Pogrom 140704 225408535 2008-07-13T15:02:29Z Blackangel25 5039225 /* Modern usage and examples */ :''The volcano in the Aleutian Islands is spelled [[Pogromni]].'' '''''Pogrom''''' is a form of [[riot]] directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious or other, and characterized by destruction of their [[home]]s, [[business]]es and religious centres. Historically, the term as used in English has very often been used to denote extensive [[violence]] against [[Jew]]s — either spontaneous or premeditated — but it has also been applied to similar incidents against other, mostly [[minority]], groups. Pogroms are usually accompanied by physical violence against the targeted people and sometimes even [[murder]] or [[Wiktionary:massacre|massacre]]. [[Image:1819 Hepp-Hepp Riots.jpg|280px|thumb|[[Hep-Hep riots]] in Frankfurt, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with pitchfork and broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails, and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher,"<ref>[[Amos Elon]] (2002), ''The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933''. Metropolitan Books. ISBN 0805059644. p. 103</ref> holds another Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. <sub>A contemporary engraving by Johann Michael Voltz.</sub>]] ==Etymology== The word "pogrom" came from {{lang-ru|погром}} = "violent outbreak", from громить, {{IPA-ru|grɐˈmʲitʲ}} "to wreak havoc, to demolish violently". == Pogroms against Jews == ===Before the 19th century=== There were antisemitic riots in [[Alexandria]] under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule in AD 38 during the reign of [[Caligula]].<ref>[[Walter Laqueur]] (2006): ''The Changing Face of Anti-Semitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day'', Oxford University Press, p.41 ISBN 0-19-530429-2</ref> Evidence of communal violence against [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s, who were seen as a Jewish sect, exists dating from the second century CE in Rome. These riots were generally precipitated by the Romans because Jews refused to accept Roman rule over Palestine and early Christians were seen as a Jewish sect that proselytized actively. It should be noted that Romans were generally quite tolerant of other religions. Massive violent attacks against Jews date back at least to the [[Crusades]] such as the Pogrom of 1096 in France and Germany (the first to be officially recorded), as well as the [[History of the Jews in England#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|massacres of Jews at London and York in 1189–1190]]. While [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] was initially very welcoming towards Jews from the ninth century, during the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]],<ref>{{citation|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=0316168718}}</ref> the eleventh century also saw several [[Muslim]] pogroms against Jews; those that occurred in [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] in 1011 and in [[Granada]] in 1066.<ref name="Schweitzer267-268">Frederick M. Schweitzer, Marvin Perry., ''Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0312165617, pp. 267–268.</ref> In the [[1066 Granada massacre]], a Muslim mob crucified the Jewish [[vizier]] [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] and massacred about 4,000 Jews.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, [[Meyer Kayserling]], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed.</ref> In 1348, because of the hysteria surrounding the [[Black Plague]], Jews were massacred in [[Chillon]], [[Basle]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Ulm]], [[Speyer]], [[Dresden]], [[Strasbourg]], and [[Mainz]]. A large number of the surviving Jews fled to Poland, which was very welcoming to Jews at the time.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Europe: A History]]|author=[[Norman Davies]]|id=ISBN 0-19-820171-0 |year=1996|pages=p. 412}}</ref> In 1543, [[Martin Luther]] wrote ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies]]'', a treatise in which he advocated harsh persecution of the Jewish people, up to what is called now pogroms. He argued that their synagogues and [[Yeshiva|schools]] be set on fire, their [[Siddur|prayer book]]s destroyed, [[rabbi]]s forbidden to preach, homes razed, and property and money confiscated.<ref>[[Robert Michael|Michael, Robert]]. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006</ref><ref>[[Robert Michael|Michael, Robert]]. "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," ''Encounter'' 46:4, (1985)</ref> Jews and Roman Catholics were also massacred during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of [[Ukrainian Cossacks]] in 1648–1654,<ref>Serhii Plokhi. “The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine” – Oxford.: Oxford University Press, 2001 p. 178</ref> as well as in the following century during the [[Koliyivshchyna]]. ===Russian Empire===<!-- This section is linked from [[Aleister Crowley]] --> [[Image:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The victims, mostly Jewish children, of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav (today's [[Dnipropetrovsk]]).]] {{main|Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire}} The term ''pogrom'' as a reference to large-scale, targeted, and repeated antisemitic rioting saw its first use in the 19th century. The first pogrom is often considered to be the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in [[Odessa]] (modern [[Ukraine]]) after the death of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] patriarch in [[Istanbul]], in which 14 Jews were killed.<ref>[http://www.moria.farlep.net/vjodessa/en/pogroms.html Odessa pogroms] at the Center of Jewish Self-Education "Moria"</ref> Other sources, such as the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], indicate that the first pogrom was the 1859 riots in Odessa. The term "pogrom" became commonly used in English after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western [[Imperial Russia]] in 1881&ndash;1884. The trigger for these pogroms was the [[Alexander II of Russia#Assassination|assassination of Tsar Alexander II]], for which some blamed "the Jews."<ref>''Jewish Chronicle'', [[May 6]], [[1881]], cited in Benjamin Blech, ''Eyewitness to Jewish History''</ref> The extent to which the Russian press was responsible for encouraging perceptions of the assassination as a Jewish act has been disputed.<ref>Stephen M Berk, ''Year of Crisis, Year of Hope: Russian Jewry and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Greenwood, 1985), pp. 54–55.</ref> Local economic conditions are thought to have contributed significantly to the rioting, especially with regard to the participation of the business competitors of local Jews and the participation of railroad workers, and it has been argued that this was actually more important than rumours of Jewish responsibility for the death of the Tsar.<ref name=Aronson1980>I. Michael Aronson, "Geographical and Socioeconomic Factors in the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia," ''[[Russian Review]]'', Vol. 39, No. 1. (Jan., 1980), pp. 18–31</ref> These rumours, however, were clearly of some importance, if only as a trigger, and they had a small kernel of truth: one of the close associates of the assassins, [[Gesya Gelfman]], was indeed Jewish. The fact that the other assassins were all Christians had little impact on the spread of such antisemitic rumours. A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903&ndash;1906, leaving an estimated thousands of Jews dead and many more wounded, as the Jews took to arms to defend their families and property from the attackers. The number of people of other nationalities killed or wounded in these pogroms exceeds Jewish casualties.<ref name=Kozhinov>{{ru icon}} [[Vadim Kozhinov]], [http://www.hrono.ru/libris/kozhin20vek.html Russia. XX Century (1901–1939)]</ref> The 1905 pogrom of Jews in [[Odessa]] was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of 400 to 2,500 Jews killed.<ref>Weinberg, Robert. ''The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa: Blood on the Steps''. 1993, page 164.</ref> [[Image:Maimon Home.jpg|thumb|250px|right|"Home at last", painting by [[Moshe Maimon]] ]] [[Image:AdanaChristianQuarter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[Adana massacre|1909 pogrom]] of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire claimed tens of thousands of lives, as Armenian and Christian property was burned en masse.<ref>Woods, H. Charles. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zKQOAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+danger+zone+of+europe&as_brr=3#PPA137,M1 The Danger Zone of Europe: Changes and Problems in the Near East]''. 1911, page 137-8.</ref>]] Some historians believe that some of the pogroms had been organized<ref>''Nicholas II. Life and Death'' by [[Edward Radzinsky]] (Russian ed., 1997) p. 89. According to Radzinsky, [[Sergei Witte]] appointed Chairman of the [[Russian Council of Ministers]] in 1905, remarked in his ''Memoirs'' that he found that some proclamations inciting pogroms were printed and distributed by Police.</ref> or supported by the [[Tsar]]ist Russian [[secret police]], the [[Okhrana]]. Even outside of these main outbreaks, pogroms remained common&mdash;there were anti-Jewish riots in Odessa in 1859, 1871, 1881, 1886 and 1905 in which hundreds were killed in total. Many pogroms accompanied the [[Revolution of 1917]] and the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former [[Russian Empire]]; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000. ===Outside Russia=== Pogroms spread throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Anti-Jewish riots also broke out elsewhere in the world. During the [[Greek War of Independence]], thousands of Jews were [[Massacres during the Greek Revolution|massacred by the Greeks]] to the point of complete elimination. In 1918 and throughout the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], there were sporadic pogroms in [[Poland]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} In 1927, there were pogroms in [[Oradea]] ([[Romania]]). In the Americas, there was a pogrom in [[Argentina]] in 1919, during the [[Tragic week(Argentina, 1919)|Tragic Week]]. In the Arab world, there were a number of pogroms which played a key role in the [[Immigration to Israel from Arab lands|massive emigration from Arab countries to Israel]]. These occurred during rising tensions and violence in [[Palestine]] as Jews tried to secure a homeland there. In 1945, anti-Jewish rioters in [[Tripoli]], Libya killed 140 Jews. The [[Farhud]] pogrom in [[Iraq]] killed between 200 and 400 Jews. There is also said to have been a [[History of Limerick|Limerick Pogrom]], in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] in the late 19th century. This pogrom was less violent than the others. Although it involved campaigns of intimidation, it chiefly took the form of an economic boycott against Jewish residents of [[Limerick, Ireland|Limerick]]. ===During the Holocaust=== Pogroms were also encouraged by the Nazis, especially early in the war before the larger mass killings began. The first of these pogroms was ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' in Nazi [[Germany]], often called ''[[Pogromnacht]]'', in which Jewish homes and businesses were destroyed and up to 200 Jews were killed. A number of deadly pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans, for example the [[Jedwabne pogrom]] of 1941, in which Polish citizens killed between 400 and 1,600 Jews (estimates vary), with German assistance. The region was previously occupied by the [[Soviet Union]], ([[Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact]]) and the Jewish population was accused of collaboration with the Soviets. In the city of [[Lviv]], Ukrainian nationalists allegedly organized two large pogroms in June-July, 1941 in which around 6,000 [http://www.history.ucsb.edu/projects/holocaust/Resources/history_of_lviv.htm] Jews were murdered, in apparent retribution for the alleged collaboration of some Jews with the previous Soviet regime. ( See: [[Controversy regarding the Nachtigall Battalion]]). In Lithuania, Lithuanian nationalists (led by [[Klimaitis]]) engaged in anti-Jewish pogroms for similar reasons as well, on the 25th and 26th of June, 1941 (after the Nazi German troops had entered the city), killing about 3,800 Jews [http://www.holocaustrevealed.org/_domain/holocaustrevealed.org/lithuania/lithuanian_history.htm] and burning synagogues and Jewish shops{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the [[Iaşi pogrom]] in Romania, in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police, and military officials{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. ===After World War II=== Even after the end of World War II, there were still few pogroms in [[Poland]], such as the [[Kraków pogrom]] on [[August 11]], [[1945]] or, the best-known, the [[Kielce pogrom]] of 1946 [http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3048&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/3048.JPG], in which thirty seven Jews were killed. Until today the debate in Poland continues whether the murderers in Kielce were leftists or rightists and who inspired the killings but the 1946 massacre was a turning point in the attempt to rebuild a Jewish community and convinced many [[Holocaust survivors]] that they had no future in Poland. Anti-Jewish riots also broke out in several other Polish cities where many Jews were killed. (see: [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944-1946]]) [http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203128.pdf]. Soon after, Jews began to flee Poland. The vast majority of survivors left for several reasons, often more than one. Many left simply because they did not want to live in a communist country. Some left because the refusal of the [[Communism|Communist]] regime to return prewar property{{Fact|date=May 2008}}. Others did not wish to rebuild their lives in the places where their families were murdered{{Fact|date=May 2008}}, yet others wanted to go to [[British Mandate of Palestine]], which soon became [[Israel]]. As a result the number of Jews in Poland decreased from 200,000 in the years immediately after the war to 50,000 in 1950 and to 6,000 by the 1980s. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZgaNjbesx-gC&pg=PA220&dq=pogroms+poland+%22post+war%22&sig=w2mteIyiMeEqhZPp1MPImm-6wHY] ===Influence of pogroms=== The pogroms of the 1880s caused a worldwide outcry and, along with harsh laws, propelled mass Jewish emigration. Two million Jews fled the Russian Empire between 1880 and 1914, many going to the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]]. In reaction to the pogroms and other oppressions of the Tsarist period, Jews increasingly became politically active. The [[General Jewish Labor Union]], colloquially known as The Bund, and Jewish participation in the [[Bolshevik]] movements, were directly influenced by the pogroms. Similarly, the organization of Jewish self-defense leagues (which stopped the pogromists in certain areas during the second Kishinev pogrom), such as [[Hovevei Zion]], led naturally to a strong embrace of [[Zionism]], especially by [[Russian Jews]]. ==Modern usage and examples== {{recentism|date=January 2008}} Other ethnic groups have suffered from similar targeted riots at various times and in different countries. In the view of some historians,<ref>Foner, E. (1988). ''Reconstruction America's unfinished revolution, 1863-1877. The New American Nation series.'' Page 32. New York: Harper & Row.</ref> the mass violence and murder targeting [[Black people]] during the [[New York Draft Riots]] of 1863 can be defined as pogroms, though the word had not yet entered the English language at the time. The same could be said of the [[Chinese massacre of 1871]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], and of the killing of [[Koreans]] in the wake of the [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake]] in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]], after newspapers printed articles saying Koreans were systematically poisoning wells, seemingly confirmed by the widespread observation of wells with cloudy water (a little-known effect after a large earthquake). In the 1955 [[Istanbul Pogrom]], ethnic [[Greeks]] were attacked and overwhelmed by ethnic [[Turkish people|Turkish]] mobs. In the years leading up to the [[Nigerian Civil War|Biafran War]], ethnic [[Igbo people|Igbos]] and others from southeastern [[Nigeria]] were victims of targeted attacks. The term is therefore commonly used in the general context of riots against various ethnic groups.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Other examples include the pogroms against ethnic [[Armenians]] in [[Sumgait pogrom|Sumgait]] in 1988 and in [[Pogrom of Armenians in Baku|Baku]], in 1990, both of which occurred in [[Azerbaijan]]. The [[Jakarta Riots of May 1998]] were pogroms targeted against ethnic Chinese in Indonesia. Businesses associated with Chinese were burnt down, women were raped, tortured and killed.<ref>http://www.fas.org/irp/world/indonesia/indonesia-1998.htm Indonesia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998</ref> Fearing for their lives, many ethnic Chinese, who made up about 3–5% of Indonesia's population, fled the country. [[Sikhs]] have also have also experienced pogroms in [[India]], most notably those occurring in November 1984 when India's Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] was assassinated by two of her Sikh guards acting in the aftermath of Operation Bluestar. In these [[1984 Anti-Sikh Riots]], Sikhs were killed in pogroms led by government loyalists, with the government allegedly aiding the attacks by furnishing the mobs with voting lists to identify Sikh families.<ref> Swadesh Bahadur Singh (editor of the Sher-i-Panjâb weekly): “Cabinet berth for a Sikh”, Indian Express, [[1996-05-31]]. </ref> Another notorious pogrom in India happened in the state of Gujarat in March 2002, when [[Muslims]] were systematically targetted and killed <ref> http://conconflicts.ssrc.org/archives/gujarat/brass/ </ref>. These riots were carried out on a scale, and with a ferocity, reminiscent of the genocidal massacres that occurred during the partition of the Punjab in 1947, and with the apparent involvement—by several eyewitness accounts—of ministers in the BJP government itself.<ref> Gujarat Violence: Meaning and Implications,” EPW, May 18, 2002</ref>. Estimates of the numbers killed range from below a thousand to two thousand. Some thirty cities and towns in the state were reported to be “still under curfew” till the end of March <ref> Times of India, March 27, 2002. </ref> In 1999, after [[NATO]] troops took control of the Serbian province of [[Kosovo]], the non-Albanian population of the capital [[Pristina]] was driven from their homes by ethnic Albanians and their property sacked and demolished, witnesses report that NATO forces stood back and refused to intervene.<ref>Interview with Cedomir Prelincevic, Chief Archivist of Kosovo and leader of the Jewish Community in Pristina (September 1999). Retrieved from http://emperors-clothes.com/interviews/ceda.htm on [[April 12]], [[2007]].</ref><ref>{{cite news |first = Guljšen |last = Reufi Prlinčević |title = Kako su Jevreji u poslednjim ratovima proterani iz BiH i sa Kosmeta |url = http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.co.yu/arhiva/2003/09/01/srpski/T03083101.shtml |work = [[Glas Javnosti]] |publisher = Glas Javnosti |date = [[2003-09-01]] |accessdate = 2007-08-13 |language = Serbian }}</ref> In May 2008 there were pogroms against foreigners across [[South Africa]] that left almost 100 people dead and up to 100 000 displaced. <ref>Richard Pithouse, 'The Pogroms in South Africa: a crisis in citizenship' Mute Magazine, June 2008 http://www.metamute.org/en/the_pogroms_in_south_africa_a_crisis_in_citizenship</ref> == See also == * [[Anti-Semitism]] * [[Race riot]] * [[Hep-Hep riots]] * [[Farhud]] * [[Alexandria pogroms]] * [[Istanbul pogrom]] * [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky#Khmelnytsky in Jewish history]] * [[Khmelnytsky Uprising#Jews and the Uprising]] * [[Sumgait Pogrom]] * [[Anti-Armenianism]] * [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944-1946]] * [[The Sergeants affair#Reactions in Britain|Anti-Jewish riots in Britain, 1947]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Antisemitism topics|state=collapsed}} {{Discrimination (footer)}} [[Category:Anti-Jewish pogroms| ]] [[Category:Russian loanwords]] [[af:Pogrom]] [[ar:مذبحة مدبره]] [[ca:Pogrom]] [[cs:Pogrom]] [[da:Pogrom]] [[de:Pogrom]] [[el:Πογκρόμ]] [[es:Pogromo]] [[eo:Pogromo]] [[fr:Pogrom]] [[ko:포그롬]] [[id:Pogrom]] [[it:Pogrom]] [[he:פוגרום]] [[hu:Pogrom]] [[nl:Pogrom]] [[ja:ポグロム]] [[no:Pogrom]] [[nn:Pogrom]] [[pl:Pogrom]] [[pt:Pogrom]] [[ro:Pogrom]] [[ru:Антиеврейские погромы]] [[simple:Pogrom]] [[sk:Pogrom]] [[sl:Pogrom]] [[fi:Pogromi]] [[sv:Pogrom]] [[uk:Погром]] [[yi:פאגראם]]