Political philosophy 23040 225599891 2008-07-14T14:21:57Z Sardanaphalus 427947 updating link using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{Politics}}'''Political philosophy''' is the study of fundamental questions about the [[state]], [[government]], [[politics]], [[liberty]], [[justice]], [[property]], [[rights]], [[law]] and the enforcement of a [[legal code]] by [[authority]]: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what makes a [[The purpose of government|government legitimate]], what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown&mdash;if ever. In a [[vernacular]] sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, belief or attitude, about [[politics]] that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of [[philosophy]]. Three central concerns of political philosophy have been the [[political economy]] by which [[property rights]] are defined and access to [[capital (economics)|capital]] is regulated, the demands of [[justice]] in distribution and punishment, and the rules of [[truth]] and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] that determine judgments in the law. Sometimes though, the law determines judgments, creating a Catch-22. ==History of political philosophy== {{See|History of political thought}} {{refimprove|section|date=February 2007}} ===Antiquity=== [[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Plato]] (left) and [[Aristotle]] (right), from a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.]]As an academic discipline, Western political philosophy has its origins in ancient Greek society, when city-states were experimenting with various forms of political organization including [[monarchy]], [[tyranny]], [[aristocracy]], [[oligarchy]], and [[democracy]]. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is [[Plato|Plato's]] The [[Republic (Plato)|Republic]], which was followed by [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, and the Roman statesman [[Cicero]] wrote on political philosophy. Independently, [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Mozi]] and the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] school in China, and the ''[[Manu Smriti|Laws of Manu]]'' and [[Chanakya]] in India, all sought to find means of restoring political unity and stability; in the case of the former three through the cultivation of virtue, in the last by imposition of discipline. In India, [[Chanakya]], in his ''[[Arthashastra]]'', developed a viewpoint which recalls both the Legalists and [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]. Ancient Chinese and Indian civilization resembled Greek in that there was a unified culture divided into rival states. In the case of China, philosophers found themselves obliged to confront social and political breakdown, and seek solutions to the crisis that confronted their entire civilization. The early [[Christian philosophy]] of [[Augustine of Hippo]] was by and large a rewrite of Plato in a Christian context. The main change that Christian thought brought was to moderate the [[Stoicism]] and theory of [[justice]] of the Roman world, and emphasize the role of the state in applying [[mercy]] as a [[moral example]]. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's ''[[The City of God]]'' is an influential work of this period that refuted the thesis, after the [[First Sack of Rome]], that the Christian view could be realized on [[Earth]] at all - a view many Christian Romans held. ===Medieval Islam=== The rise of [[Islam]], based on both the [[Qur'an]] and [[Muhammad]] strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. [[Early Muslim philosophy]] emphasized an inexorable link between [[science]] and [[religion]], and the process of [[ijtihad]] to find [[truth]] - in effect ''all'' philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the [[Mutazilite]] philosophers, who held a more Greek view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the [[mosque]]. By the medieval period, however, the [[Asharite]] view of Islam had in general triumphed. Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of [[Islam]], i.e. the [[Qur'an]] and the [[Sunnah]], the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), [[al-Farabi]] (Abunaser), [[Avicenna|İbn Sina]] (Avicenna), [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace), [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (Averroes), and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other [[Fiqh|jurists]] and [[Ulema|ulama]] posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the [[Kharijites|Khawarij]] in the very early years of [[Muslim history|Islamic history]] on [[Caliphate|Khilafa]] and [[Ummah]], or that of [[Shia Islam]] on the concept of [[Imamah]] are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the [[Sunni Islam|Ehl-i Sunna]] and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. The 14th century [[Arab]] scholar [[Ibn Khaldun]] is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist [[Ernest Gellner]] considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of [[government]], "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory.<ref>Ernest Gellner, ''Plough, Sword and Book'' (1988), p. 239</ref> Muslim political philosophy did not cease in the classical period. Despite the fluctuations in its original character during the medieval period, it has lasted even in the modern era. Especially with the emergence of Islamic radicalism as a political movement, political thought has revived in the Muslim world. The political ideas of Abduh, Afgani, Kutub, Mawdudi, Shariati and Khomeini has caught on an ethusiasm especially in Muslim youth in the 20th century. ===Medieval Europe=== [[Medieval]] political philosophy in [[Europe]] was heavily influenced by [[Christian]] thinking. It had much in common with the [[Islamic]] thinking in that the [[Roman Catholic]]s also subordinated philosophy to theology. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of the medieval period was St. [[Thomas Aquinas]] who helped reintroduce [[Aristotle]]'s works, which had only been preserved by the Muslims, along with the commentaries of [[Averroes]]. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda for [[scholasticism|scholastic]] political philosophy, and dominated European thought for centuries. ===European Renaissance=== During the [[Renaissance]] secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages did see secular politics in practice under the rule of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the academic field was wholly [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] and therefore Christian in nature. One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'', written between 1511-12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as ''[[Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio|The Discourses]]'', a rigorous analysis of the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]) could interpret The Prince as a satire meant to give the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Johnston|first=Ian| authorlink =| coauthors =|title=Lecture on Machiavelli's The Prince| work =|publisher=[[Malaspina University College]]|date=February 2002|url=http://www.mala.bc.ca/~Johnstoi/introser/machiavelli.htm| format =| doi =|accessdate=2007-02-20 }}</ref> Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the [[Republic of Florence]] rather than the [[oligarchy]] of the di [[Medici]] family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a [[pragmatic]] and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end, i.e. the secure and powerful state. [[Thomas Hobbes]], well known for his theory of the [[social contract]], goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the [[English Renaissance]]. ===European Age of Enlightenment=== [[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|320px|thumb|Eugene Delacroix's ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time where old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.]]During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] period, new theories about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the [[English Civil War]], the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]]) led to new questions and insights by such thinkers as [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[Montesquieu]] and [[John Locke]]. These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied, and indeed still occupy the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in [[political science]], although some political scientists, philosophers, [[history|historians]] and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states which nevertheless must be considered in political terms. Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the [[guild]] was subordinated to the theory of [[free trade]], and [[Roman Catholic]] dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by [[Protestant]] churches subordinate to each [[nation-state]], which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. In the [[Ottoman Empire]], these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the [[New World]] and the advanced civilizations of the [[Aztec]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Inca]], [[Mohican]], [[Delaware]], [[Huron]] and especially the [[Iroquois]]. The [[Iroquois]] philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the [[United States]]: for example, [[Benjamin Franklin]] was a great admirer of some of the methods of the [[Iroquois Confederacy]], and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ===Industrialization and the Modern Era=== [[Image:Karl Marx.jpg|thumb|[[Karl Marx]] and his theory of Communism developed along with [[Friedrich Engels]] proved to be one of the most influential political ideologies of the 20th century.]]The [[industrial revolution]] produced a parallel revolution in political thought. [[Urbanization]] and [[capitalism]] greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the [[History of Socialism|socialist movement]] began to form. In the mid-19th century, [[Marxism]] was developed, and [[socialism]] in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. By the late 19th century, socialism and [[trade union]]s were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of [[anarchism]] and [[syndicalism]] also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, [[anti-imperialism]] and [[pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] began gaining currency at the turn of the century. [[World War I]] was a watershed event in human history. The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought [[communism]] - and in particular the political theory of [[Leninism]], but also on a smaller level [[Luxemburgism]] (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, [[social democracy|social democratic]] parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of [[universal suffrage]]. ==Contemporary political philosophy== After [[World War II]] political philosophy moved into a temporary eclipse in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. The 1950s saw pronouncements of the 'death' of the discipline, followed by debates about that thesis. A handful of continental European emigres to Britain and the United States—including [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Leo Strauss]], [[Isaiah Berlin]], [[Eric Voegelin]] and [[Judith Shklar]]—encouraged continued study in the field, but in the 1950s and 60s they and their students remained somewhat marginal in their disciplines. [[Communism]] remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 60s. [[Zionism]], [[racism]] and [[colonialism]] were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a [[pragmatic]] approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply [[utilitarianism]] to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as [[rational choice theory]]) to political issues. The rise of [[feminism]] and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as [[African Americans]] in the developed world has led to feminist, [[postcolonial]], and [[multicultural]] thought becoming significant. In Anglo-American academic political philosophy the publication of [[John Rawls]]'s ''[[A Theory of Justice]]'' in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a [[thought experiment]], the [[original position]], in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. [[Robert Nozick]]'s book ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'' (1974) responded to Rawls from a [[libertarian]] perspective. Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Many of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the [[Frankfurt School]], thinkers like [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Theodor W. Adorno]], [[Max Horkheimer]], and [[Jürgen Habermas]] combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on [[structuralism]] and on a "return to [[Hegel]]". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Claude Lefort]], and [[Jean Baudrillard]]. The [[Situationist International|Situationists]] were more influenced by Hegel; [[Guy Debord]], in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation. Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by [[Michael Sandel]] and [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]]. The [[liberalism]]-[[communitarianism]] debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspectives. Today some debates regarding punishment and law center on the question of [[natural law]] and the degree to which human constraints on action are determined by nature, as revealed by [[science]] in particular. Other debates focus on questions of cultural and gender identity as central to politics. == Influential political philosophers== A larger [[list of political philosophers]] is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are a few of the most [[canonical]] or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought. * [[Confucius]] : The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order. * [[Chanakya]] : Founder of an independent political thought in India, laid down rules and guidelines for social, law and political order in society. * [[Mozi]] : Eponymous founder of the Mohist school, advocated a strict utilitarianism. * [[Socrates]]/[[Plato]]: Named their practice of inquiry "philosophy", and thereby stand at the head of a prominent (often called "Western") tradition of systematic intellectual analysis. Set as a partial basis to that tradition the relation between knowledge on the one hand, and a just and good society on the other. Socrates is widely considered founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato. * [[Aristotle]]: Wrote his [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]] as an extension of his [[Nicomachean Ethics]]. Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the [[polis]] (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals. His political theory is based upon an ethics of [[perfectionism (philosophy)|perfectionism]] (as is [[Marx]]'s, on some readings). * [[Mencius]] : One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled. * [[Han Feizi]] : The major figure of the Chinese Fajia ([[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]]) school, advocated government that adhered to laws and a strict method of administration. *[[Thomas Aquinas]] : In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic teaching, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason, coupled with divine virtues and human law, provides the foundation for righteous government. *[[Niccolò Machiavelli]]: First systematic analyses of: (1) how consent of a populace is negotiated between and among rulers rather than simply a naturalistic (or theological) given of the structure of society; (2) precursor to the concept of ideology in articulating the epistemological structure of commands and law. *[[Thomas Hobbes]]: Generally considered to have first articulated how the concept of a [[social contract]] that justifies the actions of rulers (even where contrary to the individual desires of governed citizens), can be reconciled with a conception of sovereignty. *[[Baruch Spinoza]]: Set forth the first analysis of "[[rational egoism]]", in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason. To Spinoza's thinking, in a society in which each individual is guided of reason, political authority would be superfluous. *[[John Locke]]: Like Hobbes, described a social contract theory based on citizens' fundamental rights in the [[state of nature]]. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property. His arguments may have been deeply influential to the formation of the [[United States Constitution]]. *[[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]]: Analyzed protection of liberty by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state. *[[David Hume]]: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that consent of the governed was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of [[utility]], later picked up on and developed by [[Jeremy Bentham]]. *[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]: Analyzed the social contract as an expression of the [[general will]], and controversially argued in favor of absolute [[democracy]] where the people at large would act as [[Sovereignty|sovereign]]. *[[Immanuel Kant]]: Argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per [[Hobbes|Thomas Hobbes]], but as a moral duty. First modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace. *[[Adam Smith]]: Often said to have founded modern [[economics]]; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g. repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds outside the economic sphere. *[[Edmund Burke]]: Irish member of the British parliament, Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's [[Reflections on the Revolution in France]] is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French revolution. Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution. *[[John Adams]]: [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] writer who defended the American cause for independence. Adams was a Lockean thinker, who was appalled by the French revolution. Adams is known for his outspoken commentary in favor of the American revolution. He defended the American form of republicanism over the French liberal democracy. Adams is considered the founder of American conservative thought. *[[Thomas Paine]]: [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] writer who defended [[liberal democracy]], the [[American Revolution]], and [[French Revolution]] in [[Common Sense]] and [[The Rights of Man]]. *[[Jeremy Bentham]]: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of aggregate individual benefits. Founded the philosophical/ethical school of thought known as [[utilitarianism]]. *[[John Stuart Mill]]: A [[utilitarian]], and the person who named the system; he goes further than Bentham by laying the foundation for liberal democratic thought in general and modern, as opposed to classical, liberalism in particular. Articulated the place of individual liberty in an otherwise utilitarian framework. *[[Thomas Hill Green]]: modern liberal thinker and early supporter of [[positive freedom]]. *[[Karl Marx]]: In large part, added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and economics. Created the concept of ''ideology'' in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions. Analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of governance and social interaction. *[[Giovanni Gentile]]: Known as the 'Philosopher of Fascism' and ghostwrote the [[Doctrine of Fascism]] with [[Mussolini]] and argued that the Fascist State is an ethical and educational state and that the individual should put the interests of the State first. *[[John Dewey]]: Co-founder of [[pragmatism]] and analyzed the essential role of education in the maintenance of democratic government. *[[Antonio Gramsci]]: Instigated the concepts ''hegemony'' and ''social formation''. Fused the ideas of Marx, Engels, Spinoza and others within the so-called ''dominant ideology thesis'' (the ruling ideas of society are the ideas of its rulers). *[[Herbert Marcuse]]: One of the principal thinkers within the [[Frankfurt School]], and generally important in efforts to fuse the thought of [[Freud]] and [[Marx]]. Introduced the concept of ''repressive desublimation'', in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire. Analyzed the role of advertising and propaganda in societal consensus. *[[Friedrich Hayek]]: He argued that central planning was impossible because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers with the existing supply of goods and materials. He further argued that attempts to create economic egalitarianism would lead to a central government with totalitarian powers. For him, the social democratic welfare state is leading us down the 'road to serfdom.' He advocated [[free-market]] capitalism in which the sole role of the state is to maintain the [[rule of law]]. *[[Hannah Arendt]]: Analyzed the roots of totalitarianism and introduced the concept of the "banality of evil" (how ordinary technocratic rationality comes to deplorable fruition). Brought distinctive elements of and revisions to the philosophy of Martin Heidegger into political thought. *[[Georg Hegel]]: Emphasized history and continuity, influenced Marx and Oakeschott. *[[Leo Strauss]]: Strauss is known for his writings on the classical and modernity philosophers and denouncement of the modern politics. *[[John Rawls]]: Revitalised the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American universities with his 1971 book [[A Theory of Justice]], which uses a version of [[social contract theory]] to answer fundamental questions about [[justice]] and to criticise [[utilitarianism]]. *[[Robert Nozick]]: Criticized Rawls, and argued for [[Libertarianism]], by appeal to a hypothetical history of the [[state]] and the real history of [[property]]. *[[Michael Oakeshott]]: Provided a conservative philosophy anchored in history and Hegelianism. *[[Philippe Van Parijs]]: Further developed the notion of positive freedom and ignited discussion on the provision of a basic universal income. Some notable contemporary political philosophers are Amy Gutmann, Seyla Benhabib, George Kateb, Wendy Brown, Stephen Macedo, Martha Nussbaum, Thomas Pogge ==References== <references/> ==See also== *[[Anarchist schools of thought]] *[[Consensus decision making]] *[[Consequentialist justifications of the state]] *[[The justification of the state]] *[[Majoritarianism]] *[[Panarchism]] *[[Progressivism]] *[[Political media]] *[[Social criticism]] ==Further reading== * [http://www.dimends.com/civilocity Future of Democracy] * The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Political.htm Political Philosophy] {{Philosophy topics}} [[Category:Political philosophy| ]] [[Category:Political theories| ]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[ar:فلسفة السياسة]] [[cs:Politická filosofie]] [[da:Politisk filosofi]] [[de:Politische Philosophie]] [[es:Filosofía política]] [[eo:Politika filozofio]] [[fr:Philosophie politique]] [[is:Stjórnspeki]] [[it:Filosofia politica]] [[mk:Политичка философија]] [[mn:Улс төрийн философи]] [[nl:Politieke filosofie]] [[ja:政治哲学]] [[no:Politisk filosofi]] [[pt:Filosofia política]] [[ro:Filozofie politică]] [[scn:Filusufìa pulìtica]] [[sl:Politična filozofija]] [[sr:Политичка филозофија]] [[fi:Poliittinen filosofia]] [[sv:Politisk filosofi]] [[ta:அரசியல் தத்துவம்]] [[th:ปรัชญาการเมือง]] [[zh:政治哲学]]