Positive psychology
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{{Psychology (sidebar)}}
'''Positive psychology''' is a recent branch of [[psychology]] that "studies the strengths and [[virtues]] that enable individuals and communities to thrive."<ref name="IPP1"/> Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent," and "to make normal life more fullfilling,"<ref name="IPP1"/> not to cure [[mental illness]].<ref name="IPP1"/> [[Martin Seligman]] is considered to be "the father of positive psychology."<ref>Goldberg, Carey. "Harvard's crowded course to happiness." The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/03/10/harvards_crowded_course_to_happiness/</ref><ref name="Seligman2002"/>
Several [[Humanistic psychology|humanistic]] psychologists—such as [[Abraham Maslow]], [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Erich Fromm]]—developed successful theories and practices that involved human happiness, despite a lack of solid empirical evidence at the time behind their work, and especially that of their successors, who chose to emphasize phenomenology and individual case histories.<ref name="Seligman2002">{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Martin E.P.|title=Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|date=2002|pages=275|isbn=0-7432-2297-0}}</ref> Recently the theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by humanistic and positive psychologists, especially in the area of self-determination theory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Patterson|first=T.G.|coauthors=Joseph, S.|date=2007|title=Person-centered personality theory: Support from self-determination theory and positive psychology|journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology|volume=47|issue=1|pages=117–139|doi=10.1177/0022167806293008}}</ref> Current [[empirical research]]ers in this sub-field include [[Martin Seligman]],<ref name="IPP1">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|date=2005|pages=1-22|chapter=1|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> [[Ed Diener]],<ref name="IPP1"/> [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]],<ref name="IPP1"/>, [[C. R. Snyder]],<ref name="IPP1"/> [[Christopher Peterson]],<ref name="IPP1"/> [[Barbara Fredrickson]],<ref name="IPP1"/> Donald Clifton, [[Albert Bandura]], Shelley Taylor, Charles S. Carver, Michael F. Scheier, [[Daniel_Gilbert_%28psychologist%29|Daniel Gilbert]], and [[Jonathan Haidt]].
==Historical roots==
'''Positive psychology''' began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when [[Martin Seligman]] chose it as the theme for his term as president of the [[American Psychological Association]].<ref name="Time">[http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/images/TimeMagazine/Time-Happiness.pdf Time Magazine's cover story in the special issue on "The Science of Happiness," 2005]</ref> Seligman pointed out how the last fifty years of psychology has been primarily dedicated to addressing mental illness rather than mental "wellness."<ref name="Seligman2002"/> He urged psycholgists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.<ref name="IPP1"/> However, people have been discussing the question of human [[happiness]] for thousands of years.
===Western thought===
[[Judaism]] promotes a [[divine command theory]] of happiness: happiness and rewards follow from following the commands of the divine.<ref name="IPP1"/>
The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. [[Socrates]] advocated [[self-knowledge]] as the path to happiness. [[Plato|Plato's]] [[allegory of the cave]] influenced western thinkers who believe that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed that happiness, or [[eudaimonia]] is constituted by rational activity in accordance with [[virtue]] over a complete life. The [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]] believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The [[Stoicism|Stoics]] believed they could remain happy by being objective and [[logos|reasonable]].<ref name="IPP1"/>
[[Christianity]] continued to follow the [[divine command theory]] of happiness, but with the addition of the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] as a divine command. In the [[Middle Ages]], Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the [[afterlife]]. The [[seven deadly sins]] are about earthly self-indulgence and narcissism. On the other hand, the [[Four Cardinal Virtues]] and [[Three Theological Virtues]] were supposed to keep one from sin.<ref name="IPP1"/>
During the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[individualism]] came to be valued. Simultaneously, [[Creativity|creative]] individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered to be artists, not just craftsmen. [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosophers such as [[John Stuart Mill]] believed that moral actions are those actions that maximize [[happiness]] for the most number of people. Thus, an [[Empiricism|empirical]] [[science]] of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral. [[Thomas Jefferson]] and other proponents of [[democracy]] believed that "[[Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness]]" are inalienable rights, and that it justifies the overthrow of the government.<ref name="IPP1"/>
The [[Romanticism|Romantics]] valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became the main motivations for people to get [[marriage|married]].<ref name="IPP1"/>
In the twentieth century, psychologists began studying happiness. [[Sigmund Freud|Freud's]] suggested that one's [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] motivations could help make one happy or unhappy. In 1998, [[Martin Seligman]] made '''positive psychology''' the theme of his term as president of the [[American Psychological Association]]. The first positive psychology summit took place the next year. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.<ref name="IPP1"/>
== Research ==
{{Expand|date=January 2007}}
=== General overview ===
Some researchers<ref name="Seligman2002"/> in this field posit that positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:
# Research into the '''Pleasant Life''' or the "life of enjoyment" examines how people optimally experience, [[Affective forecasting|forecast]], and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.).
# The study of the '''Good Life''' or the "life of engagement" investigates the beneficial affects of immersion, absorption, and [[flow (psychology)|flow]] that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, i.e. when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face.
# Inquiry into the '''Meaningful Life''' or "life of affiliation" questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (e.g. [[biophilia|nature]], social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).
<!-- "These categories appear to be neither widely disputed nor adopted by researchers across this relatively new academic field." May be true, but [[WP:OR]] and something similar would need a citation. -->
=== The undo effect ===
[[Barbara Fredrickson]] et al. hypothesize that positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], they show increased [[heart rate]], higher [[blood sugar]], [[immune suppression]], and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If individuals do not regulate these changes once the stress is past, they can lead to illness, [[coronary heart disease]], and heightened mortality. Both lab research and survey research indicate that positive emotions help people who were previously under stress relax back to their physiological baseline.<ref>[http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/undo_2000.pdf Fredrickson, B. L., Mancuso, R. A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M. M. (2000). The undoing effect of positive emotions. Motivation and Emotion. 24, 237-258.]</ref>
=== Elevation ===
After several years of researching [[disgust]], University of Virginia professor [[Jonathan Haidt]] and others studied its opposite, and the term "elevation" was coined. [[Elevation (psychology)|Elevation]] is a moral emotion and is pleasant. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good"; as an emotion it has a basis in biology, and can sometimes be characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.
===Broaden-and-build===
The [[broaden-and-build]] theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions (e.g. [[happiness]], [[Interest (emotion)|interest]], [[Anticipation (emotion)|anticipation]])<ref name="IPP2">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|date=2005|pages=23-40|chapter=2|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.
This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of [[anxiety]] leads to the specific [[fight-or-flight response]] for immediate survival.<ref name="IPP2"/>
=== Other findings ===
* “A systematic study of 22 people who won major lotteries found that they reverted to their baseline level of happiness over time, winding up no happier than 22 matched controls” (p. 48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* “Within a few years, [[Paraplegia|paraplegics]] wind up only slightly less happy on average than individuals who are not paralyzed” (p. 48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* “[83 percent] of Americans report positive life satisfaction” (p. 50<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* “In wealthier nations ... increases in wealth have negligible effects on personal happiness” (p. 54<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* “Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness.... In my opinion, the [[Correlation does not imply causation|jury is still out on what causes]] the proven fact that married people are happier than unmarried people.” (pp. 55-56<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
== Application ==
The development of the [[Character Strengths and Virtues (Book)|Character Strengths and Virtues]] (CSV) handbook represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of [[virtue]] (i.e. "core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.<ref name="CSV">{{cite book
| last = Peterson
| first = Christopher
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin]]
| title = Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification.
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| date = 2004
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 0-19-516701-5}}</ref>
The introduction of [[Character Strengths and Virtues (Book)|CSV]] suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality hints that in addition to trying to broaden the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, the leaders of the positive psychology movement are challenging [[moral relativism]] and suggesting that virtue has a biological basis.<ref name="CSV" />
The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:
# '''Wisdom and Knowledge:''' [[creativity]], [[curiosity]], open-mindedness, [[love of learning]], [[wisdom|perspective]]
# '''Courage:''' [[bravery]], persistence, [[integrity]], vitality
# '''Humanity:''' [[love]], [[kindness]], [[social intelligence]]
# '''Justice:''' [[active citizenship|citizenship]], fairness, [[leadership]]
# '''Temperance:''' [[forgiveness]] and [[mercy]], [[humility]], [[prudence]], [[self-control|self control]]
# '''Transcendence:''' [[appreciation of beauty]] and excellence, [[gratitude]], [[hope]], humor, [[spirituality]]
Practical applications of positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations correctly identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various other psychological professionals can use the new methods and techniques to build and broaden the lives of individuals who are not necessarily suffering from mental illness or disorder.
==See also==
{{wikiversity}}
* [[Affective forecasting]]
* [[Emotional intelligence]]
* [[Eudaimonia]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Positivity effect]]
* [[Psychological resilience]]
* Needs & Motives [[Henry Murray]]
* [[Theory of humor]]
==Notes==
<references />
==References==
*[[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Argyle, Michael]] (2001). ''The Psychology of Happiness''. Routledge.
*Benard, Bonnie (2004) Resiliency: What We Have Learned San Francisco, WestEd
*[[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly ]] (1990). ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience''. HarperCollins Publishers.
*[[Jonathan Haidt|Haidt, Jonathan]] (2005). ''The Happiness Hypothesis''. Basic Books.
*Haidt, J. (2003). [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.elevation-and-positive-psychology.manuscript.html Elevation and the positive psychology of morality]. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp. 275-289).
*[[Daniel Kahneman|Kahneman, Daniel]], Diener, Ed, Schwarz, Norbert (2003). ''Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology''. Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
*Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp. 275-289).
*McMahon, Darrin M. (2006). ''Happiness: A History''. Atlantic Monthly Press.
*[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin]] (1990). ''Learned Optimism: How to change your mind and your life''. Free Press.
*Snyder, C.R., and Lopez, Shane J. (2001) ''Handbook of Positive Psychology.'' Oxford University Press.
==External links==
{{external links}}
*[http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k14790&pageid=icb.page69189 Positive Psychology Lectures at Harvard] - taught by [[Tal Ben-Shahar]]
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2072079/entry/2072402 Debating Human Happiness] - a conversation between Martin Seligman, Robert Wright, and Steven Pinker
*[http://www.onpointradio.org/shows/2007/01/20070108_a_main.asp On Point] - Hour-long discussion about positive psychology and college courses that teach it
*[http://newyorkmetro.com/news/features/17573/index.html Some Dark Thoughts On Happiness] - investigating Positive Psychology's supporters and antagonists
*[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/content/articles/060227crbo_books Pursuing Happiness] - New Yorker book review (2006) that critically discusses the psychological study of happiness
*[http://people.virginia.edu/~jdh6n/publications.html Publications on elevation and other subjects within positive psychology]
*[http://www.centreforconfidence.co.uk/pp/ Centre for Confidence] Resources for positive psychology including information on Professor [[Carol Dweck|Carol Dweck's]] work on 'mindsets'
{{Psychology}}
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