Political science
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/58.147.54.165|58.147.54.165]] ([[User talk:58.147.54.165|talk]]) to last version by Rathne
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{{For|the [[Randy Newman]] song of the same name|Political Science (song)}}
'''Political science''' is a branch of [[social science]] that deals with the theory and practice of [[politics]] and the description and analysis of [[political system]]s and political behavior. Political Science is often described as the study of who gets what, where, when and why. Discovering a proper balance between the individual, the society and its Government for civilization and human progress is paramount.
Fields and subfields of political science include [[political philosophy|political theory and philosophy]], [[civics]] and [[comparative politics]], theory of [[direct democracy]], apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, [[international relations]], [[foreign policy]], [[international law]], politics, [[public administration]], administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and [[public policy]]. Political science also studies [[power in international relations]] and the theory of [[Great powers]] and [[Superpowers]].
Political science is methodologically diverse. Approaches to the discipline include classical political philosophy, [[Interpretivism (social science)|interpretivism]], [[structural functionalism|structuralism]], and [[behavioralism]], [[Philosophical realism|realism]], pluralism, and [[institutionalism]]. Political science, as one of the [[social science]]s, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, [[sample survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]], [[case studies]], and model building.
== Overview ==
Political scientists study the allocation and transfer of power in decision-making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public policies. They measure the success of [[governance]] and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, and peace. Some political scientists seek to advance [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] theses by analyzing politics. Others advance [[normative]] theses, by making specific policy recommendations.
Political Scientists provide the frameworks that journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the [[electorate]] analyze issues. Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties or as civil servants. They may be involved with [[non-governmental organizations]] (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations. Private enterprises such as [[think tank]]s, research institutes, polling and [[public relations]] firms often employ political scientists. In the United States, political scientists known as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including [[elections]], [[public opinion]] and public policy such as Social Security reform, foreign policy, U.S. congressional power, and the [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]]—to name only a few issues.
Most [[United States|American]] [[Higher education in the United States|colleges and universities]] offer B.A. programs in political science. M.A. and Ph.D programs are common at larger universities. Some universities offer B.S or M.S. degrees.<ref>Schools offering the B.S. or M.S. in political science include: [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Illinois Institute of Technology]], [[University of Idaho]], [[Arizona State University]], [[Northern Arizona University]] and others.</ref> The term ''political science'' is more popular in [[North America]] than elsewhere; other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of ''political studies,'' ''politics,'' or ''government.'' While ''political science'' implies use of the scientific method, ''political studies'' implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content.<ref> See the example of [[New York University]] in particular. The term '''politics''' is used at:
* [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], [[Ursinus College]], [[Brandeis University]], [[Cornell College]], [[Occidental College]], [[New York University]], [[Monash University]], [[Mount Holyoke College]], [[Princeton University]], [[Hendrix College]], [[Lake Forest College]], and [[Washington and Lee University]]
The term '''government''' is used by:
* [[Smith College]], [[Colby College]], [[Dartmouth College]], [[Bowdoin College]], [[Harvard University]], [[Cornell University]], [[Georgetown University]], the [[University of Texas at Austin]], the [[College of William and Mary]], the [[University of Sydney]], the [[University of Ulster]], the [[University of Essex]], [[Victoria University of Wellington]] (which has both a School of Government and a separate Political Science and International Relations Programme) and the [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]] to describe the field.
The term '''politics and government''' is used by the [[University of Puget Sound]].</ref>
== History ==
[[Image:Santi di Tito - Niccolo Machiavelli's portrait headcrop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Niccolò Machiavelli]], one of the most influential political scientists]]
{{main|History of political science}}
=== Antecedents ===
Political science is a late arrival in terms of [[social sciences]]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as [[moral philosophy]], [[political philosophy]], [[political economy]], [[history]], and other fields concerned with [[normative]] determinations of what ought to be and with [[deduction|deducing]] the characteristics and functions of the ideal [[state]]. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
In [[History of India|ancient India]], the antecedents of politics can be traced back to the ''[[Rig-Veda]]'', ''[[Samhita]]s'', ''[[Brahmana]]s'', and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] ''[[Pali Canon]]''. [[Chanakya]] (c. 350-275 BC) was a professor of political science at [[Takshashila University]], and later the [[Prime Minister]] of [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. Chanakya is regarded as one of the earliest [[political philosophy|political thinkers]], and is also known as the Indian [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]. He wrote the ''[[Arthashastra]]'', which was one of the earliest treatises on political thought, [[economics]] and social order, and can be considered a precursor to Machiavelli's ''[[The Prince]]''. It discusses monetary and fiscal policies, welfare, international relations, and war strategies in detail, among other topics on political science.The ancient Tamil literary work Thirukural written 2000 years back has extensively dealt with political science.The topics discussed by Thirukural include the art of public administration, warfare, political diplomacy, civil society, espionage, qualifications for public office, public revenue and financial administration and local administration.
The antecedents of Western politics can also trace their roots back even earlier than [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], particularly in the works of [[Homer]], [[Hesiod]], [[Thucydides]], [[Xenophon]], and [[Euripides]]. Later, Plato analysed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to [[philosophy]]. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
During the height of the Roman Empire, famous historians such as [[Polybius]], [[Livy]] and [[Plutarch]] documented the rise of the [[Roman Republic]], and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like [[Julius Caesar]], [[Cicero]] and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, [[Christianity]], brought to light a new space for politics and political action. Works such as [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s ''[[The City of God]]'' synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. During the [[Middle Ages]], the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between [[church and state]] were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]] and Epic of Kings by [[Ferdowsi]] provided evidence of political analysis, while the [[Islamic]] [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelians]] such as [[Avicenna]] and later [[Maimonides]] and [[Averroes]], continued [[Aristotle]]'s tradition of analysis and [[empiricism]], writing commentaries on Aristotle's works.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct [[empirical]] observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the [[the Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.
=== Studies ===
Since Political Science is essentially a study of human behavior, observations in controlled environments are usually not available and impossible to reproduce or duplicate. Because of this Political Scientists seek patterns in the reasons and outcomes for political events so that generalizations and theories can be made. Again, study is still difficult since humans make conscious choices unlike other subjects in science, such as organisms, or even inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, consensus has been reached on various political topics with the help of proper study.
The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. In fact, the designation "political scientist" is typically reserved for those with a doctorate in the field. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both [[normative]] and [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The [[American Political Science Association]] was founded in 1903 and the [[American Political Science Review]] was founded in 1906 in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena.
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioural revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behaviour swept the discipline. At the same time that political science moved toward greater depth of analysis, it also moved toward a closer working relationship with other disciplines, especially [[sociology]], [[economics]], [[history]], [[anthropology]], [[psychology]], [[public administration]] and [[statistics]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Increasingly, students of political behaviour have used the scientific method to create an intellectual discipline based on the postulating of hypotheses followed by empirical verification and the inference of political trends, and of generalizations that explain individual and group political actions. Over the past generation, the discipline placed an increasing emphasis on relevance, or the use of new approaches and methodologies to solve political and social problems.
Political science has, broadly, five subfields: [[international relations]], [[political theory]], [[public policy]] and [[public administration]], [[national politics]], and [[comparative politics]]. Separate degree granting programs in international relations and public policy are not uncommon at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Master's level programs in public administration are common.
The national honour society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States is [[Pi Sigma Alpha]].
== References ==
<references/>
== Further reading ==
*''American Political Science Review'' - [http://www.apsanet.org/section_714.cfm The Evolution of Political Science]. APSR Centennial Volume - Special Issue - November 2006
*''Klingemann, Hans-Dieter (ed.): The State of Political Science in Western Europe.'' Opladen: Barbara Budrich Publishers 2007, ISBN 978-3-86649-045-3
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=kyJ5GJ7DeMQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=making+political+science+matter&sig=s_bqA18zhy02NKJwsJHJj3vHzKc Schram, Sanford F. and Brian Caterino (eds.) ''Making Political Science Matter: Debating Knowledge, Research, and Method''. New York and London: New York University Press, 2006.]
* Robert E. Goodin, Hans-Dieter Klingemann (Hrsg.): ''A New Handbook of Political Science.'' Oxford / New York u.a.: Oxford University Press 1996, ISBN 0-19-829471-9 (englisch)
* Michael Roskin, Robert L. Cord, James A. Medeiros, and Walter S. Jones, 2007, ''Political Science: An Introduction'' (New York: Prentice Hall). ISBN 0-13-24
== See also ==
{{multicol}}
; Listings
* [[List of basic political science topics|Political science topics]]
* [[List of political scientists]]
* [[List of important publications in political science]]
* [[Politics of present-day nations and states|Present nations and states]]
* [[:Category:Political science books|Political science books]]
* [[:Category:Political science terms|Political science terms]]
{{multicol-break}}
;Related topics
* [[Debate]]
* [[Diplomacy]]
* [[Freedom of speech]]
* [[Freedom of the press]]
* [[Government]]
* [[Jurisdiction]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Law]]
* [[Legal system]]
* [[Metapolitics]]
* [[Nation]]
* [[Perestroika Movement]]
* [[Politics]]
* [[Policy]]
* [[State]]
* [[War]]
{{multicol-end}}
== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Political Science}}
{{Commons|Category:Political science|Political science}}
* [http://www.iapss.org/ International Association for Political Science Students]
* [http://www.apsanet.org/ American Political Science Association]
* [http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/ European Consortium for Political Research]
* [http://www.ipsa.ca/ International Political Science Association]
* [http://www.psa.ac.uk/ Political Studies Association of the UK]
* [http://www.politicalscience.org/ PROL: Political Science Research Online (prepublished research)]
* [http://www2.truman.edu/polisci/design.htm Truman State University Political Science Research Design Handbook]
* [http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787-1825]
{{Social sciences-footer}}
[[Category:Political science|*]]
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