>
Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as [[temperature]], available [[water]], available [[light]], and available [[nutrients]] in the soil. Any change in the availability of these external conditions will be reflected in the plants growth.
Biotic factors (living organisms) also affect plant growth.
*Plants compete with other plants for space, water, light and nutrients. Plants can be so crowded that no single individual makes normal growth.<ref name=Robbins/>
*Many plants rely on birds and insects to effect pollination.
*Grazing animals may affect vegetation.
*Soil fertility is influenced by the activity of bacteria and fungi.
*Bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and insects can parasitise plants.
*Some plant roots require an association with fungi to maintain normal activity (mycorrhizal association).<ref name=Robbins/>
Simple plants like algae may have short life spans as individuals, but their populations are commonly seasonal. Other plants may be organized according to their seasonal growth pattern:
* [[Annual plant|Annual]]: live and reproduce within one growing season.
* [[Biennial plant|Biennial]]: live for two growing seasons; usually reproduce in second year.
* [[Perennial plant|Perennial]]: live for many growing seasons; continue to reproduce once mature.
Among the vascular plants, perennials include both [[evergreen]]s that keep their leaves the entire year, and [[deciduous]] plants which lose their leaves for some part of it. In [[temperate]] and [[boreal]] climates, they generally lose their leaves during the winter; many [[tropical]] plants lose their leaves during the dry season.
The growth rate of plants is extremely variable. Some mosses grow less than 0.001 mm/h, while most trees grow 0.025-0.250 mm/h. Some climbing species, such as [[kudzu]], which do not need to produce thick supportive tissue, may grow up to 12.5 mm/h.
Plants protect themselves from [[frost]] and [[dehydration]] stress with [[antifreeze protein]]s, [[Heat shock protein|heat-shock proteins]] and sugars ([[sucrose]] is common). LEA (Late [[Embryogenesis]] Abundant) protein expression is induced by stresses and protects other proteins from aggregation as a result of [[desiccation]] and [[freezing]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Goyal, K., Walton, L. J., & Tunnacliffe, A. | title=LEA proteins prevent protein aggregation due to water stress | quotes=no | journal=Biochemical Journal | year=2005 | volume=388 | issue=Part 1 | pages=151 – 157 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/388/0151/bj3880151.htm | pmid=15631617 | doi=10.1042/BJ20041931}}</ref>
=== Internal distribution ===
[[Vascular plant]]s differ from other plants in that they transport nutrients between different parts through specialized structures, called [[xylem]] and [[phloem]]. They also have [[root]]s for taking up water and minerals. The xylem moves water and minerals from the root to the rest of the plant, and the phloem provides the roots with sugars and other nutrient produced by the leaves. <ref>Campbell, Reece, ''Biology'', 7th edition, Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2005</ref>
==Ecology==
The [[photosynthesis]] conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% [[oxygen]]. Animals and most other organisms are [[Aerobic organism|aerobic]], relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare [[anaerobic environment]]s. Plants are the [[Autotroph|primary producers]] in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the [[food web]] in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.
Land plants are key components of the [[water cycle]] and several other [[biogeochemical cycle]]s. Some plants have [[coevolve]]d with [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen fixing]] bacteria, making plants an important part of the [[nitrogen cycle]]. Plant roots play an essential role in [[soil]] development and prevention of [[soil erosion]].
===Distribution===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
Plants are distributed [[worldwide]] in varying numbers. While they inhabit a multitude of [[biome]]s and [[ecoregion]]s, few can be found beyond the [[tundra]]s at the northernmost regions of [[continental shelf|continental shelves]]. At the southern extremes, plants have adapted tenaciously to the prevailing conditions. (See [[Antarctic flora]].)
Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's [[biome]]s are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as [[grassland]]s and [[forest]]s.
===Ecological relationships===
[[Image:VFT ne1.JPG|thumb|The [[Venus flytrap]], a species of [[carnivorous plant]].]]
Numerous animals have coevolved with plants. Many animals [[pollinate]] [[flower]]s in exchange for food in the form of pollen or [[nectar]]. Many animals [[biological dispersal|disperse seeds]], often by eating [[fruit]] and passing the seeds in their [[feces]]. [[Myrmecophyte]]s are plants that have coevolved with [[ant]]s. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from [[herbivore]]s and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes provide organic [[fertilizer]].
The majority of plant species have various kinds of fungi associated with their root systems in a kind of [[mutualistic]] [[symbiosis]] known as [[mycorrhiza]]. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis. Some plants serve as homes for [[endophyte|endophytic]] fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte, ''[[Neotyphodium coenophialum]]'', in [[tall fescue]] (''Festuca arundinacea'') does tremendous economic damage to the cattle industry in the U.S.
Various forms of parasitism are also fairly common among plants, from the semi-parasitic [[mistletoe]] that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully parasitic [[broomrape]] and [[toothwort]] that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no [[chlorophyll]]. Some plants, known as [[myco-heterotrophs]], parasitize mycorrhizal fungi, and hence act as [[epiparasites]] on other plants.
Many plants are [[epiphyte]]s, meaning they grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them. Epiphytes may indirectly harm their host plant by intercepting mineral nutrients and light that the host would otherwise receive. The weight of large numbers of epiphytes may break tree limbs. Many [[orchid]]s, [[bromeliad]]s, [[fern]]s and [[moss]]es often grow as epiphytes. Bromeliad epiphytes accumulate water in leaf axils to form phytotelmata, complex aquatic food webs.<ref>Howard Frank, [http://bromeliadbiota.ifas.ufl.edu/bromfit.htm Bromeliad Phytotelmata], October 2000</ref>
A few plants are [[carnivorous plant|carnivorous]], such as the [[Venus flytrap]] and [[sundew]]. They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially [[nitrogen]].
==Importance==
[[Image:Potato plant.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Potato]] plant. Potatoes spread to the rest of the world after European contact with the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s and have since become an important field [[crop]].]]
[[Image:Timber DonnellyMills2005 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Timber]] in storage for later processing at a [[sawmill]].]]
[[Image:Taxus wood.jpg|200px|thumb|A section of a [[Taxus|Yew]] branch showing 27 annual growth rings, pale sapwood and dark heartwood, and [[pith]] (centre dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots.]]
The study of plant uses by people is termed economic botany or [[ethnobotany]]. They are often used as synonyms but some consider economic botany to focus mainly on uses of modern cultivated plants, while ethnobotany studies uses of indigenous plants by native peoples. Human cultivation of plants is part of [[agriculture]], which is the basis of human civilization. Plant agriculture is subdivided into [[agronomy]], [[horticulture]] and [[forestry]].
===Food===
Virtually all human nutrition depends on land plants directly or indirectly. Much of human nutrition depends on [[cereals]], especially [[maize|maize or corn]], [[wheat]] and [[rice]] or other [[staple crop]]s such as [[potato]], [[cassava]], and [[legume]]s. Other parts from plants that are eaten include [[fruits]], [[vegetables]], [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[herbs]], [[spices]] and [[flowers|edible flowers]]. Beverages from plants include [[coffee]], [[tea]], [[wine]], [[beer]] and [[alcohol]]. [[Sugar]] is obtained mainly from [[sugar cane]] and [[sugar beet]]. [[Cooking oil]]s and [[margarine]] come from corn, [[soybean]], [[canola]], [[safflower]], [[sunflower]], [[olive]] and others. [[Food additives]] include [[gum arabic]], [[guar gum]], [[locust bean gum]], [[starch]] and [[pectin]].
===Nonfood products===
[[Wood]] is used for buildings, furniture, paper, cardboard, musical instruments and sports equipment. Cloth is often made from [[cotton]], [[flax]] or synthetic fibers derived from [[cellulose]], such as [[rayon]] and [[acetate]]. Renewable fuels from plants include [[firewood]], [[peat]] and many other [[biofuel]]s. [[Coal]] and [[petroleum]] are fossil fuels derived from plants. Medicines derived from plants include [[aspirin]], [[taxol]], [[morphine]], [[quinine]], [[reserpine]], [[colchicine]], [[digitalis]] and [[vincristine]]. There are hundreds of herbal supplements such as [[ginkgo]], [[Echinacea]], [[feverfew]], and [[Saint John's wort]]. [[Pesticides]] derived from plants include [[nicotine]], [[rotenone]], [[strychnine]] and [[pyrethrin]]s. Drugs obtained from plants include [[opium]], [[cocaine]] and [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]. Poisons from plants include [[ricin]], [[Conium|hemlock]] and [[curare]]. Plants are the source of many natural products such as fibers, essential oils, dyes, pigments, waxes, tannins, latex, gums, resins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, paints, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, turpentine, rubber, varnish, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, chewing gum and hemp rope. Plants are also a primary source of basic [[chemicals]] for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals. These chemicals are used in a vast variety of studies and experiments.
===Aesthetic uses===
Thousands of plant species are cultivated to beautify the human environment as well as to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce windspeed, abate noise, provide privacy and prevent soil erosion. People use cut flowers, dried flowers and house plants indoors. Outdoors, they use lawngrasses, shade trees, ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, herbaceous perennials and bedding plants. Images of plants are often used in art, architecture, humor, [[Language of flowers|language]] and photography and on textiles, money, stamps, flags and coats of arms. Living plant art forms include [[topiary]], [[bonsai]], [[ikebana]] and [[espalier]]. [[Ornamental plant]]s have sometimes changed the course of history, as in [[tulipomania]]. Plants are the basis of a multi-billion dollar per year tourism industry which includes travel to [[arboretum]]s, [[botanical garden]]s, [[garden tourism|historic gardens]], [[national park]]s, [[tulip festival]]s, [[rainforests]], [[forest]]s with colorful autumn leaves and the [[National Cherry Blossom Festival]]. Venus flytrap, [[sensitive plant]] and [[resurrection plant]] are examples of plants sold as novelties.
===Scientific and cultural uses===
[[Tree rings]] are an important method of dating in archeology and serve as a record of past climates. Basic biological research has often been done with plants, such as the pea plants used to derive [[Gregor Mendel]]'s laws of genetics. Space stations or space colonies may one day rely on plants for [[Controlled Ecological Life Support System|life support]]. Plants are used as [[National emblem|national]] and state emblems, including [[List of U.S. state trees|state trees]] and [[state flowers]]. Ancient trees are revered and many are [[List of famous trees|famous]]. Numerous world records are held by plants. Plants are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Plants figure prominently in [[Trees in mythology|mythology]], religion and [[List of fictional plants|literature]]. The field of [[ethnobotany]] studies plant use by indigenous cultures which helps to conserve endangered species as well as discover new [[herbalism|medicinal plants]]. [[Gardening]] is the most popular leisure activity in the U.S. Working with plants or [[horticulture therapy]] is beneficial for rehabilitating people with disabilities. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals which are extracted and ingested, including [[tobacco]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana), and [[opium]].
===Negative effects===
[[Weed]]s are plants that grow where people do not want them. People have spread plants beyond their native ranges and some of these introduced plants become [[invasive species|invasive]], damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species. Invasive plants cause billions of dollars in crop losses annually by displacing crop plants, they increase the cost of production and the use of chemical means to control them affects the environment.
Plants may cause harm to people. Plants that produce windblown pollen invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from [[hay fever]]. A wide variety of plants are [[List of poisonous plants|poisonous]]. Several plants cause skin irritations when touched, such as [[poison ivy]]. Certain plants contain [[psychotropic]] [[secondary metabolite|chemicals]], which are extracted and ingested or smoked, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), [[cocaine]] and [[opium]], causing damage to health or even death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urban75.com/Drugs/drugcoke.html |title=cocaine/crack}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ar2005.emcdda.europa.eu/en/page050-en.html |title=Deaths related to cocaine}}</ref> Both illegal and legal drugs derived from plants have negative effects on the economy, affecting worker productivity and law enforcement costs.<ref>{{ cite web |url=http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/NEWS/press02/012302.html |title=ILLEGAL DRUGS DRAIN $160 BILLION A YEAR FROM AMERICAN ECONOMY}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/add/2002/00000097/00000009/art00012 |title=The social cost of illegal drug consumption in Spain}}</ref> Some plants cause allergic reactions in people and animals when ingested, while other plants cause food intolerances that negatively affect health.
==See also==
* [[Biosphere]]
* [[Botany]]
* [[Evolutionary history of plants]]
* [[Flower]]
* [[Forest]]
* [[Fruit]]
* [[Garden]]
* [[Gardening]]
* [[Greenhouse]]
* [[Houseplant]]
* [[List of poisonous plants]]
* [[Paleobotany]]
* [[Photosynthesis]]
* [[Plant cell]]
* [[Plant defense against herbivory]]
* [[Plant perception (paranormal)]]
* [[Plant perception (physiology)]]
* [[Rapid plant movement]]
* [[Tree]]
* [[Vegetable]]
* [[Vegetation]]
* [[Phytopathology]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
===Further reading===
;General:
* Evans, L. T. (1998). ''Feeding the Ten Billion - Plants and [[Population]] Growth''. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.
* Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). ''The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study''. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.
* Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray F., & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). ''Biology of Plants'' (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
* Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). ''The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.
* Trewavas, A. (2003). [http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/92/1/1 Aspects of Plant Intelligence], ''Annals of Botany'' 92: 1-20.
;Species estimates and counts:
* Prance, G. T. (2001). Discovering the Plant World. ''Taxon'' 50: 345-359.
* International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [http://www.redlist.org].
==External links==
{{Portalpar|Plants}}
{{sisterlinks|Plant}}
{{Wikispecies|Plantae}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Plantae}}
* [http://tolweb.org/Green_plants Tree of Life]
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/20674/Prodigeus-plants/ Answers to several questions from curious kids about plants]
* {{cite journal | quotes=no|author=Chaw, S.-M. et al.|url=http://mbe.library.arizona.edu/data/1997/1401/7chaw.pdf|title=Molecular Phylogeny of Extant Gymnosperms and Seed Plant Evolution: Analysis of Nuclear 18s rRNA Sequences|journal=Molec. Biol. Evol.|volume=14|issue=1|pages=56–68|year=1997}}
* [http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/phylogeny/cronq88.html Interactive Cronquist classification]
* [http://www.pflanzenliebe.de Plant Picture Gallery]
* [http://www.alpine-plants-jp.com/art/index_photo2b.htm Plant Photo Gallery of Japan] - Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants
* [http://www.prota.org/uk/About+Prota/ Plant Resources of Tropical Africa]
* [http://database.prota.org/search.htm PROTAbase]
* [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html Index Nominum Algarum]
===Botanical and vegetation databases===
* [http://www.efloras.org/index.aspx e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others)]
* [http://davesgarden.com/pf/ PlantFiles - 150,000 plants]
* [http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/databases/ Australia]
* [http://www.chilebosque.cl Chilean plants at ''Chilebosque'']
* [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html Flora Europaea]
* [http://www.floraweb.de FloraWeb - Flora of Central Europe]
* [http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1 Flora of North America]
* [http://wildflower.utexas.edu/ Native Plant Information Network]
* [http://plants.usda.gov/ United States Department of Agriculture]
* [http://www.alpine-plants-jp.com/botanical_name/list_of_japanese_wild_plants_abelia_buxus.htm List of Japanese Wild Plants Online]
* [http://www.ntbg.org/plants/choose_a_plant.php Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden]
* [http://www.aluka.org/action/doBrowse?sa=1&sa_sel= African Plants Initiative database]
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{{Botany}}
{{Nature nav}}
[[Category:Plants| ]]
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