Pollution 24872 225528922 2008-07-14T04:18:14Z Dbiel 2452011 Added {{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}} per edit history {{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}} {{semiprotected|small=yes}} [[Image:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Air pollution from [[World War II]] production.'']] {{pollution}} :''For the 1980 Italian science fiction and horror movie, see [[Contamination (film)]]'' '''Pollution''' is the introduction of contaminants into an environment, of whatever predetermined or agreed upon proportions or [[frame of reference]]; these contaminants cause instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms therein.<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pollution Pollution - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Pollution can take the form of [[chemical]] substances, or [[energy]], such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as [[point source (pollution)|point source]] or [[nonpoint source pollution]]. Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the stability of that system. For example, water is innocuous and essential for life, and yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant: if a person were to drink an excessive quantity of water, the physical system could be so overburdened that breakdown and even death could result. Another example is the potential of excessive noise to induce imbalance in a person's mental state, resulting in malfunction and [[psychosis]]; this has been used as a weapon in warfare. ==Pollution control== Pollution control is a term used in [[environmental management]]. It means the control of [[Emission standard|emissions]] and [[effluents]] into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from consumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. In the hierarchy of controls, [[pollution prevention]] and [[waste minimization]] are more desirable than pollution control. ===Pollution control devices=== *[[Dust collector|Dust collection system]]s **[[Cyclonic separation|Cyclones]] **[[Electrostatic precipitator]]s **[[Dust collector#Types of Baghouses|Baghouses]] *[[Scrubber]]s **[[Baffle spray scrubber]] **[[Cyclonic spray scrubber]] **[[Ejector venturi scrubber]] **[[Mechanically aided scrubber]] **[[Spray tower]] **[[Wet scrubber]] *[[Sewage treatment]] and [[Wastewater treatment]] **[[API oil-water separator]]s<ref>{{cite book|author=[[American Petroleum Institute|American Petroleum Institute (API)]]|title=Management of Water Discharges: Design and Operations of Oil-Water Separators|edition=1st Edition|publisher=American Petroleum Institute|year=February 1990|id=}}</ref><ref name=Aqueous>{{cite book|author=Beychok, Milton R.|title=[[Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants]]|edition=1st Edition|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1967|id=[[Library of Congress Control Number|LCCN]] 67019834}}</ref> **[[Sedimentation (water treatment)]] **[[Dissolved air flotation]] (DAF) **[[Activated sludge|Activated sludge biotreater]]s **[[Biofilter]]s **[[Powdered activated carbon treatment]] *[[Vapor recovery|Vapor recovery systems]] ==Major forms of pollution and major polluted areas== <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Litter.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Water pollution]] --> The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them: *[[Air pollution]], the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common air pollutants include [[carbon monoxide]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s (CFCs) and [[nitrogen oxide]]s produced by [[industry]] and motor vehicles. Photochemical [[ozone]] and [[smog]] are created as nitrogen oxides and [[hydrocarbon]]s react to sunlight. {{Anchor|Water pollution}} *[[Water pollution]], by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface [[runoff]] into river drainage systems, leaching into [[groundwater]], liquid spills, [[wastewater]] discharges, [[eutrophication]] and littering. *[[Soil contamination]] occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant [[soil contaminant]]s are [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[heavy metals]], [[MTBE]]<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/mtbe/water.htm#concerns Concerns about MTBE] from [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. EPA]] website</ref>, [[herbicides]], [[pesticides]] and [[chlorinated hydrocarbons]]. *[[Radioactive contamination]], resulting from 20th century activities in [[atomic physics]], such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See [[alpha emitter]]s and [[actinides in the environment]].) *[[Noise pollution]], which encompasses [[roadway noise]], [[aircraft noise]], [[industrial noise]] as well as high-intensity [[sonar]]. *[[Light pollution]], includes light trespass, [[over-illumination]] and [[astronomical]] interference. *[[Visual pollution]], which can refer to the presence of overhead [[electric power transmission|power line]]s, motorway [[Billboard (advertising)|billboard]]s, scarred [[landform]]s (as from [[strip mining]]), open storage of trash or [[municipal solid waste]]. *[[Thermal pollution]], is a [[temperature]] change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant. The [[Blacksmith Institute]] issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in [[Azerbaijan]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Peru]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Zambia]]. ==Sources and causes== Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.<ref>[http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ems/epr2001/awareness.htm Environmental Performance Report 2001] (Transport, [[Canada]] website page)</ref><ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/atmosphere/issue/188/index.html State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality] ([[Australia]]n Government website page)</ref><ref>[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/pollution.htm Pollution and Society] Marisa Buchanan and Carl Horwitz, [[University of Michigan]]</ref> [[China]], [[United States]], [[Russia]], [[Mexico]], and [[Japan]] are the world leaders in air pollution emissions; however, [[Canada]] is the number two country, ranked per capita. Principal stationary pollution sources include [[chemical plant]]s, coal-fired [[power plants]], [[oil refinery|oil refineries]],<ref name=Aqueous/> [[petrochemical]] plants, [[nuclear waste]] disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Some of the more common [[soil]] contaminants are [[chlorinated hydrocarbon]]s (CFH), [[heavy metals]] (such as [[chromium]], [[cadmium]]--found in rechargeable [[Nickel-cadmium battery|batteries]], and [[lead]]--found in lead [[paint]], [[aviation fuel]] and still in some countries, [[gasoline]]), [[MTBE]], [[zinc]], [[arsenic]] and [[benzene]]. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called ''[[Fateful Harvest]]'' unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal [[landfill]]s are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of [[polychlorinated dibenzodioxins]], commonly called ''dioxins'' for simplicity, such as [[TCDD]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Beychok, Milton R. |year=1987 |month=January |title=A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8}}</ref> Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, [[hurricane]]s often involve water contamination from sewage, and [[petrochemical]] spills from ruptured [[boat]]s or [[automobile]]s. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal [[oil rigs]] or [[refinery|refineries]] are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as [[nuclear power]] plants or [[oil tanker]]s, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur. In the case of [[noise pollution]] the dominant source class is the [[motor vehicle]], producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide. ==Effects== ===Human health=== Adverse [[air quality]] can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can cause [[respiratory disease]], [[cardiovascular disease]], [[throat]] inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of [[drinking water]] by untreated [[sewage]] in [[developing countries]]. Oil spills can cause [[skin]] irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces [[hearing loss]], [[high blood pressure]], [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], and [[sleep disturbance]]. ===Ecosystems === * [[Sulfur dioxide]] and oxides of nitrogen can cause [[acid rain]] which reduces the [[pH]] value of soil. * Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other [[organism]]s in the [[food web]]. * [[Smog]] and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out [[photosynthesis]]. * [[Invasive species]] can out compete native species and reduce [[biodiversity]]. Invasive plants can contribute debris and biomolecules ([[allelopathy]]) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness. * [[Biomagnification]] describes a situation where toxins may be pass through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process. ==Regulation and monitoring== {{Expand-section|date=October 2007}} To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. ===Regulation and monitoring by region=== ====International==== The [[Kyoto Protocol]]<ref name=Kyoto>[http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]</ref> is an amendment to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC), an international treaty on [[global warming]]. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries which [[ratify]] this [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] commit to reduce their emissions of [[carbon dioxide]] and five other [[greenhouse gases]], or engage in [[emissions trading]] if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.<ref name=Kyoto/> A total of 141 countries have ratified the agreement. Notable exceptions include the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], who have signed but not ratified the agreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhouse gases who are also [[Developing country|developing countries]], like [[China]] and [[India]].<ref name="BushNoKyoto"> {{cite web|year=[[2001-06-11]]|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/06/print/20010611-2.html|title=President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change|format=Transcription of speech|accessdate=2006-04-09}}</ref> An [[2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference|UN environmental conference]] held in [[Bali]] 3 - 14 December 2007 with the participation from 180 countries aims to replace the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference [[USA]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Canada]] were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day-award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on the global climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries. <ref>[http://www.fossil-of-the-day.org/ Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ====China==== China's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modelled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues to deteriorate.<ref name="Ma-Ortolano">{{cite book|author=Ma, Xiaoying and Ortalano, Leonard|title=Environmental Regulation in China: institutions, enforcement and compliance|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2000|id=ISBN 0-8476-9398-8}}</ref> Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water discharges.<ref name="Sinkule">{{cite book|author=Sinkule, Barbara J. and Ortolana, Leonard|title=Implementing Environmental Policy in China|publisher=Praeger Publishers|year=1995|id=ISBN 0-275-94980-X}}</ref> This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and 10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the [[World Bank]] reluctantly censored a report revealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State Environment Protection Agency and the [[Health Ministry]] asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature deaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke "social unrest".<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/china-covers-up-pollution-deaths/2007/07/04/1183351291152.html China covers up pollution deaths]</ref> ====Europe==== {{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} {{further|[[Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals]], [[Law of the European Union]] and [[European Union regulation]]}} =====The United Kingdom===== In the 1840s, the [[United Kingdom]] brought onto the statute books legislation to control water pollution. It was extended to all rivers and coastal water by 1961. However, currently the clean up of historic contamination is controlled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IIA), as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’ found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Act came into force in England in April 2000. Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling pollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of [[Best Available Techniques]] ("BAT") to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits to the environment. The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and 2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated pollution prevention and control. ====United States==== The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) established threshold standards for air pollutants to protect human health on [[January 1]], [[1970]]. One of the ratings chemicals are given is [[carcinogen]]icity. In addition to the classification "unknown", designated levels range from non-carcinogen, to likely and known carcinogen. Some scientists have said that the concentrations which most of these levels indicate are far too high and the exposure of people should be less. In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) with the [[Air Quality Index]] (AQI) to incorporate new PM2.5 and Ozone standards. [[Image:Polluted Ditch by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|A polluted ditch along [[Interstate 25]] between [[Colorado Springs]] and [[Pueblo, Colorado]].]] The [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Clean Air Act]] in 1963 to legislate the reduction of [[smog]] and [[Air pollution|atmospheric pollution]] in general. That legislation has subsequently been amended and extended in 1966, 1970, 1977 and 1990. Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locally important gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Act and similar state legislative acts have led to the widespread use of [[atmospheric dispersion modeling]]<ref>{{cite book | author=Beychok, Milton R. | title=[[Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion]]| edition=4th Edition| publisher=author-published |year=2005 |id=ISBN 0-9644588-0-2}} [http://www.air-dispersion.com www.air-dispersion.com]</ref> in order to analyze the air quality impacts of proposed major actions. Passage of the [[Clean Water Act]] amendments of 1977 required strict permitting for any contaminant discharge to [[navigable]] waters, and also required use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges including thermal pollution. Passage of the [[Noise Control Act]] established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every source of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of [[HVAC]] equipment and major appliances. It also put local government on notice as to their responsibilities in [[land use]] planning to address [[noise mitigation]]. This [[noise regulation]] framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of [[noise health effects]]. The state of [[Proposition 65|California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment]] (OEHHA) has maintained an independent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of [[Proposition 65]] since 1986. With the 1990 [[Clean Air Act]], the [[EPA]] began a controversial [[carbon trading]] system in which tradable rights to emit a specified level of carbon are granted to polluters. The United States has a maximum fine of [[US dollar|US$25,000]] for [[dump]]ing [[toxic waste]]. ====Canada==== In Canada the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number of organizations depending on the nature of the pollution and its location. The three levels of governemnt (Federal - Canada Wide; Provincial; and Municipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution. For the Air there is the organization "Environment Canada", and for specific provincial duties, there are the respective branches of the Provincial entities that deal with areas such as potable water, Oceans, and the Natural Resources of the lands and waters. All together quite a hodgepodge of offices There are laws and regulations written for the Air, Water, and Soil, but these are subject to change at any given time depending on the Government of the Day. Currently Adding entries as they pop up with external links and references. ==History== ===Prehistory=== Humankind has some effect upon the environment since the [[Paleolithic]] era during which the ability to generate fire was acquired. In the [[Iron Age]], the use of tooling led to the practice of [[Grinding machine|metal grinding]] on a small scale and resulted in minor accumulations of discarded material probably easily dispersed without too much impact. Human wastes would have polluted rivers or water sources to some degree. However, these effects could be expected predominantly to be dwarfed by the natural world. ===Ancient cultures=== The first advanced civilizations of [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[History of India|India]], [[China]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]] increased the use of water for their manufacture of goods, increasingly forged metal and created fires of wood and peat for more elaborate purposes (for example, bathing, heating). Still, at this time the scale of higher activity did not disrupt ecosystems or greatly alter air or water quality. ===Middle Ages=== The European [[Dark Ages]] during the early [[Middle Ages]] were a great boon for the environment, in that industrial activity fell, and population levels did not grow rapidly. Toward the end of the Middle Ages populations grew and concentrated more within cities, creating pockets of readily evident contamination. In certain places air pollution levels were recognizable as health issues, and [[water pollution]] in population centers was a serious medium for [[disease]] transmission from untreated [[human waste]]. Since travel and widespread information were less common, there did not exist a more general context than that of local consequences in which to consider pollution. Foul air would have been considered a nuissance and wood, or eventually, coal burning produced [[smoke]], which in sufficient concentrations could be a health hazard in proximity to living quarters. Septic contamination or poisoning of a clean drinking water source was very easily fatal to those who depended on it, especially if such a resource was rare. [[Superstitions]] predominated and the extent of such concerns would probably have been little more than a sense of moderation and an avoidance of obvious extremes. ===Official acknowledgement=== But gradually increasing populations and the proliferation of basic industrial processes saw the emergence of a civilization that began to have a much greater collective impact on its surroundings. It was to be expected that the beginnings of environmental awareness would occur in the more developed cultures, particularly in the densest urban centers. The first medium warranting official policy measures in the emerging western world would be the most basic: the air we breathe. The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical treatises]] written between the 9th and 13th centuries, by physicians such as [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), [[Qusta ibn Luqa]] (Costa ben Luca), [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes), [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna), [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Ibn Jumay, [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution|air contamination]], [[water pollution|water contamination]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste|solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment|environmental assessments]] of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] of [[England]] banned the burning of [[coal|sea-coal]] by proclamation in [[London]] in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem.<ref name="Pea-souper">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/perspect/london.htm|title=London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"|accessdate=2006-08-02|author=David Urbinato|year=1994|month=Summer|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref><ref name="Deadly">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/now/science/smog.html|title=Deadly Smog|accessdate=2006-08-02|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2003-01-17|publisher=PBS|}}</ref> But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem there, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the [[Great Smog of 1952]]. This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the [[Great Stink]] on the [[Thames]] of 1858, which led to construction of the [[London sewerage system]] soon afterward. It was the [[industrial revolution]] that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of [[coal]] and other [[fossil fuel]]s gave rise to unprecedented [[air pollution]] and the large volume of industrial [[chemical]] discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. [[Chicago]] and [[Cincinnati]] were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of [[Los Angeles]] and [[Donora, Pennsylvania]] in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.<ref name="Donora">{{cite web|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/|title=History of the Clean Air Act|accessdate=2006-02-14|author=James R. Fleming|coauthors=Bethany R. Knorr of Colby College|publisher=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> ===Modern awareness=== [[Image:Smoke of chimneys is the breath of Soviet Russia.jpg|thumb|left|200px|right|Early Soviet poster, before the modern awareness: "The smoke of chimneys is the breath of Soviet Russia"]] Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the [[Noise Control Act]], the [[Clean Air Act]], the [[Clean Water Act]] and the [[National Environmental Policy Act]]. Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] dumping in the [[Hudson River]] resulted in a ban by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term [[dioxin]] contamination at [[Love Canal]] starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and led to the [[Superfund (environmental law)|Superfund]] legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped bring to light [[Hexavalent chromium|Chromium-6]] releases in [[California]]--the champions of whose victims became famous. The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name [[brownfield]], a term now common in [[city planning]]. [[DDT]] was banned in most of the developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's ''[[Silent Spring]]''. The development of nuclear science introduced [[radioactive contamination]], which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. [[Lake Karachay]], named by the [[Worldwatch Institute]] as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union thoroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the to the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the planet". [[Nuclear weapons]] continued to be tested in the [[Cold War]], sometimes near inhabited areas, especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human health posed by [[radioactivity]] has also been a prohibitive complication associated with [[nuclear power]]. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents such as those at [[Three Mile Island]] and [[Chernobyl]] pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy of [[nuclear testing]] before [[Test Ban Treaty|most forms were banned]] has been significantly raised levels of [[background radiation]]. International catastrophes such as the wreck of the [[Amoco Cadiz]] oil tanker off the coast of [[Brittany]] in 1978 and the [[Bhopal disaster]] in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of the atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the term [[persistent organic pollutant]] (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as [[PBDE]]s and [[PFC]]s among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use. Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to [[environmentalism]] and the [[environmental movement]], which generally seek to limit human impact on the environment. ==Philosophical recognition== Throughout history from [[Ancient Greece]] to [[Al-Andalus|Andalusia]], [[Ancient China]], central Europe during the [[Renaissance]] until today, philosophers ranging from [[Aristotle]], [[Al-Farabi]], [[Al-Ghazali]], [[Averroes]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Confucius]], [[Dante]], [[Hegel]], [[Avicenna]], [[Lao Tse]], [[Maimonedes]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Nussbaum]], [[Plato]], [[Socrates]] and [[Sun Tzu]] wrote about the pollution of the [[body]] as well as the [[mind]] and [[soul]]. ==Perspectives== The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would have been a natural function of their existence. The attendant consequences on viability and population levels fell within the sphere of [[natural selection]]. These would have included the demise of a population locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable would have resulted in a new balance brought about by changes and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that of survival. For mankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration, both as an enabler and an additional source of byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range from quality of life to health hazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of toxicity or environmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common examples of fields where practical measurement is crucial include [[automobile emissions control]], industrial exposure (eg [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) [[PEL]]s), [[toxicology]] (eg [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]]), and [[medicine]] (eg [[medication]] and [[absorbed dose|radiation]] doses). "The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful.<ref name="Island">{{cite web|url=http://www.earthisland.org/eijournal/new_articles.cfm?articleID=299&journalID=49|title=The 'Solution' to Pollution Is Still 'Dilution'|accessdate=2006-02-14|author=Gershon Cohen Ph.D.|publisher=Earth Island Institute}}</ref><ref name="What">{{cite web|url=http://www.cleanocean.org/index_general.asp?menuid=240.010|title=What is required|accessdate=2006-02-14|year=2001|publisher=Clean Ocean Foundation}}</ref> It is well-suited to some other modern, locally-scoped applications such as laboratory safety procedure and [[hazardous material]] release emergency management. But it assumes that the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting dilutions are acceptable in all cases. Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had greater merit in earlier centuries when physical survival was often the highest imperative, human population and densities were lower, technologies were simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances have enabled measurement of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of probable harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to deterministic models is impractical or unfeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impact on human beings has gained prominence. Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices throughout the world. It is the basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. The regressive cases are those where a controlled level of release is too high or, if enforceable, is neglected.<!-- Commented out this refernce because it is no longer active: <ref name="Circumvention">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdp.org.au/fed/mr/051020g.asp|title=(Article on regulation circumventions no longer available--leaving reference to original link per Wikipedia convention)|accessdate=2006-02-14|author= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Australian Christian Democratic Party}}</ref>--> Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many cases is confronted by challenging economical and technological barriers. ==Controversies== {{Unreferencedsection|date=September 2007}} Industry and concerned citizens have battled for decades over the significance of various forms of pollution. Salient parameters of these disputes are whether: * a given pollutant affects all people or simply a genetically vulnerable set. * an effect is only specific to certain species. * whether the effect is simple, or whether it causes linked secondary and tertiary effects, especially on [[biodiversity]] * an effect will only be apparent in the future and is presently negligible. * the threshold for harm is present. * the pollutant is of direct harm or is a precursor. * employment or economic prosperity will suffer if the pollutant is abated. Blooms of [[algae]] and the resultant [[eutrophication]] of lakes and coastal ocean is considered pollution when it is caused by nutrients from industrial, agricultural, or residential runoff in either [[point source (pollution)|point source]] or [[nonpoint source pollution|nonpoint source]] form (see the article on [[eutrophication]] for more information). Heavy metals such as lead and mercury have a role in geochemical cycles and they occur naturally. These metals may also be mined and, depending on their processing, may be released disruptively in large concentrations into an environment they had previously been absent from. Just as the effect of anthropogenic release of these metals into the environment may be considered 'polluting', similar environmental impacts could also occur in some areas due to either autochthonous or historically 'natural' geochemical activity. ==Greenhouse gases and global warming== {{Main|Global warming}} <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:EmissionsofCO2.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Emissions of CO<sub>2</sub> by country in 1995. Data: United Nations Environment Programme.]] --> <!-- Couldn't find a downloadable copy of the original image though I believe it was entirely in the public domain since other copies I've seen cite the DOE's EIA; the newer replacement image has fewer countries but is more chronologically extensive: --> [[Image:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png|thumb|Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country.<BR> Source: Energy Information Administration.<ref>[ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057304.pdf World Carbon Dioxide Emissions] (Table 1, Report DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, [[Energy Information Administration]])</ref><ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/09-carbon_emissions.htm Carbon dioxide emissions chart] (graph on Mongabay website page based on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)</ref>]] [[Carbon dioxide]], while vital for [[photosynthesis]], is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical [[ocean acidification|increases in the acidity of ocean waters]], and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems. ==See also== {{Portal|Environment}} {| '''[[Environmental Science]]''' ---- *[[Dutch standards| Example Standards]] *[[Environmental epidemiology]] *[[List of environment topics]] *[[List of Superfund sites in the United States]] *[[Remediation]] *[[Timeline of environmental events]] *[[Timeline of major US environmental and occupational health regulation]] |- valign=top | width=250 align=left | '''[[Air pollution]]''' ---- *[[AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors]] * [[Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases]] for links to freely available data. *[[:Category:Air dispersion modeling]] *[[Emission standard]] *[[Greenhouse gas]] | width=250 align=left | '''[[Soil contamination]]''' ---- *[[Environmental soil science]] *[[List of waste management companies]] *[[List of waste management topics]] *[[List of solid waste treatment technologies]] | width=250 align=left | '''[[Water pollution]]''' ---- *[[Cruise ship pollution]] *[[Marine debris]] *[[Marine pollution]] *[[Ship pollution]] *[[Stormwater]] *[[Wastewater]] *[[Wastewater quality indicators]] | width=250 align=left | '''Other''' ---- *[[Contamination control]] *[[Earth Day]] *[[Externality]] *[[Genetic pollution]] *[[Heat pollution]] *[[Noise health effects]] *[[Renewable energy]] *[[Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution]] *[[Tragedy of the commons]] *[[Wise Use]] |} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{commonscat|Pollution}} {{Wiktionary}} *[http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk Environment Agency (England and Wales)] *[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/index_e.htm Environmental Assessment Agency - Canada] *[http://www.epa.gov Environmental Protection Agency - USA] *[http://www.edf.org Environmental Defense Fund] *[http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/newsletters/ghindex.html Extoxnet newsletters] - environmental pollution news. Last update 1998. *[http://www.ewg.org/ Environmental Working Group] *[http://www.ieer.org/ Institute for Energy and Environmental Research] *[http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html OEHHA proposition 65 list] *[http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/pel/index.html OSHA limits for air contaminants] *[http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/ National Toxicology Program] - from USA National Institutes of Health. Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people. *[http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ Toxnet] - NIH databases and reports on toxicology. *[http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-groups/one-list.tcl?short_list_name=hs Superfund] - manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA). *[http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-groups/one-list.tcl?short_list_name=tri00ry Toxic Release Inventory] - tracks how much waste USA companies release into the water and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year. [http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp Map] *[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/index.html Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry] - Top 20 pollutants, how they affect people, what USA industries use them and what products they are found in. *[http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxTutor.html The ToxTutor from the National Library of Medicine] - An excellent resource to review human toxicology. *[http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049 Pollution Information from], [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] *[http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/ten.php World's Worst Polluted Places 2007], according to the [[Blacksmith Institute]] *[http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661020,00.html The World's Most Polluted Places] at Time.com (a division of Time Magazine) *[http://www.logtv.com/films/chelyabinsk/index.htm Chelyabinsk: The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet] Documentary Film by Slawomir Grünberg (1996) [[Category:Pollution| ]] [[Category:Air pollution]] [[Category:Water pollution]] [[Category:Noise pollution]] [[Category:Light pollution]] [[Category:Radioactive waste]] [[Category:Chemical engineering]] [[Category:Civil engineering]] [[Category:Environmental engineering]] [[Category:Environmental science]] [[af:Besoedeling]] [[ar:تلوث]] [[bg:Замърсяване]] [[ca:Contaminació]] [[cs:Znečištění]] [[cy:Llygredd]] [[da:Forurening]] [[de:Umweltverschmutzung]] [[es:Contaminación]] [[eo:Poluo]] [[fo:Dálking]] [[fr:Pollution]] [[gl:Contaminación]] [[hi:प्रदूषण]] [[hr:Kontaminacija]] [[id:Pencemaran]] [[it:Inquinamento]] [[he:זיהום הסביבה]] [[lt:Teršimas]] [[hu:Környezetszennyezés]] [[mr:प्रदूषण]] [[ms:Pencemaran]] [[nl:Milieuverontreiniging]] [[ja:公害]] [[no:Forurensning]] [[nn:Ureining]] [[pl:Zanieczyszczenie środowiska]] [[pt:Poluição]] [[ro:Poluare]] [[qu:Sallqa waqlliy]] [[ru:Загрязнение]] [[simple:Pollution]] [[sk:Znečistenie životného prostredia]] [[sl:Onesnaženje]] [[sr:Контаминација]] [[fi:Saaste]] [[sv:Miljöförstöring]] [[ta:சூழல் மாசடைதல்]] [[te:కాలుష్యం]] [[th:มลพิษ]] [[vi:Ô nhiễm môi trường]] [[uk:Забруднення]] [[wa:Mannixhance]] [[zh:污染]]