Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 343234 move=:edit= 225748106 2008-07-15T05:46:17Z Renata3 320236 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.104.118.235|71.104.118.235]] ([[User talk:71.104.118.235|talk]]) to last version by 212.59.24.20 {{Infobox Former Country | native_name=''[[Abiejų Tautų Respublika]]'' <small>([[Lithuania Language|lt]])</small><br>[[Rzeczpospolita]] Obojga Narodów'' <small>([[Polish language|pl]])</small><br/>'' Serenissima Res Publica Coronae Polonicae Magni Ducatusque Lithuaniae''<br/>''Regni Poloniae Magnique Ducatus Lithuaniae''<small><ref name="Magnique">[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/cellarius/cellarius_biography.htm Publications of Andreas Cellarius]</ref>([[Latin]])</small> | conventional_long_name= Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and Grand Duchy of Lithuania | common_name = Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth | continent=Europe | status=State union | p1=Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) | image_p1=[[Image:PB Piast2 CoA.png|20px|Coat of arms]] | p2=Grand Duchy of Lithuania | image_p2=[[Image:Coat of arms of Lithuania.png|20px|Coat of arms]] | s1=Kingdom of Prussia | flag_s1=Flag of Prussia (1750).gif | s2=Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria | flag_s2=Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg | s3=Russian Empire | flag_s3=Flag of Russia.svg | year_start=1569 | date_start=July 1 | event_start=[[Union of Lublin|Union established]] | year_end=1795 | date_end=[[October 24]], [[1795]] | event_end=[[Partitions of Poland|3rd partition]] | event1=[[Partitions of Poland|1st partition]] | date_event1=[[August 5]], [[1772]] | event2=[[Constitution of May 3, 1791|May 3rd Constitution]] | date_event2=[[May 3]], [[1791]] | event3=[[Partitions of Poland|2nd partition]] | date_event3=[[January 23]], [[1793]] | image_flag=Flaga Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodow.svg | image_coat=Herb Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodow.svg | symbol= Coat of arms of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | image_map=Europe map 1648.PNG | image_map_caption=The location of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (purple) in relation to mid-seventeenth century Europe | government_type=Monarchy | legislature=Sejm | title_deputy=[[List of Lithuanian rulers|Grand Duke of Lithuania]] | deputy1=[[List of Lithuanian rulers|List]] | title_leader=[[List of Polish monarchs|King of Poland]] | leader1=[[List of Polish monarchs|List]] | religion=[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Protestantism]] (on West), [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] (mainly [[Tartars]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]] at South) | capital=[[Kraków]] until 1596, [[Warsaw]] (shared with [[Grodno]] from 1673) | stat_area1=815000 | stat_pop1=6500000 | stat_year1=1582 | stat_area2=990000 | stat_pop2=10500000 | stat_year2=1618 | national_motto=Si Deus Nobiscum quis contra nos<br/>([[Latin]]: ''If God is with us, then who is against us'')<br/>[[Pro Fide, Lege et Rege]]<br/>(Latin: ''For Faith, Law and King'', since 18th century) | common_languages= [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Latin]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Chancery Slavonic]] and others (see [[#Languages of the Commonwealth|Languages of the Commonwealth]] section for details) }} The '''Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth''', official ''Lenkijos Karalystės ir Lietuvos Didžiosios kunigaikštystės respublika'',<ref>Official full name of this state see on site of [[Constitutional Tribunal of the Republic of Poland]] [http://www.trybunal.gov.pl/wszechnica/tradycje/RP_I/tradycje.htm]</ref> also known as the '''[[Most Serene Republic]] (Commonwealth) of the Two (Both) Nations (Peoples)''', ({{lang-pl|Pierwsza [[Rzeczpospolita]]}} or ''Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów''; {{lang-be|''Рэч Паспалітая''}} or ''Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў''; {{lang-lt|Abiejų tautų respublika}}) <!---AVOID CLUTTER! BE, RU, UA, RO, SK and other names belong to a separate naming section if at all, the list of all "relevant" names would be LONGER THAN THE REST OF INTRO---> or as the "First Republic", was one of the largest and most populous<ref name="pbs map">[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode5/atlas/map3.html# Heritage: Interactive Atlas: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth], accessed on [[19 March]] [[2006]]: ''At its apogee, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth comprised some {{convert|400000|sqmi|km2}} and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million.'' For population comparisons, see also those maps: [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg], [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg]. </ref> countries in 17th-century Europe. Its political structure—that of a semi-federal, semi-confederal [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] [[republic]]—was formed in 1569 by the [[Union of Lublin]], which united the [[Crown of the Polish Kingdom]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], and lasted in this form until the adoption of the [[Constitution of May 3, 1791]]. The Commonwealth covered not only the territories of what is now [[Poland]] and [[Lithuania]], but also the entire territory of [[Belarus]] and [[Latvia]], large parts of [[Ukraine]] and [[Estonia]], and part of present-day western [[Russia]] ([[Smolensk]] and [[Kaliningrad]] [[oblast]]s). Originally the official languages of the Commonwealth were [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Latin]] (in the Kingdom of Poland) and [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://i34.photobucket.com/albums/d101/no_name_2/Edt1458.jpg | title = "Mes Wladislaus..."| accessmonthday = [[September 3]] | accessyear = 2006, ''a letter from Wladyslaw Vasa issued in 1639 written in Lithuanian language''}}</ref><!--comment: it is not a letter by Wladislaus IV. It's only a notarially certified translation of Wladislaus's document without state seal. http://litvin.org/site/argumentas.htm --> (in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania). The Commonwealth was an extension of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Union]], a [[personal union]] between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see [[Union of Krewo]]). The Commonwealth's [[political system]], often called the [[Noble's democracy]] or [[Golden Freedom]], was characterized by the [[Monarch|sovereign's]] power being reduced by laws and the legislature ([[Sejm]]) controlled by the nobility ([[szlachta]]). This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader [[democracy]]<ref name="Janowski">[[Maciej Janowski]], ''Polish Liberal Thought'', Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN9639241180&id=ieF7NYaEqQYC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=Polish+Lithuanian+Commonwealth+federation&vq=4&sig=ePKU45u4CTs4btOI8KKxV4nwxA4 p3], [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0887068332&id=8keIXDyF_EoC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Polish+Lithuanian+Commonwealth+federation&sig=7scGhSOWNHxZm7xKeUimB9Cr4D0 p12]</ref> and [[constitutional monarchy]]<ref name="Schroeder">[[Paul W. Schroeder]], ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848'', Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-820654-2, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0198206542&id=BS2z3iGPCigC&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&dq=Poland+%22constitutional+monarchy%22&sig=VDTkfWKi5PAqIlCIKlGa6tha6lw Google print p84]</ref><ref name="Ludwikowski">[[Rett R. Ludwikowski]], ''Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance'', Duke University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0822318024&id=qw8o0_c0m74C&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34&dq=Poland+%22constitutional+monarchy%22&sig=tFj2eSPXILPkUodrTTGxQtj7X4w Google Print, p34]</ref><ref name="Sanford">[[George Sanford (scholar)|George Sanford]], ''Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989'', Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0-333-77475-2, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0333774752&id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=Poland+%22constitutional+monarchy%22&sig=lnh18en73lGnEOdO0GkC-mh42z0 Google print p11 — constitutional monarchy], [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0333774752&id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=Poland+anarchy&sig=wQoLBVyfoT7MaBQ_66fD0LS_Nf4 p3 — anarchy]</ref> as well as [[federation]].<ref name="Gella">[[Aleksander Gella]], ''Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors'', SUNY Press, 1998, ISBN 0-88706-833-2, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0887068332&id=8keIXDyF_EoC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+%22federation%22+Gella&sig=7scGhSOWNHxZm7xKeUimB9Cr4D0 Google Print, p13]</ref> The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union.<ref name="EB_Lublin">"Formally, Poland and Lithuania were to be distinct, equal components of the federation… But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized, but Poland had greater representation in the Diet and became the dominant partner."{{cite encyclopedia | ency=Encyclopædia Britannica| edition= | year=2006| article=Lublin, Union of|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9049222}}[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9049222]</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Church]] had a significant influence on the affairs of the Commonwealth, the state however was noted for having [[religious tolerance]],<ref name="Stephan">[[Halina Stephan]], ''Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America'', Rodopi, 2003, ISBN 90-420-1016-9, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN9042010169&id=y6DiiTcheBsC&pg=PA373&lpg=PA373&dq=%22Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth%22+%22religious+tolerance%22&sig=7jfUlvptDx-pgOMmctVSJPY7i9s Google Print p373]. Quoting from [[Sarmatian Review]] academic journal mission statement: ''Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was […] characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe</ref> although the degree of it varied with time.<ref name="Feliks Gross">[[Feliks Gross]], ''Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution'', Greenwood Press, 1999, ISBN 0-313-30932-9, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0313309329&id=I6wM4X9UQ8QC&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+religious+tolerance&sig=4DfNp5W5HoFxS_dc6gt3Jo8B4NQ Google Print, p122 (notes)]</ref> Its [[economics|economy]] was mainly based on [[agriculture]]. While the Commonwealth's first century was a [[golden age]]<ref> [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0813507995&id=LACpYP-g1y8C&dq=%22Polish+Golden+Age%22&lpg=PA302&pg=PA300&sig=CoBl3_FwIWUTHlT8Kaf_zK8bc1s]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0231088531&id=yOhnpXB_gQcC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=%22Poland's+Golden+Age%22&sig=52Obkys3BZMGq0U96nN8RMGTQU0]</ref> for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to [[serfdom]] for the peasants (the [[second serfdom]] phenomenon<ref name="Domar">[http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001447.html The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis], discussion and full online text of [[Evsey Domar]] (1970) "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis", [[Economic History Review]] '''30''':1 (March), pp18–32</ref>), and growing [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]]<ref name="Sanford"/><ref name="Republicanism">[[Martin Van Gelderen]], [[Quentin Skinner]], ''Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage'', Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-80756-5 [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521807565&id=sLO_aRQiDwgC&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&dq=Polish+anarchy&sig=J0EJ6ZkLpycczRPDZ0brNKijzsM Google Print: p54]</ref> in political life. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest [[codex|codified]] national [[constitution]] in [[Modern Times (history)|modern history]].<ref name="Markoff">[[John Markoff (professor)|John Markoff]] describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff, ''Waves of Democracy'', 1996, ISBN 0-8039-9019-7, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0803990197&id=-EWi759F4PoC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=Markoff+Waves+of+Democracy+Poland&vq=Poland&sig=WMYISRDHaXXLAeQg3RJNRccP7jc Google Print, p121]</ref> The [[Duchy of Warsaw]], established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the [[January Uprising]] (1863–64) and in the 1920s, with [[Józef Piłsudski]]'s failed attempt to create a Polish-led ''[[Międzymorze]]'' ("Between-Seas") [[federation]] that would have included Lithuania and [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]]. Today's Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,<ref name="Constitution">A. stated, for instance by the preamble of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Poland]] of 1997.</ref> whereas the Republic of Lithuania, re-established at the end of [[World War I]], saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light, at the early stages of regaining its independence,<ref>[[Alfonsas Eidintas]], [[Vytautas Zalys]], ''Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940'', Palgrave, 1999, ISBN 0-312-22458-3. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&pg=PA78&vq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+negative&dq=Polish+Lithuanian+Commonwealth+federation&sig=Oj-weSmBvRh3KbgJWgsNGfobd8AGoogle Print, p78]</ref> although the attitude has changed significantly.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} == History == {{main|History of Poland (1569–1795)}} [[Image:Herb Rzeczpospolitej za Stanisława Augusta RB1.JPG|thumb|300px|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth coat of arms. [[Ciołek coat of arms|Ciołek]] i.e. Stanislaus II August coat of arms is placed in the middle of the shield. The sculpture is situated on guardhouse in [[Poznań]].]] The creation of the Commonwealth by the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of [[Sigismund II Augustus]], last king of the [[Jagiellon dynasty]], in an effort to preserve the monarchy by adopting [[elective monarchy]]. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year [[interregnum]] during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the [[nobility]] (the ''[[szlachta]]'') and established a truly elective monarchy. The Commonwealth reached its [[Golden Age]] in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful [[parliament]] (the [[Sejm]]) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the [[Thirty Years' War]], sparing the country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against [[Sweden]], [[Muscovy|Russia]], and vassals of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and at times launched successful [[expansionism|expansionist]] offensives against its neighbors. During [[Russo-Polish War (1605-1618)|several invasions of Russia]], which was weakened in the early 17th century by the [[Time of Troubles]], Commonwealth troops managed to take [[Moscow]] and hold on to it from [[27 September]] [[1610]] to [[4 November]] [[1612]], until driven out [[Russo-Polish War (1605-1618)#The war resumes (1611)|after a siege]]. [[Image:Irp1635.png|thumb|left|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent (ca. 1635)]] Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The first blow was history's greatest [[:Category:Cossack uprisings|Cossack rebellion]] (the [[Khmelnytskyi Uprising]], supported by [[Crimean Khanate]] Tatars, in the eastern territories of ''[[Kresy]]''), which resulted in Cossacks [[Treaty of Pereyaslav|asking for the protection of the Russian Tzar]]<ref name="EB_Pereyaslav">. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky|Khmelnytsky]] asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection.{{citeencyclopedia|ency=Encyclopædia Britannica| edition=|year=2006| article=Pereyaslav Agreement| url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9059219}}[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9059219]</ref> (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine gradually supplanting the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of [[Transylvania]]n duke George II [[Rakoczy]] and [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Friedrich Wilhelm I]], [[Prince-elector|Elector]] of [[Brandenburg]]), known as [[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]], provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal [[House of Vasa]]. In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King [[John III Sobieski]]<!---please use most common English name for the king, also the army at Vienna was 75,000 strong of which only a third was the force brought by John III, hence:---> in alliance with the forces of the [[Holy Roman emperor Leopold I]] dealt crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: In 1683, the [[Battle of Vienna]] marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of [[Christianity|Christian]] Europe and the [[Islam]]ic Ottoman Empire. For its centuries-long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of ''Antemurale Christianitatis'' (forefront of Christianity).<ref name="Gella"/> Over the next 16 years (in the "[[Great Turkish War]]"), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the [[Danube River]], never to threaten [[central Europe]] again. By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. Destabilization of its political system brought it to the brink of [[anarchism|anarchy]]. Attempts at reform, such as those made by the [[Four-Year Sejm]] of 1788–92, which culminated in the [[May Constitution of Poland|May 3rd Constitution]] of 1791, came too late, and the country was [[partitions of Poland|partitioned in three stages]] by the neighboring [[Russian Empire]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]], and the [[Habsburg Monarchy]]. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918. == State organization and politics == {{seealso|Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} === Golden Liberty === {{main|Golden Liberty}} [[Image:Unia Lubelska.JPG|right|thumb|300px|''[[Union of Lublin]] of 1569'', by [[Jan Matejko]], 1869, oil on canvas, 298×512cm, National Museum, Warsaw]] The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: ''our state is a republic under the presidency of the King''. [[Kanclerz|Chancellor]] [[Jan Zamoyski]] summed up this doctrine when he said that ''Rex regnat et non gubernat'' ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a ''[[Senat]]'' and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in [[King Henry's Articles]] as well as in ''[[Pacta conventa (Poland)|pacta conventa]]'', negotiated at the time of his election. The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of [[religious tolerance]]). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of [[senator]]s. The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "[[Golden Liberty]]" ({{lang-pl|Zlota Wolność}}, a term used from 1573 on), included: * [[free election]] of the king by all nobles wishing to participate; * [[Sejm]], the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years; * ''[[Pacta conventa (Poland)|pacta conventa]]'' ([[Latin]]), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier [[King Henry's Articles]]. * ''[[rokosz]]'' ([[insurrection]]), the right of szlachta to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms; * ''[[liberum veto]]'' (Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the [[liberum veto]] in provincial [[sejmik]]s; * ''[[konfederacja]]'' (from the Latin ''[[confederatio]]''), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim. [[Image:Potega Rzeczypospolitej u zenitu Zlota wolnosc Elekcja 1573.JPG|thumb|300px|right|''The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power. [[Golden Liberty]]. The [[Free election|Royal Election]] of 1573'', by [[Jan Matejko]]]] The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]].<ref name=Pacy_and_Hughes_2001>{{cite book |last=Pacy |first=James S. |coauthors=James T. McHugh |title=Diplomats Without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War |origdate=[[2001-08-30]] |url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0313318786&id=wRbdAwtxVIAC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=Union+of+Lublin&vq=autonomy&sig=gX3YrDKVd16OrwDC8RHYcz8UyVE |format= |accessdate=2006-09-03 |edition=1st Edition |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Post Road West, Westport, Connecticut |id= ISBN 0-313-31878-6 |doi = 10.1336/0313318786 }}</ref> Each [[voivodship]] had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of [[poseł]] ([[Chamber of Deputies|deputy]]) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bardach |first=Juliusz |authorlink=Juliusz Bardach |title=O Rzeczpospolitą Obojga Narodów |year=1998 |location=Warszawa}}</ref> Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar [[political system]]s existed in the contemporary [[city-state]]s like the [[Republic of Venice]].<ref name="Olk">[[Joanna Olkiewicz]], ''Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka'' (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa</ref> (Interestingly, both states were styled the "[[Most Serene Republic]]".<ref name="Notes">[[Joseph Conrad]], ''Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters'', Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-56163-9, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521561639&id=x8oAq189BcwC&pg=PA422&lpg=PA422&dq=autonomy+Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth&sig=NamslH94ra0LUsjcr8FSOPMNmzo Google Print, p422 (notes)]</ref>) At a time when most European countries were headed toward [[centralization]], [[absolute monarchy]] and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with [[decentralization]],<ref name="Gella"/> [[confederation]] and [[federation]], democracy, [[religious tolerance]], and even [[pacifism]]. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the [[democratic peace theory]].<ref name="Frost">{{cite book|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 |first=Robert I.|last= Frost|publisher=Longman's|location= Harlow, England; New York}} 2000. Especially pp9–11, 114, 181, 323.</ref> This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the victories of the szlachta [[nobility|noble class]] over other social classes and over the [[political system]] of [[monarchy]]. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the [[Nihil novi]] Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of: * [[confederation]] and [[federation]], with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them; * [[oligarchy]],<ref name="Gella"/> as only the szlachta—around 10% of the population—had political rights; * democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including [[legislation]] (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in any other European country (needs citation); note that in 1831 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3% (needs citation); [[Image:Jan Zamoyski.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kanclerz]] and Grand [[Hetman]] [[Jan Zamoyski]] ''herbu'' [[Jelita Coat of Arms|Jelita]], in crimson [[delia (clothing)|delia]] and blue [[silk]] [[żupan]]. Holds [[hetman]]'s baton ([[buława|buława hetmańska]])]] * [[elective monarchy]], since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State; * [[constitutional monarchy]], since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal. === The political players === {{See also|list of szlachta}} The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were: * [[monarch]]s, who struggled to expand their power and create an [[absolute monarchy]]. * [[magnate]]s, the wealthiest of the szlachta, who wanted to rule the country as a privileged [[oligarchy]], and to dominate both the monarch and the poorer nobles. * [[szlachta]], who desired a strengthening of the Sejm and rule of the country as a democracy of the szlachta. The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates. === Shortcomings of the Commonwealth === [[Image:Rejtan Upadek Polski Matejko.jpg|thumb|right|300px|"[[Tadeusz Rejtan|Rejtan]] – The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282×487cm, [[Royal Castle in Warsaw]]. Tadeusz Rejtan (lower right) in September 1773 tried to prevent the legitimisation of the [[Partitions of Poland|first partition of Poland]] by preventing the members of Sejm from entering the chamber.]] Once the [[Jagiellon dynasty|Jagiellons]] had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government was disrupted. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the ''szlachta'' exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong [[dynasty]]. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able [[Transylvania]]n [[Stefan Batory]] (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish [[House of Vasa]], whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as [[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]] (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. [[Rokosz of Zebrzydowski|Zebrzydowski's rokosz]] (1606–07) marked a substantial increase in the power of the [[magnate]]s, and the transformation of ''szlachta democracy'' into ''magnate oligarchy''. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies [[bribe]]d<ref name="Bullitt">[[William Bullitt]], ''The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs'', Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-4128-0490-6, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN1412804906&id=guYU3I5f2ZgC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=bribe+Polish+parliament&sig=9dk5sNNNWL-pfBwoOCP1CCKPW6c Google Print, pp42–43]</ref><ref name="Adams">[[John Adams]], ''The Political Writings of John Adams'', Regnery Gateway, 2001, ISBN 0-89526-292-4, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0895262924&id=zwKs6Wf2NUEC&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=May+Constitution+reason+for+partitions+of+Poland&sig=MSPWv6t3GdmfHUFcblV6VLt_Vf0 Google Print, p.242]</ref> by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might. === Late reforms === [[Image:Konstytucja 3 Maja.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[May Constitution of Poland|May 3rd Constitution]]'', by [[Jan Matejko]], 1891, oil on canvas, 227×446cm. [[Royal Castle (Warsaw)|Royal Castle, Warsaw]].]] The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the [[May Constitution of Poland|May 3rd Constitution]], Europe's first<ref name="Markoff"/> codified national constitution in [[Modern Times (history)|Modern Times]], and the world's second, after the [[United States Constitution]], which had been ratified two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a [[hereditary monarchy]] and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: * abolished the [[liberum veto]] and banned the szlachta's confederations; * provided for a [[separation of powers]] among [[legislative]], [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[judicial]] branches of government; * established "[[popular sovereignty]]" and extended [[political]] [[rights]] to include not only the [[nobility]] but the [[bourgeoisie]]; * increased the rights of the [[peasantry]]; * preserved [[religious tolerance]] (but with a condemnation of [[apostasy]] from the Catholic faith). These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors which were content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to king [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]]'s and other reformers' attempts to strengthen the country.<ref name=Pacy_and_Hughes_2001/> Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the [[May 3rd Constitution]]'s political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. [[Catherine the Great]] regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence<ref name="Bourne">[[Henry Eldridge Bourne]], ''The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815'', Kessinger Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1-4179-3418-2, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN1417934182&id=dgYqPfGuNy8C&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&sig=ioOXFOCWjTK765FD8YKK0SbAmg4 Google Print p161]</ref> and declared the Polish constitution [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinical]].<ref name="Menzel">[[Wolfgang Menzel]], ''Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4'', Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2171-5, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN1419121715&id=E6YFqBUYecoC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&sig=urESknTUAHC3AjxGW_iCaBCIVD0 Google Print, p33]</ref> [[Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin]] drafted the act for the [[Confederation of Targowica]], referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas".<ref name="Madariaga">;[[Isabel de Madariaga]], ''Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great'', Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, ISBN 1-84212-511-7, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN1842125117&id=OA0yDoVBW0QC&vq=%223+May%22&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&lpg=PA432&pg=PA431&sig=dFgzUbGba8mmMMgWzYGOz8tppYw Google Print p431]</ref> Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria, also afraid of a strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion.<ref name="Menzel"/> Prussian minister [[Ewald von Hertzberg]] called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",<ref name="Buffalo">[[Carl L. Bucki]], [http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/constitution.html The Constitution of May 3, 1791], Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on [[May 3]] [[1996]], last accessed on [[20 March]] [[2006]]</ref> fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia.<ref name="Wandycz">[[Piotr Stefan Wandycz]], ''The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present'', Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 0-415-25491-4, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0415254914&id=vdS_WBHGBcYC&pg=PA130&lpg=PA130&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&sig=5GVTwb6gx1v4BlMebzrAA91tMMQ Google Print p131]</ref><ref name="Bourne"/> In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption. === Commonwealth military === [[Image:Husarz1.jpg|thumb|right|Commonwealth [[hussar]]s, by [[Józef Brandt]]]] [[Polish Army|Commonwealth armies]] were commanded by two ''Grand [[Hetman]]s'' and two ''Field Hetmans''. The armies comprised: * ''[[Wojsko kwarciane]]'': Regular units with wages paid from taxes (these units were later merged with the wojsko komputowe) * ''[[Wojsko komputowe]]'': Semi-regular units created for times of war (in 1652 these units were merged with the wojsko kwarciane into a new permanent army) * [[Pospolite ruszenie]]: Szlachta [[levée en masse]] * [[Piechota łanowa]] and [[piechota wybraniecka]]: Units based on peasant recruits * [[Registered Cossack]]s: Troops made up of [[Cossack]]s, used mainly as infantry, less often as cavalry (with [[tabor (formation)|tabor]]s) were recruited. * [[Royal guard]]: A small unit whose primary purpose was to escort the monarch and members of his family * [[Mercenary|Mercenaries]]: As with most other armies, hired to supplement regular units, such as Germans, Scots, Wallachians, Serbs, Hungarians, Bohemians, Moravians and Silesians. * [[Private army|Private armies]]: In time of peace usually small regiments (few hundred men) were paid for and equipped by [[magnate]]s or cities. However, in times of war, they were greatly augmented (to even a few thousand men) and paid by state Some units of the Commonwealth included: * [[Hussar]]s: heavy cavalry armed with [[lance]]s; their [[charge (warfare)|charges]] were extremely effective until advances in [[firearm]]s in the late 17th century substantially increased infantry firepower. Members were known as ''[[towarzysz]] [[towarzysz husarski|husarski]]'' and were supported by [[pocztowy]]'s. * [[Towarzysz pancerny|Pancerni]]: medium cavalry, armed with sabers or axes, bows, later pistols. Second important cavalry branch of the Polish army. * [[Pocztowi]]: assistants of pancerni. * [[Cossacs|Cossack cavalry]] general name for all Commonwealth units of light cavalry, even if they did not contain a single ethnic Cossack; fast and maneuverable like oriental cavalry units of Ottoman Empire vassals, but lacking the firepower of European cavalry such as the Swedish [[pistol]]-armed [[reiter]]s.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} * [[Tabor (formation)|Tabor]]: military horse-drawn [[wagon]]s, usually carrying army supplies. Their use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks, and to a smaller extent by other Commonwealth units. The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy|Commonwealth Navy]] was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth, but won the very important naval [[battle of Oliwa]], breaking Swedish sea blockade in 1627. On the [[Black Sea]], Cossacks with their small boats (czajka) were known for their plundering raids against the Ottoman Empire and its [[vassals]] (they even burned suburbs of [[Istanbul]] once or twice). == Economy == [[Image:Zboze Placi.jpg|thumb|300px|"Grain pays"...]] [[Image:Zboze Nie Placi.jpg|thumb|300px|...and "Grain doesn't pay". The two pictures illustrate that agriculture, once extremely profitable to the nobility (''szlachta'') in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, became much less so beginning in the second half of the 17th century.]] [[Image:Oboz flisakow nad Wisla.jpg|thumb|right|''Rivermen's camp at the Wisła ([[Vistula]])'', 1858, by [[Wilhelm August Stryowski]] (1834–1917), 110×138cm]] [[Image:StefanBatory.jpg|thumb|right|Commonwealth [[coin]] minted during the reign of King [[Stefan Batory]]]] [[Image:RegiaCivitatisGedanensis.jpg|thumb|right|Royal City of [[Gdańsk]] coin of 1589 ([[Sigismund III Vasa]] period)]] The [[economics|economy]] of the Commonwealth was dominated by [[feudalism|feudal]] [[agriculture]] based on [[plantation economy|exploitation of agricultural workforce]] ([[serfs]]). [[Slavery]] in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History]</ref> they were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a ''[[folwark]]'', a large [[farm]] worked by [[serf]]s to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN086091710X&id=EhtMbM1Z8BkC&dq=Union+of+Lublin&lpg=PA284&pg=PA285&sig=Iz4vVbE7WIYY8AI-_UNKwB6C7wY]. However the country's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling [[cereal|grain]] [[price]]s by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of [[second serfdom]], a phenomenon common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe. The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the [[bourgeoisie]], resulted in a fairly slow process of [[urbanization]] and thus a fairly slow development of [[industry|industries]]. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and [[city|cities]], commonly founded on [[Magdeburg rights]]. Some of the largest [[trade fair]]s in the Commonwealth were held at [[Lublin]]. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of [[voivodship]]s). Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the [[Polish Crown]] (Poland proper) and [[Prussia]] in 1560–70 was some 113,000 [[ton]]s of [[wheat]] (or 226,000 [[łaszt]] (a łaszt, or "[[last]]", being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was [[export]]ed, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in [[Western Europe]], feeding 750,000 people there{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions. Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a [[folwark]] usually signed a [[contract]] with merchants of [[Gdansk]] (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that [[seaport]] on the [[Baltic Sea]]. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the [[Vistula]], [[Pilica]], [[Western Bug]], [[San River|San]], [[Nida River|Nida]], [[Wieprz]], [[Niemen]]. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with [[river port]]s and [[granary|granaries]]. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the [[Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]], carried the grain to ports such as [[Antwerp]] and [[Amsterdam]]. Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included [[lumber]] and wood-related products such as [[tar]] and [[wiktionary:ash|ash]]. By land routes, the Commonwealth exported [[hides]], [[fur]]s, [[hemp]], [[cotton]] (mostly from [[Wielkopolska]]) and [[linen]] to the German lands of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], including cities like [[Leipzig]] and [[Nuremberg]]. Large [[herd]]s (of around 50,000 head) of [[cattle]] were driven south through [[Silesia]]. The Commonwealth imported [[spices]], [[luxury good]]s, [[clothing]], [[fish]], [[beer]] and industrial products like [[steel]] and [[tool]]s. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like [[wine]], [[fruit]], [[spice]]s and [[herring]]. Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's [[trade balance]] shifted from positive to negative. With the advent of the [[Age of Exploration]], many old [[trade route|trading routes]] such as the [[Amber Road]] lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between [[Occident]] and [[Orient]], as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, [[Isfahan rug]]s imported from [[Persia]] to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs". Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led{{Fact|date=February 2007}} to the creation of a distinct [[Polish cuisine]], owing much both to the eastern and western influence. Commonwealth [[currency]] included the [[złoty]] and the [[grosz]]. The City of [[Gdańsk]] had the privilege of minting its own coinage. == Culture == {{Further|[[Renaissance in Poland]], [[Baroque in Poland]] and [[Enlightenment in Poland]]}} [[Image:Siemenowicz rocket.png|thumb|left|75px|Multi-stage rocket, from [[Kazimierz Siemienowicz]]'s ''Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima'']] [[Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb||Alchemist Michal Sedziwoj|"The Alchemist [[Michał Sędziwój]]", oil on board by [[Jan Matejko]], 73×130cm, Museum of Arts ([[Łódź]])]] [[Image:Ossolinski Kazanowski Palace.jpg|right|thumb|[[Kazanowski Palace]] (right) and [[Brühl Palace, Warsaw|Ossoliński Palace]] (left) in Warsaw. They were both plundered and burned down by Swedes and Germans of [[Brandenburg]] in 1650s.]] [[Image:Kaunas Pazaislis Monastery.jpg|thumb|[[Pažaislis monastery|Church and Monastery of Pažaislis]], built 1674]] [[Image:Palac Branickich pn-wsch.jpg|thumb|[[Branicki Palace]], [[Białystok]], built 1726]] The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by [[philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Erasmus]]; and, during the [[Counter-Reformation]], was known for near-unparalleled [[religious tolerance]], with peacefully coexisting Catholic, [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Protestant]] and [[Muslim]] communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian [[sect]] of the [[Polish Brethren]], antecedents of [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[United States|American]] [[Unitarianism]]. With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to [[political philosophy|political philosophers]] such as [[Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski]] (1503–72), [[Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki]] (1530–1607) and [[Piotr Skarga]] (1536–1612). Later, works by [[Stanisław Staszic]] (1755–1826) and [[Hugo Kołłątaj]] (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the [[Constitution of May 3, 1791]], the first [[Modern Times (history)|modern]] codified national [[constitution]] in Europe,<ref name="Markoff"/> which enacted revolutionary [[political science|political]] principles for the first time on that continent. [[Kraków]]'s [[Jagiellonian University]] is one of the oldest universities in the world. [[Vilnius University]] and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The [[Komisja Edukacji Narodowej]], (Polish for ''Commission for National Education''), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included: * [[Martin Kromer]] (1512–89), historian and [[cartographer]], * [[Michał Sędziwój]] (1566–1636), [[alchemy|alchemist]] and chemist, * [[Kazimierz Siemienowicz]] (1600–51), military engineer, [[artillery]] specialist and a founder of [[rocketry]], * [[Johannes Hevelius]] (1611–87), [[astronomer]], founder of [[Moon|lunar]] [[topography]]. The many classics of Commonwealth [[Polish literature|literature]] include: * [[Jan Kochanowski]], (1530–84), writer, dramatist and [[Laments (Treny)|poet]]; * [[Wacław Potocki]], (1621–96), writer, poet; * [[Ignacy Krasicki]], (1735–1801), writer, poet, [[Fables and Parables|fabulist]], author of the first Polish novel; * [[Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz]], (1758–1841), writer, dramatist and poet. Many ''[[szlachta]]'' members wrote [[memoir]]s and [[diary|diaries]]. Perhaps the most famous are the ''Memoirs of Polish History'' by [[Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł]] (1595–1656) and the ''Memoirs'' of [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]] (''ca.'' 1636 – ''ca.'' 1701). [[Magnate]]s often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: [[church]]es, [[cathedral]]s, and [[palace]]s like the present-day [[Presidential Palace, Warsaw|Presidential Palace in Warsaw]] built by '''Grand Hetman''' [[Stanisław Koniecpolski]] ''herbu'' [[Pobog Coat of Arms|Pobóg]]. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of [[Zamość]], founded by [[Jan Zamoyski]] and designed by the [[Italy|Italian]] [[architect]] [[Bernardo Morando]]. === Szlachta and Sarmatism === The prevalent [[ideology]] of the szlachta became "[[Sarmatism]]", named after the [[Sarmatians]], alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's [[culture]], penetrating all aspects of its life. [[Sarmatism]] enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and [[pacifism]]; championed [[oriental]]-inspired attire ([[żupan]], [[kontusz]], [[sukmana]], [[pas kontuszowy]], [[delia (clothing)|delia]], [[szabla]]); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost [[nationalism|nationalistic]] sense of unity and of pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms. In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme [[Sarmatism]] turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.<ref name="Wasko">[[Andrzej Wasko]], Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: <space>The Dilemma of Polish Culture, [[Sarmatian Review]] XVII.2, [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/497/wasko.html online]</ref> === Demographics and religion === {{details|Historical demographics of Poland#Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795)}} [[Image:Kolumna Zygmunta.jpg|thumb|[[King Zygmunt's Column]], erected 1644 in front of [[Warsaw Castle]]]] [[Image:Wesele Kozackie.jpg|thumb|[[Cossack]]'s wedding. Painting by [[Józef Brandt]].]] The population of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was never overwhelmingly either [[Roman Catholic]] or Polish. This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and confederation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. The Commonwealth comprised primarily four nations: [[Lithuanians]], [[Poles]], [[Belarusians]] and [[Ukrainians]]; the latter two usually referred to as the [[Ruthenian]]s. Sometimes inhabitants of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] were called [[Litvins]], a Slavic term for Lithuanians, despite being of different ethnicities. Shortly after the [[Union of Lublin]], the Commonwealth population was around 7 million, with a rough breakdown of 4.5 m Poles, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.7 m Jews and 2 m Ruthenians.<ref name="Ftazee">Total and Jewish population based on Frazee; others are estimations from Pogonowski (se following reference). Charles A. Frazee, ''World History the Easy Way'', Barron's Educational Series, ISBN 0812097661, [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0812097661&id=Br-ElA3OpEMC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&ots=tguZsY7DB0&dq=demographics+Poland+Lithuania+7000000&sig=wNm4yPFP_PNvqrfFb6BKUp9hZxA Google Print, 50]</ref> In 1618, after the [[Truce of Deulino]], the Commonwealth population increased together with its territory, reaching 11.5 million people, which was composed roughly of 4.5 m Poles, 3.5 m Ukrainians, 1.5 m Belarusians, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.75 m Prussians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m Livonians. At that time nobility was 10% of the population, and [[Bourgeoisie|burghers]] were 15%.<ref name="Pogonowski"/> In the period from 1648–57, populations losses are estimated at 4 m.<ref name="Pogonowski"/> Coupled with further population and territorial losses, in 1717 the Commonwealth population had fallen to 9 m, with roughly 4.5 m Poles, 1.5 m Ukrainians, 1.2 m Belarusians, 0.8 m Lithuanians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m others.<ref name="Pogonowski">Based on [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg 1618 population map] (p115), 1618 languages map (p119), 1657–67 losses map (p128) and [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg 1717 map] (p141) from [[Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski]], ''Poland a Historical Atlas'', Hippocrene Books, 1987, ISBN 0-880-29394-2</ref> To be ''Polish'', in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of [[ethnicity]] than of religion and [[Hierarchy|rank]]; it was a designation largely reserved for the [[landed noble class]] (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of non-Polish origin who [[Religious conversion|converted to Catholicism]] in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish [[nobility|noble]] such conversion meant a final step of [[Polonization]] that followed the adoption of the Polish language and [[Polish culture|culture]].<ref name="Gordon">[[Linda Gordon]], ''Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth Century Ukraine'', SUNY Press, 1983, ISBN 0-87395-654-0, [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0873956540&id=qq0c9viLrB4C&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+religious+tolerance&sig=3v4uvh1FEUBxZm3RAlxuvOtfmPA Google Print, p.51]</ref> Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after [[Prague]]), and the more liberal and democratic [[social institutions]] had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.<ref name="Gella"/> As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge [[colonization]] efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among [[nobility|nobles]], [[Jew]]s, [[Cossack]]s (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to [[cossack]]s that facilitated violence that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and the [[Union of Brest|Greek Catholic Church]] following the [[Union of Brest]], overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism,<ref name="Britannica">"Poland, history of", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9108559], accessed [[February 10]], [[2006]] and "Ukraine", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=30063], accessed [[February 14]], [[2006]].</ref> and several [[Cossack]] [[uprising]]s. In the west and north, many cities had sizable [[German people|German]] minorities, often belonging to [[Reformed churches]]. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest [[Jewish diaspora]]s in the world. Until the [[Reformation]], the szlachta were mostly Catholic or [[Eastern Orthodox]]. However, many families quickly adopted the [[Reformed]] religion. After the [[Counter-Reformation]], when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that [[Roman Catholicism]] was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were [[Jew]]s and members of various [[Protestant]] churches){{Fact|date=June 2007}}. It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition of [[religious tolerance]], was based mostly on [[Jesuit]] [[propaganda]] and was very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the [[Thirty Years' War]] elsewhere in Europe.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} === Languages of the Commonwealth === [[Image:Zamosc.jpg|thumb|right|[[City hall]], [[Zamość]]]] * [[Polish language|Polish]] (officially recognized;<ref name="Lieven"/> dominant language, used by most of Commonwealth nobility<ref name="Barbour">Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael, ''Language and Nationalism in Europe'', Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0199250855, [http://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&pg=PA194&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&as_brr=3&ei=SZArR_qUNIPy6wKV6JiCCA&sig=HTmhBejbDqk578fZP4xFdzf7umU Google Print p.184]</ref><ref name="DahlB">Östen Dahl, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm, ''The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact'', John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, ISBN 9027230579, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CsesLE3efLwC&pg=PA45&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&as_brr=3&ei=SZArR_qUNIPy6wKV6JiCCA&sig=FOEhKdQoJB72pcLgnmYCU1jjbiA Google Print, p.45]</ref><ref name="Lieven">Anatol Lieven, ''The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence'', Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0300060785, [http://books.google.com/books?id=iz3NACNOpCAC&pg=PA48&dq=Polish+Latin+Ruthene+German+Armenian+Hebrew&as_brr=3&ei=0IQrR7LJOo7O7gL3rfiWBQ&sig=ASA_slGMGPCgz3f-2qnpzzsx-v8 Google Print, p.48]</ref><ref name="Price"> Glanville Price, ''Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe'', Blackwell Publishing, 1998, ISBN 0631220399, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CPX2xgmVe9IC&pg=PA30&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&as_brr=3&ei=QJErR8OEMJSq7ALlwKWWBQ&sig=djnVUBSLAYmg5elnR9Tyr8yexyE Google Print, p.30]</ref> and by peasantry in the Crown province;<ref name="Teich">Mikulas Teich, ''The National Question in Europe in Historical Context'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0521367131, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Hu2SnETtV3kC&pg=PA295&vq=variety+of+languages&dq=%22Golden+Liberty%22&as_brr=3&sig=aecSY6mWpqFzXjuQsZ5w09vtZvY Google Print, p.295]</ref> official language in Crown chancellery and since 1697 in Grand Duchy chancellery)<ref name="OConnor">Kevin O'Connor, ''Culture And Customs of the Baltic States'', Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0313331251, [http://books.google.com/books?id=IpR0-OrrwssC&pg=PA115&vq=Lithuanian+language+commonwealth&dq=Lithuanian+language+commonwealth&sig=FAxU-v9CFWQ8df833WOLM0qiEUY Google Print, p.115]</ref> Dominant language in the towns.<ref name="Teich"/> * [[Latin]] (off. recog.;<ref name="Lieven"/><ref name="Stone"/> commonly used in foreign relations<ref name="OConnor"/> and popular as second language among the nobility<ref name="Friedrich">Karin Friedrich et al., ''The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569-1772'', Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0521583357, [http://books.google.com/books?id=qsBco40rMPcC&pg=PA88&dq=Latin+language+szlachta&as_brr=3&ei=J44rR5_XFZXC7AK4xeGVBQ&sig=3ecP0DjPuCLnTaEdVI76Ck8xSE8 Google Print, p.88]</ref>) * [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (not off. recog.<ref name="Dahl">Östen Dahl, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm, ''The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact'', John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, ISBN 9027230579, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CsesLE3efLwC&pg=PA41&dq=Lithuanian+language+commonwealth&sig=mVaZQjGYtrpEQfvrn1fn6ZVP8u0#PPA44,M1 Google Print, p.41]</ref><ref name="Lieven"/> but used in some official documents in Grand Duchy<ref name=Zigmas>{{cite book | last = Zinkevičius | first = Z. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar | publisher = Vilnius: [[Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla]] | date = 1993 | location = | pages = p.70|quote= Official usage of Lithuanian language in the 16th century Lithuania's cities proves magistrate's decree of [[Vilnius]] city, which was sealed by [[Žygimantas Augustas]]’ in 1552...//Courts juratory were written in Lithuanian language. In fact, such [courts juratory written in Lithuanian] survived from the 17th century...| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 5-420-01085-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Ališauskas | first = V. | authorlink = | coauthors = L. Jovaiša, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila and others | title = Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai | publisher = | date = 2001 | location = Vilnius| pages = p. 500 | quote= In 1794 Government's declarations were carried out and in Lithuanian.| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 9955-445-26-2 }}</ref> and by some peasantry in Grand Duchy<ref name="Teich"/>) * [[German language|German]] (off. recog.;<ref name="Lieven"/> used in some foreign relations,<ref name="OConnor"/> in [[Royal Prussia]] and by minorities in cities<ref name="Milosz">[[Czesław Miłosz]], ''The History of Polish Literature'', University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0520044770, [http://books.google.com/books?id=11MVdBYUX5oC&pg=PA108&dq=languages+Polish-Lithuanian+German&as_brr=3&ei=cI8rR6rOD4Hc7QLG4emWBQ&sig=AhSypZxLsBVG-l0yCFDnusO6R5M Google Print, p.108]</ref><ref name="Teich"/>) * [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (off. recog.;<ref name="Lieven"/> used by the Jews; [[Yiddish]] was also used<ref name="Teich"/> but not recognized as official language<ref name="Ostrowski">Jan K. Ostrowski, ''Land of the Winged Horsemen: Art in Poland, 1572-1764'', Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 0300079184, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ucOZCQMVMNIC&pg=PA27&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Hebrew+Armenian&as_brr=3&ei=h5IrR_ntH4qA6wLWveyWBQ&sig=WEs5wRUJzc46Oy_QHC0GtfT3zXM#PPA27,M1 Google Print, p.27]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=t6h2pI7o_zQC&pg=PA42&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Armenians+Armenian+language&as_brr=3&ei=1pcrR6hjjajoAvPi6JYF&sig=3y2LkEA93wOeKmRrdZJ4OFLFV2k]</ref>) * [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] (also known as Chancery Slavonic;<ref name="OConnor"/> off. recog.;<ref name="Lieven"/> official language in Grand Duchy chancellery until 1697; used in some foreign relations<ref name="Stone">Daniel. Z Stone, ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0295980931&id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=%22official+language%22+Poland+Lithuania&sig=vUDl2wB7wuTLJuBYjxX2KuKxpNs The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795]'', p.46</ref><ref name="OConnor"/> and some peasants in Ruthenian province<ref name="Teich"/>) * [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (off. recog.<ref name="Lieven"/> used by Armenian minority<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=t6h2pI7o_zQC&pg=PA42&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Armenians+Armenian+language&as_brr=3&ei=1pcrR6hjjajoAvPi6JYF&sig=3y2LkEA93wOeKmRrdZJ4OFLFV2k]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=tb0u8ZzaiRYC&pg=PA70&dq=Armenians+in+Poland&as_brr=3&ei=HpcrR_ifF4WQ6ALCxMyWBQ&sig=N-r4BsyXUumPFqZASpF65UNpGHQ#PPA70,M1]</ref>) == Provinces and geography == {{details|Administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} {{Rzeczpospolita 1618}} The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several [[Central European|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe|East European]] countries: <br/> Poland, Ukraine, [[Moldova]] ([[Transnistria]]), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Also some small towns in [[Slovakia]], then within the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], became a part of Poland in the [[Treaty of Lubowla]]. <!-- [[Romania]] - which part of Romania? --> While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts: *the [[Crown of the Polish Kingdom]] (Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"; and *the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], colloquially "Lithuania". The Crown in turn comprised two great regions ("[[prowincja]]s"): '''Wielkopolska''' or [[Greater Poland]] and '''Małopolska''' or [[Lesser Poland]], and another titular nation of the Commonwealth was the '''Grand Duchy of Lithuania'''. The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as [[voivodship]]s (''województwa''). Each voivodship was governed by a [[Voivode|voivod]] (''wojewoda'', governor). Voivodships were further divided into ''[[starostwo|starostwa]]'', each ''starostwo'' <!--Polish language plural/singular - don't correct 'o' to 'a'-->being governed by a ''[[starosta]]''. Cities were governed by [[castellan]]s. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the ''[[ziemia]]'' subunit of administration: for details on the administrative structure of the Commonwealth, see the article on [[offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Other notable parts of the Commonwealth often referred to, without respect to region or voivodship divisions, include: * [[Lesser Poland]] ({{lang|pl|Małopolska}}), southern Poland, with its capital at [[Kraków]] (Cracow); * [[Greater Poland]] ({{lang|pl|Wielkopolska}}), west–central Poland around [[Poznań]] and the [[Warta River]] system; * [[Masovia]] ({{lang|pl|Mazowsze}}), central Poland, with its capital at [[Warszawa]] (Warsaw); * [[Samogitia]] ({{lang|pl|Żmudź}}), western Lithuania; * [[Royal Prussia]] ({{lang|pl|Prusy Królewskie}}), at the southern shore of the [[Baltic Sea]], was an [[autonomous]] area since the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)]], incorporated into the Crown in 1569 with the [[Union of Lublin|Commonwealth's formation]]; ** [[Pomerelia]] ({{lang|pl|Pomorze Gdańskie}}), [[Pomerania]] around [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), western part of Royal Prussia; * [[Ruthenia]] ({{lang|pl|Ruś}}), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining Russia; * [[Duchy of Livonia]] ({{lang|pl|Inflanty}}), a joint domain of the Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Parts lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660; * [[Duchy of Courland]] ({{lang|pl|Kurlandia}}), a northern [[fief]] of the Commonwealth. It established a [[colony]] in [[Tobago]] in 1637 and on [[St. Andrews Island]] at the [[Gambia River]] in 1651 (see [[Courland colonization]]); * ''[[Silesia]] ({{lang|pl|Śląsk}}) was not within the Commonwealth, but small parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the [[Vasa]] kings were [[duke]]s of [[Opole]] from 1645 to 1666.'' Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. [[Image:Powstanie Styczniowe symbol.PNG|thumb|left|130px|[[January Uprising]]`s coat of arms]] Thought was given at various times to the creation of a [[Duchy of Ruthenia]], particularly during the 1648 [[Cossack]] insurrection against Polish rule in Ukraine. Such a Duchy, as proposed in the 1658 [[Treaty of Hadiach]], would have been a full member of the Commonwealth, which would thereupon have become a tripartite [[Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth]] or Commonwealth of Three Nations, but due to szlachta demands, Muscovite invasion, and division among the Cossacks, the plan was never implemented. For similar reasons, plans for a [[Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth]] also were never realized, although during the [[Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618)|Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)]] the Polish Prince (later, King) [[Władysław IV Waza]] was briefly elected Tsar of Muscovy. [[Image:MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg|thumb|280px|16th century map of Europe by [[Gerardus Mercator]]]] The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the [[Peace of Jam Zapolski]] (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After the [[Truce of Deulino]] (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km² and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles). In the 16th century, the Polish [[bishop]] and [[cartographer]] [[Martin Kromer]] published a Latin [[Atlas (cartography)|atlas]], entitled [[Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo|''Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth'']], which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the country. Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of [[Gerardus Mercator]], show the Commonwealth as mostly [[plain]]s. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the [[Kresy]], was famous for its [[steppe]]s. The [[Carpathian Mountains]] formed part of the southern border, with the [[Tatra Mountains|Tatra Mountain]] chain the highest, and the [[Baltic Sea]] formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive [[forest]] cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the [[Białowieża Forest]] constitutes the last largely intact [[primeval forest]] in Europe. === Voivodeships of the Commonwealth === {{Further|[[Voivodeships of Poland#Polish voivodeships 1386–1795]] and [[Voivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]}} Note that some sources use the word [[Palatinate (disambiguation)|palatinate]] instead of [[voivodship]]. ==== Greater Poland ==== [[Image:Podział administracyjny I RP.png|thumb|300px|Map showing [[voivodeship]]s of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations]] [[Image:Irp1635.png|300px|thumb|right|Voivodeships of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations in 1635]] [[Image:Regni map.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Regni Poloniae Magnique Ducatus Lithuaniae 1720 by [[Johann Homann]]]] * [[Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship]] (województwo brzesko-kujawskie, [[Brześć Kujawski]]) * [[Gniezno Voivodeship]] (województwo gnieźnieńskie, [[Gniezno]]) from 1768 * [[Inowrocław Voivodeship]] (województwo inowrocławskie, [[Inowrocław]]) * [[Kalisz Voivodeship (1314–1793)|Kalisz Voivodeship]] (województwo kaliskie, [[Kalisz]]) * [[Łęczyca Voivodeship]] (województwo łęczyckie, [[Łęczyca]]) * [[Mazovian Voivodeship]] (województwo mazowieckie, of [[Mazowsze]], Warsaw) consisting of ** [[County of Ciechanów]] (ziemia ciechanowska, [[Ciechanów]]) ** [[County of Czersk]] (ziemia czerska, [[Czersk]]) ** [[County of Liw]] (ziemia liwska, [[Liw]]) ** [[County of Łomża]] (ziemia łomżyńska, [[Łomża]]) ** [[County of Nur]] (ziemia nurska, [[Nur]]) ** [[County of Różan]] (ziemia różańska, [[Różan]]) ** [[County of Warszawa]] (ziemia warszawska, [[Warsaw]]) ** [[County of Wisk]] (ziemia wiska, [[Wizna]]) * [[Poznań Voivodeship (14th century–1793)|Poznań Voivodeship]] (województwo poznańskie, [[Poznań]]) * [[Płock Voivodeship (1495–1793)|Płock Voivodeship]] (województwo płockie, [[Płock]]) consisting of ** [[County of Wyszogród]] (ziemia wyszogrodzka, [[Wyszogród]])<!--not 100% if part of Płock V.--> ** [[County of Zawkrzeń]] (ziemia zawkrzeńska, [[Zawkrzeń]]) * [[Podlasie Voivodeship]] (województwo podlaskie, [[Drohiczyn]])<!--Lukowski counts it as a voivodship of Wielkopolska and it makes sense when looking at the map--> consisting of: ** [[County of Bielsk]] (ziemia bielska, [[Bielsk Podlaski|Bielsk]]) ** [[Country of Drohiczyn]] (ziemia drohicka, [[Drohiczyn]]) ** [[Country of Mielnik]] (ziemia mielnicka, [[Mielnik]]) * [[Rawa Voivodeship]] (województwo rawskie, [[Rawa Mazowiecka|Rawa]]) consisting of ** [[County of Rawa]] (ziemia rawska, Rawa) ** [[County of Gostyń]] (ziemia gostyńska, [[Gostyń]]) ** [[County of Sochaczew]] (ziema sochaczewska, [[Sochaczew]]) * [[Sieradz Voivodeship (1772-1795)|Sieradz Voivodeship]] (województwo sieradzkie, [[Sieradz]]) * [[County of Dobrzyń]] (ziemia dobrzyńska, [[Dobrzyń]])<!--may be part of Inowrocław V.?--> * [[County of Michałów]] (ziemia michałkowicka, [[Michałów]])<!--may be part of C. of Dobrzyń?--> * [[County of Wieluń]] (ziemia wieluńska, [[Wieluń]])<!--may be part of Sieradz V.?--> * [[County of Wschów]] (ziema wschowska, [[Wschów]]) ==== Lesser Poland ==== * [[Bełz Voivodeship]] (województwo bełzkie, [[Bełz]]) * [[Bracław Voivodeship]] (województwo bracławskie, [[Bratslav|Bracław]]) * [[Czernichów Voivodeship]] (województwo czernichowskie, [[Czernichów]]) * [[Kijów Voivodeship]] (województwo kijowskie, [[Kijów]]) * [[Kraków Voivodeship (14th century-1795)|Kraków Voivodeship]] (województwo krakowskie, [[Kraków]]) * [[Lublin Voivodeship (1474–1795)|Lublin Voivodeship]] (województwo lubelskie, [[Lublin]]) * [[Podole Voivodeship]] (województwo podolskie, [[Kamieniec Podolski]]) * [[Ruthenian Voivodeship|Ruś Voivodeship]] (województwo ruskie, [[Lwów]]), divided into * [[Sandomierz Voivodeship]] (województwo sandomierskie, [[Sandomierz]]) * [[Wołyń Voivodeship (1569–1795)|Wołyń Voivodeship]] (województwo wołyńskie, [[Łuck]]) ** [[County of Halicz]] (ziemia halicka, [[Halicz]]) ** [[County of Lwów]] (ziemia lwowska, [[Lwów]]) ** [[Country of Przemyśl]] (ziemia przemyslka, [[Przemyśl]]) ** [[County of Sanock]] (ziemia sanocka, [[Sanok]]) * [[Duchy of Siewierz]] (księstwo Siewierskie, [[Siewierz]]) * [[County of Chełm]] (ziemia chełmska, [[Chełm]]) * [[Duchy of Oświęcim]] and [[Duchy of Zator|Zator]] ([[Oświęcim]], [[Zator]]) ==== Grand Duchy of Lithuania ==== * [[Eldership of Samogitia]] (principality of Samogitia, księstwo żmudzkie, [[Varniai]]-Medininkai) * [[Brześć Litewski Voivodeship]] (województwo brzesko-litewskie, [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]]) * [[Mścisław Voivodeship]] (województwo mścisławskie, [[Mstsislau]]) * [[Mińsk Voivodeship]] (województwo mińskie, [[Minsk]]) * [[Nowogródek Voivodeship (1507-1795)|Nowogródek Voivodeship]] (województwo nowogrodzkie, [[Navahrudak]]) * [[Połock Voivodeship]] (województwo połockie, [[Polatsk]]) * [[Smoleńsk Voivodeship]] (województwo smoleńskie, [[Smolensk|Smoleńsk]]) * [[Trakai Voivodeship]] (województwo trockie, [[Troki|Trakai]]) * [[Vilnius Voivodeship]] (województwo wileńskie, [[Wilno|Vilnius]]) * [[Witebsk Voivodeship]] (województwo witebskie, [[Vitsebsk]]) ==== Royal Prussia ==== * [[Duchy of Warmia]] (Księstwo Warmińskie, episcopal principality of Warmia, [[Lidzbark Warmiński]]) * [[Chełmno Voivodeship]] (województwo chełmińskie, [[Chełmno]]) * [[Malbork Voivodeship]] (województwo malborskie, [[Malbork]]) * [[Pomeranian Voivodeship]] (województwo pomorskie, [[Gdańsk]]) ==== Duchy of Livonia (Inflanty) ==== * [[Dorpat Voivodeship]] (województwo dorpackie, [[Dorpat]]) from 1598 to 1620s * [[Livonian Voivodeship]] (województwo inflanckie, [[Dyneburg]]) from 1620s * [[Parnawa Voivodeship]] (województwo parnawskie, [[Parnava|Parnawa]]) from 1598 to 1620s * [[Wenden Voivodeship]] (województwo wendeńskie, [[Cēsis|Wenden]]) from 1598 to 1620s == See also == {{commons|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} * [[List of szlachta]] * [[List of Polish Coats of Arms]] * [[Polish heraldry|Polish-Lithuanian heraldy]] == References == <div class="reflist4" style="height: 220px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px" > {{reflist|2}} </div> == Further reading == * [[Norman Davies]], ''[[God's Playground]]'', ISBN 0-231-05353-3 and ISBN 0-231-05351-7 (two volumes). * [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]], ''Memoirs of the Polish Baroque: The Writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, a Squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania'', ISBN 0-520-02752-3. * [[Adam Zamoyski]], ''The Polish Way: a Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture'', ISBN 0-7818-0200-8. * [[Pawel Jasienica]], ''Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów'' (Commonwealth of the Two Nations), ISBN 83-06-01093-0. * [[Zdzisław Kowalewski]], ''Rzeczpospolita nie doceniona: Kultura naukowa i polityczna Polski przedrozbiorowej'' (Commonwealth not valued: Science and political culture of the pre-partition Poland), ISBN 83-211-0312-X. * [[Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel]], ''Rzeczpospolita XVII wieku w oczach cudzoziemców'' (Commonwealth of the 17th century in the eyes of the foreigners), ISBN 83-04-04107-3. * [[Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł]], ''Pamiętnik o dziejach w Polsce'' (Memoires on the Polish history). ISBN 83-06-00092-7 * [[Jerzy Tadeusz Lukowski|Lukowski, Jerzy Tadeusz]], ''Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century, 1697–1795''. Routledge, 1991 (ISBN 0-415-03228-8).[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&q=0521559170&btnG=Search+Books&as_brr=0 Google Print] * [[Timothy Snyder|Snyder, Timothy]]. "The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999", New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-300-10586-X). * Stone, Daniel Z. ''The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (A History of East Central Europe; 4)''. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-295-98093-1). == External links == {{Polish statehood}} * [http://1632.org/1632Slush/163xPolishTitles.doc Officials in 1st Rzeczpospolita] – article discussing organization of officialdom in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, [[Microsoft Word|doc]] format * [http://users.tyenet.com/kozlich/da121.htm The Polish–Lithuanian State (1569–1795)] * [http://www.rydel.net/litvania/polish_lithuanian_union_2004.php Hypothetical estimate of Commonwealth economy today] * [http://www.istorija.net/ Lithuanian history forums. Some articles in English] * [http://viduramziu.lietuvos.net/ History of Lithuania in the Middle Ages] * {{be icon}} [http://starbel.narod.ru History of Belarus 9–18 centuries through original documents] (Original documents are in various languages, mostly [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]]) * [http://66.188.129.72:5980/History/PreModernEurope/index_poland.htm Short or Long History of Poland–Lithuania, 960–1795] * [http://raven.cc.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect1-2.htm East Central and South-Eastern Europe to 1772] * [http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-103.htm Polish Society and Government] * [http://www.wodzu.tonet.pl/republika_prokonsularna/En/163xCoTNRP.html Commonwealth of Two Nations Resource Page]: Collection of maps and links related to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth * {{pl icon}} [http://rzecz-pospolita.com/ The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Maps, history of cities in Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania] * [http://www.commonwealth.pl Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage] {{Featured article}} [[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]] [[Category:Former state unions]] [[Category:Former republics]] [[Category:History of Lithuania]] [[Category:History of Poland (1569–1795)]] [[Category:History of Ukraine]] [[Category:History of Belarus]] [[Category:Polish-Lithuanian relations]] [[Category:Amalgamated placenames]] [[Category:Former Slavic countries]] [[Category:16th century in Lithuania]] [[Category:17th century in Lithuania]] [[Category:18th century in Lithuania]] {{Link FA|bg}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[be:Рэч Паспалітая]] [[be-x-old:Рэч Паспалітая]] [[bg:Жечпосполита]] [[cs:Polsko-litevská unie]] [[da:Den polsk-litauiske realunion]] [[de:Polen-Litauen]] [[et:Rzeczpospolita]] [[es:República de las Dos Naciones]] [[eo:Respubliko de Ambaŭ Nacioj]] [[fr:République des Deux Nations]] [[id:Persemakmuran Polandia-Lituania]] [[it:Confederazione Polacco-Lituana]] [[he:האיחוד הפולני ליטאי]] [[lv:Polija-Lietuva]] [[lt:Abiejų Tautų Respublika]] [[nl:Pools-Litouwse Gemenebest]] [[ja:ポーランド・リトアニア連合]] [[no:Den polsk-litauiske realunion]] [[nn:Den polsk-litauiske realunionen]] [[pl:Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów]] [[pt:República das Duas Nações]] [[ro:Uniunea statală polono-lituaniană]] [[ru:Речь Посполита]] [[simple:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] [[sl:Republika obeh narodov]] [[fi:Puola-Liettua]] [[sv:Polsk-litauiska samväldet]] [[th:จักรภพโปแลนด์-ลิธูเอเนีย]] [[tr:Lehistan-Litvanya Birliği]] [[uk:Річ Посполита]] [[bat-smg:Žečpuospolėta]] [[zh:波蘭立陶宛聯邦]]