Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact 158687 226046320 2008-07-16T16:16:32Z ClovisPt 2003707 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 226012067 by [[Special:Contributions/133.1.87.111|133.1.87.111]] ([[User talk:133.1.87.111|talk]]) '''Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact''' describes the alleged interactions between the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] and peoples of other continents – [[Africa]], [[Asia]], [[Europe]], or [[Oceania]] – [[pre-Columbian|before]] the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492. Many such events have been proposed at various times, based on historical accounts, archaeological finds, and cultural comparisons. ==Models of migration to the New World== {{Main|Models of migration to the New World}} A 2007 study suggests "that the initial founders of the Americas emerged from a single source ancestral population that evolved in isolation, likely in [[Beringia]].... the isolation in Beringia might have lasted up to 15,000 years. Following this isolation, the initial founders of the Americas began to rapidly populate the New World from North to South America."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1952074 | title= Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders | author= Erika Tamm | coauthors= ''et al.'' |date= 2007 September 5 |work= |publisher= [[PLoS ONE]]. 2007; v. 2(9) | doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> ===Bering Land Bridge=== In the late 1500s, the Jesuit scholar [[José de Acosta]] suggested that the peoples of the Americas arrived via a now-submerged land bridge from Asia as primitive hunters, later settling into sedentary communities and cities. In [[Notes on the State of Virginia]] (1781), [[Thomas Jefferson]] theorized that the ancestors of Native Americans crossed the Bering Strait from Asia, a viewpoint that came to prevail in the 20th century, as carbon dating and molecular genetics began to shed light on the origins of native populations. Between the 1950s and the 1980s, the [[Bering Land Bridge]] theory came to be viewed as proven beyond any doubt.<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Historical and Cultural Significance of the Bering Land Bridge | date= | publisher= | url =http://www.nps.gov/archive/bela/html/history.htm | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-03-24 | language = }}</ref> Most [[archaeologists]] came to believe that the native cultures of the Americas had been isolated from the Old World after the closing of the Bering land route, when they were still in the [[hunter-gatherer]] stage and developed without any outside influences for the next 9,000&nbsp;years until the time of Columbus. It was also believed at the time that trans-oceanic travel only became possible in the 15th century, after key advances in Old World shipbuilding and navigation. This belief is supported by the lack of substantial evidence of Old World influences on American civilizations. ===Other models of migration to the New World=== The standard single route migration model for the population of the Americas has been increasingly challenged in recent years by claimed discoveries of human artifacts dating between 15,000 and 50,000 years, a time period in which inland routes were blocked by massive ice sheets. Human remains from 9,000&nbsp;years ago such as [[Kennewick Man]] have anatomical features that differ somewhat from those of modern indigenous populations. Finds such as these raise the possibility that the Bering Land Bridge may not have been the sole route of pre-Columbian migration to the Americas. ====Pacific intercoastal migration==== A growing body of recent evidence indicates that another potentially important migration route into the Americas existed along the Pacific shoreline. This theory does not suggest potentially hazardous open ocean crossings, but instead, gradual movement close to shore, possibly in pursuit of favorable fishing areas. From coastal areas, people could have migrated inland, bypassing the vast northern ice sheet. This theory may account for the appearance of human activity well within the Americas during the time when inland migration routes were blocked by ice sheets as well as later migrations by [[Na-Dene]] and [[Eskimo-Aleut]] peoples. Unfortunately, many of the prime sites for study now lie beneath sea level on the continental shelf since [[sea level]]s were substantially lower during the [[ice age]] than they are today. ====Solutrean hypothesis==== {{main|Solutrean hypothesis}} Proponents of the [[Solutrean hypothesis]] suggest that [[Upper Paleolithic]] settlers from Europe could have crossed the Atlantic along the ice sheets during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], bringing with them tool-making methods which may have influenced the [[Clovis culture|Clovis tool complex]]. [[Paleoclimate]] models created by Professor Richard Peltier at the [[University of Toronto]] seem to indicate that at that time, the northern Atlantic Ocean froze every winter. Some researchers suggest that recent finds of spear points at [[Cactus Hill]], Virginia dating to 17,000 years ago seem to indicate a transitional style between the Solutrean tool-making style and the later Clovis technology. The presence of [[mitochondrial DNA]] [[Haplogroup X (mtDNA)|Haplogroup X]] in the Native American gene pool might lend conditional support to such a hypothesis. However, research published in March 2008 argues that X entered the Americas along with other typical [[DNA]] markers. A team of researchers reported that "by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes [it can be shown] that all Native American haplogroups, including haplogroup X, were part of a single founding population, thereby refuting multiple-migration models."<ref>http://www.ajhg.org/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297(08)00139-0# "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Kanitz, Ricardo; Eckert, Roberta; Valls, Ana C.S.; Bogo, Mauricio R.; Salzano, Francisco M.; Smith, David Glenn; Silva, Wilson A.; Zago, Marco A.; Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Andrea K.; Santos, Sidney E.B.; Petzl-Erler, Maria Luiza; Bonatto, Sandro L. American journal of human genetics(volume 82 issue 3 pp.583 - 592) </ref> ==Post-migration contact== There is a variety of evidence that shows, or purports to show, contacts between the New and Old Worlds after the initial peopling of the New World. Some of this evidence, such as that showing contacts between the Norse and the New World, is incontrovertible. Other evidence, such as that for [[Culdee monks]], is very speculative. ===Feasibility of early trans-oceanic travel=== Many people, including orthodox anthropologists, believe pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact was unlikely, and therefore the only cultural kin to Native Americans were other indigenous people. Mainstream scholarship is dubious about claims of pre-Columbian transoceanic voyaging for a reason, since apart from the Norse and perhaps the Polynesians, evidence to date has been circumstantial or nonexistent. However, historical evidence may have been destroyed by human or natural causes, while other evidence may still lie buried. Circumstantial evidence includes records of ocean voyages of comparable distance (such as in the case of the Polynesians) as well as modern attempts to retrace possible contact routes with reproductions of ancient boats. While these experiments may have fueled wide conjecture, they indicate that such voyages were technically possible. ''For more on modern efforts to reconstruct prehistoric trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic travel, see [[Thor Heyerdahl#The Boats Ra and Ra II|Thor Heyerdahl]]. ===Historical long-range travel=== [[linguistics|Linguistic]] evidence has demonstrated that [[Madagascar]], for example, was settled by [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] peoples from [[Indonesia]]. Their navigators were able to cross the [[Indian Ocean]] and large sections of the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] by the early [[1st millennium]]. Compared to the Atlantic and Pacific the Indian Ocean is a very easy one to travel on. The predictable monsoon winds allowed regular and reliable trade routes to be established. Centuries before Europeans arrived in the area [[Arab]] traders had conducted a trade that linked [[East Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[India]], and [[China]]. This trade has been well documented with written records and archeological finds such as Chinese pottery in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. ''Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration''</ref> ===Material evidence=== A team of academics headed by the [[University of York]]'s Mummy Research Group and BioArch <ref>http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/magazine/aprilmag08.pdf</ref>, while examining a Peruvian mummy at the [[Bolton Museum]], found it had been embalmed using a tree [[resin]]. Before this it was thought that Peruvian mummies were naturally preserved. The resin was found to be that of an araucarian [[Pinophyta|conifer]] related to the [[Araucaria araucana|'monkey puzzle tree']], was from a variety found only in [[Oceania]] and probably [[New Guinea]]. "Radiocarbon dating of both the resin and body by the University of Oxford's radiocarbon laboratory confirmed they were essentially contemporary, and date to around AD 1200." (From the University of York Magazine, page 9, April/May 2008) ==Trans-oceanic contact== ===Confirmed trans-oceanic contact=== ====Norse interactions in the New World==== {{main|Norse colonization of the Americas}} [[Norse]], or [[Viking]], journeys to North America are supported by both historical and archaeological evidence. A Norse presence in [[Greenland]] apparently began in the late 10th century, and lasted until the early 15th century. In 1961, archaeologists [[Helge Ingstad|Helge]] and [[Anne Stine Ingstad|Anne Ingstad]] uncovered the remains of a Norse settlement at the [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] archaeological site in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], [[Canada]]. A connection is frequently drawn between L'Anse aux Meadows and the [[Vinland]] sagas. These are written versions of older oral histories that recount the temporary settlement of an area to the west of Greenland, called Vinland, led by a Greenlandic leader, [[Leif Ericson]]. It is possible that [[Vinland]] may have been Newfoundland. Few sources describing contact between [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] and Norse settlers exist. Contact between the [[Thule people]], ancestors of the modern [[Inuit]], and Norse between the 12th or 13th centuries is known for certain. The Greenlanders called these incoming settlers "[[skraelings]]". Conflict between the Greenlanders and the "skraelings" is recorded in the ''Icelandic Annals''. The Vinland sagas, recorded hundreds of years later, describe trade and conflict with Native peoples, who were also termed skraelings, but may have been an entirely different people. Archaeological evidence for contact in Greenland is limited, but seems to indicate that the Norse did not substantially affect indigenous adaptations, technologies, or cultures. ====Polynesians==== Between 300 and 1200 [[CE]] [[Polynesia]]ns in canoes spread throughout the [[Polynesian Triangle]] going at least as far as [[Easter Island]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Hawaii]]; and perhaps on to the Americas. The ''kumara'' ([[sweet potato]]), a plant native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia when Europeans first reached the Pacific. Kumara has been radiocarbon-dated in the [[Cook Islands]] to 1000 CE, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia circa 700 CE and spread across [[Polynesia]] from there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back.<ref>VAN TILBURG, Jo Anne. 1994. Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press</ref> It is possible, however, that South Americans brought it to the Pacific or that this plant or its seed-bearing parts simply floated across the Pacific without human contact ever occurring. A 2007 study published in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' of [[chicken]] bones at [[El Arenal, Chile|El Arenal]] near the [[Arauco Peninsula]], [[Arauco Province]], [[Chile]] provides "unequivocal evidence for a pre-European introduction of chickens to South America",<ref>Storey et al., p. 10335.</ref> and strongly suggests Oceania-to-America contact. Chickens originated in southern Asia and the ''Araucana'' species of Chile was thought to have been brought by the Spaniards around 1500; however, the bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, well before the documented arrival of the Spanish. DNA sequences taken were exact matches to those of chickens from the same period in [[American Samoa]] and [[Tonga]], both over 5,000&nbsp;miles (8,000&nbsp;km) away from Chile. The genetic sequences were also similar to those found in Hawaii and Easter Island, the closest island at only 2,500&nbsp;miles (4,000&nbsp;km), and unlike any breed of European chicken.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.livescience.com/history/070604_polynesian_chicken.html | title = Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas Before Columbus | journal = Live Science |date=June 4, 2007 | accessdate = 2007-06-05 | last = Whipps | first = Heather }}</ref><ref name=lat>[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-chickens5jun05,1,4338408.story?coll=la-headlines-nation "Polynesians beat Spaniards to South America, study shows"] by Thomas H. Maugh II, ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', [[5 June]] [[2007]]</ref><ref>Storey ''et al'', [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0703993104v2 " Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile"] (abstract, full article available through subscription), ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' 10.1073/pnas.0703993104, [[7 June]] [[2007]]</ref> The chicken bone is the first solid evidence that confirmed the Polynesian trans-oceanic contact in pre-Columbus time. On the other hand, there were some earlier suggestions, such as the evidence for contacting with [[Mapuche]] and [[Chumash (tribe)|Chumash]], all of which are contentious, as shown in the subsequent section. ===Possible trans-oceanic contact=== ====Other Polynesian contacts==== Recently, linguist [[Kathryn A. Klar]] of [[UC Berkeley]] and [[archaeologist]] [[Terry L. Jones]] of [[Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]] have proposed contacts between Polynesians and the [[Chumash (tribe)|Chumash]] and [[Gabrielino]] of southern [[California]], between 500 and 700. Their chief evidence is the advanced sewn-plank canoe design, which is used throughout the Polynesian Islands, but is unknown in North America &mdash; except by those two tribes. Moreover, the Chumash word for "sewn-plank canoe," ''[[tomolo'o]]'', may have been derived from ''kumulā'au'', the Polynesian word for the [[sequoia|redwood]] logs used in that construction. Over the last 20 years, the dating and analysis of anatomical features of human remains found in Mexico and South America have led some archaeologists to propose that those regions were first populated by people who crossed the Pacific several millennia before the [[Ice Age]] migrations; according to this theory, these [[Pre-Siberian American Aborigines]] would have been either eliminated or absorbed by the Siberian immigrants. However, current archaeological evidence for human migration to and settlement of remote Oceania (i.e., the [[Pacific Ocean]] east of the [[Solomon Islands]]) is dated to no earlier than approximately 3,500 [[Before Present|BP]];<ref>Kirch, Patrick V. [http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~oal/background/background.htm ''Background to Pacific Archaeology and Prehistory''], Oceanic Archaeology Laboratory, Univ. California, Berkeley.</ref> trans-Pacific contact with the Americas coinciding with or pre-dating the Beringia migrations of at least 11,500 BP is highly problematic, except for movement along intercoastal routes. ===Fringe theories=== {{see|Davenport Tablets}} A number of scenarios of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact have been proposed without gaining acceptance in scholarship. ====Africans==== [[Image:San Lorenzo Monument 4.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Several Olmec colossal heads have features that some diffusionists link to African contact.]] {{main|Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories}} {{see also|Olmec alternative origin speculations}} {{see also|Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories}} Proposed claims for an African presence in [[Mesoamerica]] point to the [[Olmec]] culture, the presence of African crops, certain Islamic sources, and European accounts of early sightings of black people in the New World. The Olmec culture existed from roughly 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The idea that the Olmecs are related to Africans was suggested by José Melgar, who discovered the first [[Olmec#Olmec colossal heads|colossal head]] at Hueyapan (now [[Tres Zapotes]]) in 1862 and subsequently published two papers that attributed this head to a "Negro race".<ref>Stirling, p. 2, who cites Melgar, Jose (1869) "Antigüedades mexicanas, notable escultura antigua", in ''Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística'', época 2, vol. 1, pp. 292–297, Mexico, as well as Melgar, Jose (1871) "Estudio sobre la antigüedad y el origen de la Cabeza Colosal de tipo etiópico que existe en Hueyapan del cantón de los Tuxtlas" in ''Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística'', época 2, vol. 3, pp. 104–109; Mexico.</ref> Authors such as [[Ivan van Sertima]] propose that the statues depict visitors from Africa, which could have been either permanent settlers or temporary explorers.<ref>Loewen, James W. ''[[Lies My Teacher Told Me|Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your History Textbook Got Wrong]]''. ISBN 1-56584-100-X.</ref> Some observers believe that the stone imagery carved on Olmec and [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] [[Stele|stelae]] depicts interactions between Africans and Native Americans. Others point out [[epicanthal fold]]s and the resemblance between the statues and Asians. The presence of one African native plant species, the [[bottle gourd]], in [[Mesoamerica]] has been cited as possible evidence of trans-oceanic contact. The bottle gourd could have also come to the Americas by floating, or possibly as a seed in the droppings of a bird. Islamic sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a Mali fleet in 1311.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm | title= "Africa's 'greatest explorer'" | author= Joan Baxter | date= 13 December, 2000 | publisher= ''[[BBC News]]'' |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> According to these sources, 400 [[Mali Empire]] ships discovered a land across the ocean to the West after being swept off course by ocean currents. Only one ship returned, and the captain reported the discovery of a western current to Prince [[Abubakari II]]; the off-course Mali fleet of 400 ships is said to have conducted both trade and warfare with the peoples of the "western lands." Prince Abubakari II then abdicated his throne and set off to explore these western lands. In 1324, the Mali king [[Mansa Musa]] is said to have told the Islamic historian, [[Al-Umari]] that "his predecessors had launched two expeditions from West Africa to discover the limits of the Atlantic Ocean." According to van Sertima, [[Christopher Columbus]] was told by natives of Hispaniola that black-skinned visitors had preceded the Europeans. Van Sertima further claims that Columbus acquired metal spearheads left behind by these black strangers and sent them to Spain, where they were found to be of a similar composition to metals forged in Guinea, West Africa. However, alloys of gold, silver, and copper had been made in South America for at least 1400 years before the arrival of Columbus. [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] quotes Columbus thus: "the Indians brought handkerchiefs of cotton, very symmetrically woven and worked in colors like those brought from Guinea, from the rivers of Sierra Leone and of no difference."{{Fact|date=November 2005|date=November 2007}} Author P. V. Ramos points out in his essay "African Presence in Early America" that [[Christopher Columbus]]’ own impression of the Carib peoples was that they were "Mohammedans" (it should be noted that early European explorers often described [[New World]] peoples in terms of familiar [[Old World]] cultures and religions). In 1498, during [[Christopher Columbus]]' third voyage to the Indies, Columbus writes in his diary: "canoes had been found which start from the coast of Guinea and navigate to the west with merchandise."{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Las Casas later wrote that "certain principal inhabitants of the island of Santiago came to see them and they say that to the southwest of the Island of Huego, which is one of the Cape Verdes distance 12 leagues from this, may be seen an island, and that the King Don Juan was greatly inclined to send to make discoveries to the southwest, and that canoes had been found which start from the coast of Guinea and navigate to the west with merchandise."{{Fact|date=November 2007}} [[Fernando Colón]], the son of Christopher, wrote about dark-skinned people near Punta de Caxinas (today, Punta de Castilla) seen in Honduras: "But those of the east, as far as [[Cabo Gracias a Dios|Cape Gracias a Dios]], are almost black...".<ref>{{citation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rf20CovOhkkC&pg=PA369 |title=Apuntamientos sobre Centro-américa |first=Ephraim George |last=Squier |publisher=G. Gratiot |date=1856 |pages=369 |accessdate=2007-12-13 }}</ref> Links are claimed to have existed between the West African [[Mandinka people]] of the Mali empire and the Mandinga of Panama. In 1513, explorer [[Vasco Nunez de Balboa|Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] crossed [[Panama]]. Chronicler [[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]] reports on his encounter with the Tule, a tribe related to the [[Kuna (people)|Kuna]] of present-day Panama and [[Colombia]]. The Tule tell Balboa of their war against the Mandinga ("dark men") nation, whom Balboa reportedly sighted.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/panama.html | title= The African Presence in Panama--From the Canal to Colon City | author= Runoko Rashidi | date= July 19, 2004 |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> [[Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg|Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg]] also described the Mandinga as having "black skin" and the Tule as having "red skin". {{Fact|date=February 2008}} The [[Dominican friar]] Gregorio Garcia, author of early speculative works on Native Americans, reported on "black-skinned people" sighted in present-day Colombia near where Cartagena now lies. Spanish historian [[Francisco Lopez de Gomara|López de Gomara]] described certain peoples as identical to Africans seen in Guinea.<ref>[[Ivan van Sertima]], They Came before Columbus, p. 23–24.</ref> Although an associate of Hernan Cortes, López de Gomara never traveled to the Americas, and his account of Cortes' exploits was criticized as a hagiography full of error and exaggeration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06632a.htm |title=Francisco Lopez de Gómara |publisher=New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia |accessdate=2007-12-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=326691191169548 | title= review of Cristian A. Roa-de-la-Carrera. ''Histories of Infamy: Francisco Lopez de Gomara and the Ethics of Spanish Imperialism'' | author= Paul Lokken | date= July, 2007 |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref><ref>Prescott and His Sources: A Critical Appraisal James D. Cockcroft The Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol.&nbsp;48, No.&nbsp;1 (Feb.,&nbsp;1968), pp.&nbsp;59–74.</ref> Early descriptions of Native Americans rarely referred to them as red. For instance, "a 1702 history of New Sweden, which did not describe Indians as red but as differing "in their colour; in some places being black, and in others, brown or yellow," and "the earliest European explorers of the Southeast, the Spanish, and described Indians as "brown of skin".<ref>How Indians Got to be Red, Nancy Shoemaker, The American Historical Review, Vol.&nbsp;102, No.&nbsp;3. (Jun.,&nbsp;1997), pp.&nbsp;625–644.</ref> This is both a possible explanation of 'blacks' seen by early European explorers and settlers and casts doubt about comments on 'red skin' referring to Native Americans. Some accounts are unclear as to when or how the reported Africans or Blacks may have arrived in the New World. Author Michael Coe reports that Father Alonzo Ponce spoke of a boatload of "[[Moors]]" who landed near present-day [[Campeche]], [[Mexico]] and terrorized the natives. The French naturalist [[A. de Quatrefages|Armand de Quatrefages]], author of "The Human Species", writes of distinct Black tribes among Native Americans like the [[Yamasee]] of Florida, the [[Charrúa]] of southern [[South America]], and a people in [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|St. Vincent]]. The latter may refer to the [[Garifuna]], a people descended from [[Carib|Carib Indians]] and escaped [[Africans|African]] slaves, who came to the New World well after Columbus. The [[Melungeon]]s, whose presence was first noted by European explorers in [[Appalachia]] in the mid-1600s, have been conjectured to be partial descendants of post-1492 Mediterranean and/or North African peoples in [[North America]].<ref>Kolhoff, Michael (2001). [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2001_summer_fall/fugative.html "Fugitive Communities in Colonial America"]. ''The Early America Review'', III&nbsp;(4). </ref> ====Andalusians, Arabs, and Moors==== {{main|Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories}} Several medieval [[Arabic language|Arabic]] sources can be taken to suggest that [[Muslim]] explorers from the [[Al-Andalus]] ([[Islam]]ic [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], comprising modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] and [[Maghreb|Northwest Africa]]) may have travelled on expeditions across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Americas]] between the 9th and 14th centuries. The earliest of these may have been the navigator [[Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad]], from [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], who in 889, is claimed to have sailed from Delba ([[Palos]]), crossed the Atlantic, and returned with fabulous treasures.<ref>Tabish Khair (2006). ''Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing'', p. 12. Signal Books. ISBN 1904955118.</ref><ref name=Mroueh>Dr. Youssef Mroueh (2003). [http://www.mediamonitors.net/youssefmroueh1.html Pre-Columbian Muslims in the Americas]. Media Monitors Network.</ref><ref> [[Ali al-Masudi]] (940). ''Muruj Adh-Dhahab'' (''The Book of Golden Meadows''), Vol. 1, p. 138.</ref> Another navigator, [[Ibn Farrukh]], from [[Granada]], is alleged to have sailed across the Atlantic in February 999, landed in Gando ([[Canary islands]]) where he visited the [[Guanches|Guanche]] King Guanariga, and continued westward where he saw and named two islands, Capraria and Pluitana. He arrived back in the Al-Andalus in May 999.<ref name=Mroueh/><ref>;Abu Bakr Ibn Umar Al-Gutiyya.</ref> ====Australian aboriginals==== The [[Fuegians|Fuegian]] peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]] at the extreme tip of South America appear to be physically, culturally and linguistically distinct from other Native Americans and some proponents of this theory suggest that they may be mixed descendants of both relative newcomers from Asia, American Aborigines and indigenous Australians.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/430944.stm First Americans were Australian]</ref> Both [[Tehuelche]]s and [[Selk'nam]]s practiced body-painting rituals similar to those of [[Indigenous Australian]]s. Unlike most other Amerindian peoples, they appeared to be taller than most Europeans (See: [[Patagon|Patagon myth]]). ====Chinese==== {{see also|1421 hypothesis}} A group of Chinese Buddhist missionaries led by [[Hui Shen]] prior to 500 C.E. claimed to have visited a location called [[Fusang]], which some think may have been part of the Americas,<ref>Handbook of Texas Online. [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/PP/uzp2.html PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATION.] Retrieved on [[2008-06-21]].</ref> although it is more likely a reference to eastern Japan.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} According to some Chinese reports, [[peanut]]s, a plant native to South America, were found at a 4000 year old archaeological site during the early 1970s.<ref> Chang, Kwang-Chih, ''The Archaeology of Ancient China'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968 </ref> This claim was disputed early,<ref>Harlan, J.R., et al. 1973. “On the Quality of Evidence and Dispersal of cultivated Plants” ''Current Anthropology'' 14: 51-62</ref> and later editions of Chang no longer make the peanut claim.<ref> Chang, Kwang-Chih ''The Archaeology of Ancient China'', 4th rev ed New Haven: Yale University Press ISBN 978-0300037845, 1986</ref> Others claim that [[maize]] was cultivated in China well before 1492, even though the wild grass from which maize was domesticated, [[teosinte]], is indigenous only to Mexico and adjacent parts of Central America, and numerous intermediate forms of the domesticated maize cobs form a continuum in the archaeological record in Mexico over thousands of years. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Others see stylistic similarities between the decorative motifs of ancient China and those of the ancient Maya, and the great value that both placed on [[jade]].<ref name="GM">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered the World]]'' (Transworld Publishers, 2003).</ref> Stylistic similarities are also claimed to exist between [[Shang Dynasty]] bronzes and [[Totem pole]] carvings of the Pacific Northwest coast of North America.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/art/tch_brnz.htm | title= The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People's Republic of China |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> Records of the early Ming dynasty discuss a Brazilian delegation paying tribute to China in 1507 after a five year journey.<ref name="GM2">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1434: The Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance.]]'' (HarperCollins, 2008).</ref> Historical dogma states the return of the first voyage of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] to Brazil returned in 1501.<ref>Richard Cavendish. [http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/events/cabral-discovers-brazil-ht.asp Cabral Discovers Brazil.] Retrieved on [[2008-06-22]].</ref> This event implies either a previous visit by an earlier Chinese delegation, or the relation of significant information concerning China from Europe. The British author [[Gavin Menzies]] popularized in his book ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered The World]]'' the controversial hypothesis that the fleet of [[Zheng He]] arrived in America in 1421.<ref name="GM">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered the World]]'' (Transworld Publishers, 2003).</ref> Menzies' "[[1421 hypothesis]]" has been found to be unconvincing by professional historians.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} The hypothesis has led to proposals of other Chinese-American contacts, e.g. by off-course [[Ming Dynasty]] ships.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Also, the possibility of Muslim trips from Asia (see [[Sung Document]]) has been discussed. ====Culdee monks==== It is known that [[Culdee]] monks were persecuted by the [[Vikings]] in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries. The Culdee originated in [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]]; however, there is an oral tradition, subsequently recorded in the [[Sagas]], of a pre-[[Norsemen|Norse]] presence in [[Iceland]]. There is speculation of a migration of Culdee refugees to [[Greenland]], then to [[Labrador]] and [[Nova Scotia]] to flee the Vikings. The evidence given to support this theory is the existence in the [[Maine]] and [[New Hampshire]] areas of approximately 275 beehive stone huts. These stone structures are seen by some as similar to those found in Ireland and Scotland, where they were built in the Early [[Middle Ages]] or earlier. The structures are unlike prehistoric buildings found in North America, and do not fit any of the known living use patterns of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]],<ref>Olsen, 2003.</ref>{{Fact|date=April 2008}} although some may fall into the category of [[ceremonial stone landscapes]] as described by United South and Eastern Tribes, Inc. in their recent resolution on that topic.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.usetinc.org/defaultpage.cfm?ID=6 | title= History of USET |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}}</ref> However, professional archaeologists consider these stone structures to have been built in the colonial era. There are claims that [[Ogham]] writing has been found carved into stones in the Virginias,<ref>Sisson, David (September 1984). [http://web.archive.org/web/20050321123920/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1189/is_v256/ai_3410276 "Did the Irish discover America?"]. ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''. Retrieved July 23, 2006.</ref> but grave doubts about these claims have been raised<ref>{{Citation | last =Oppenheimer | first =Monroe | author-link = | last2 =Wirtz | first2 =Willard | author2-link = | title =A Linguistic Analysis of Some West Virginia Petroglyphs | journal =The West Virginia Archeologist | volume =41 | issue =1 | pages = | date =Spring 1989 | year = | url =http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/wirtz.html | doi = | accessdate=2007-08-08 | id = }}</ref> and none of these finds have ever been confirmed by credible linguists, [[Epigraph (archeology)|epigraphers]], or [[archaeologist]]s. ====Japanese==== Pottery associated with the unique [[Valdivia culture]] of coastal Ecuador dated to 3000–1500 BCE was said by Smithsonian archaeologist [[Betty Meggers]] to exhibit similarities to pottery produced during the [[Jomon period]] in Japan. However chronological and other problems have led most archaeologists to dismiss this.<ref> Valdivia, Jomon Fishermen, and the Nature of the North Pacific: Some Nautical Problems with Meggers, Evans, and Estrada's (1965) Transoceanic Contact Thesis Gordon F. McEwan, D. Bruce Dickson American Antiquity, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jul., 1978), pp. 362–371.</ref><ref>Prehistory of the Americas By Stuart J. Fiedel pp 188–189.</ref> The suggestion has been made that the resemblances (which are not complete) are simply due to the limited number of designs possible when incising clay. Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the [[Zuni]] people of [[New Mexico]] exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the Japanese. The [[Zuni language]] is a [[language isolate|linguistic isolate]], and the culture appears to differ from that of the surrounding natives due to blood type, endemic [[disease]] and religion. Davis speculates that [[Buddhist]] priests or restless peasants from Japan may have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century and influenced Zuni society. ====15th century Europe==== The presence of [[Basque people|Basque]] cod fishermen and [[whaling|whalers]] in [[North America]], just a few years after Columbus, has also been cited. Several Basque whaling stations existed in [[Red Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador]] from 1550 to 1600.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/basque.html |title=Basque whalers in Labrador in 1530 |publisher=Newfoundlnd and Labrador Heritage |last=O'Leary| first=Jaime |date=1997 | accessdate=2007-08-08}} </ref> Others have conjectured that Columbus was able to convince the [[Catholic Monarchs]] of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Aragon]] to support his planned voyage only because they were aware of some earlier voyage. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited Canada or Greenland before 1492, because according to Bartholomew Las Casas he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island he called [[Thule]] in 1477. Whether he actually did this and what island he visited, if any, is uncertain. Gavin Menzies also claims there were reports of Croatian vessels sinking offshore the Carolinas in 1449 and that several Croatian vessels in 1470 were reported to reach Roanoke Island. The Croatian caravel ''Atlante'' reached land across the Atlantic Ocean in 1484. It is also claimed by Croatian archives that Croatians joined the Algonkian tribes and lent their name to Croatoan Island. <ref name="GM2">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1434: The Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance.]]'' (HarperCollins, 2008).</ref> German captains [[Dietrich Pining]] and [[Hans Pothorst]] are said to have landed on the coast of Labrador in 1473 at the head of a joint Danish-German-Portuguese expedition, possibly with a semi-mythical [[John Scolvus]] as navigator. Pining made two voyages to Greenland. The second one returned in 1478 via Iceland to Scandinavia where Pining was appointed governor for the [[Danish King]] [[Christian I of Denmark|Christian I]], by then [[King of Norway]] as well as Denmark. For three years Pining was the Danish King's governor in Iceland.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Iceland.htm | title= Iceland |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= World Statesmen.org |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> In 1480 he and his co-captain Pothurst who had been sailing with Pining on both voyages to Greenland, resumed their pirate activities south of the Greenlandic waters. It seems as if Pining was what one could call a Crown-pirate since he later signed documents as a member of the King's Council.<ref> Diplomatarium Norvegicum bind 2 nr 955 from 1489.</ref> During one of the voyages [[João Vaz Corte-Real]] the elder and one of his sons participated as navigators on one of the ships. The documents on this topic can be read in the controversial "Larsen Soren, the Pining voyage, The Discovery of North America Twenty Years Before Columbus, 1925".<ref>Larsen Soren, the Pining voyage, The Discovery of North America Twenty Years Before Columbus, 1925".</ref> According to Soren 1476/77 during the voyage in Greenlandic waters, Pothorst, Pining and Corte-Real allegedly were driven southward by the wind and had to stay the winter on the American mainland. Scandinavian and Portuguese scholars tend to accept Soren's work, German scholars doubt that an expedition reached Labrador but accept that one might have gone as far as Greenland, according to a symposium at the German Historical Institute in 2003 on "The German Discovery Of America: A Review Of The Controversy Over Didrik Pining’s Voyage Of Exploration In 1473 In The North Atlantic".<ref>Ghi Bulletin No. 33 (Fall 2003).</ref> Brazil started showing up on European maps as early 1447.<ref name="GM2">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1434: The Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance.]]'' (HarperCollins, 2008).</ref> There are records of expeditions from [[Bristol]] to find the "isle of [[Brazil (mythical island)|Brazil]]" in 1480 and 1481<ref>Seaver, K.A.(1995) ''The Frozen Echo'' Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 3161 6 p.221</ref>. It appears that the expeditions were to build on earlier knowledge of fishing grounds in the north west Atlantic, which could have included reaching land. The knowledge would have been commercially sensitive, and may have been kept secret for that reason. Trade between Bristol and [[Iceland]] is well documented from the mid 15th century. Christopher Columbus is thought to have visited Bristol in 1476. Bristol was also the port from which [[John Cabot]] sailed in 1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early 1498 the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship knows".<ref>Seaver (1995) p.222</ref> Douglas Owsley from the [[Smithsonian Institution]] says that he examined what are alleged to be the skeletal remains of Portuguese fisherman who reached Canada before Columbus reached the West Indies.<ref name="NBU">Benedict, Jeff. ''No Bone Unturned: The Adventures of a Top Smithsonian Forensic Scientist and the Legal Battle for America's Oldest Skeletons.'' New York: HarperCollins (2003) at 250.</ref> In 1472, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[João Vaz Corte-Real]] was granted the title "discoverer of [[the Land of the Codfish]]". It is conjectured that he visited [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. There were at least two and possibly three Portuguese expeditions which colonized the [[Azores]] in the years 1432 to 1453.<ref name="ALLEN">"From Cabot to Cartier: The Early Exploration of Eastern North America, 1497-1543"], by John L. Allen. ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' (1992)at 504, 509 ff. Accessed via [[JSTOR]] August 8, 2007.</ref> There are records which indicate the Portuguese knew of Australia's existence between 1450 and 1516, well before current history suggests the first European contact occurred. The same is true of Brazil, as [[John II of Portugal|King John II]] of Portugal authorized a voyage to determine whether or not Brazil was inhabited.<ref name="GM2">[[Gavin Menzies|Menzies, Gavin]]. ''[[1434: The Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance.]]'' (HarperCollins, 2008).</ref> In the first half of the 16th century, the [[Tupinambá]] people in the [[Rio de Janeiro]] region cut their hair in a monk-like fashion. According to [[Hans Staden]], a sixteenth-century German sailor who was their prisoner for several years, they attributed the style to a European monk who had visited them some time before the official Portuguese discovery of Brazil in 1500. Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Old Worlders had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]] records several in his ''General y natural historia de las Indias'' of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. He discusses the then current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept off its course while on its way to [[England]], and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The ship's pilot, a man from somewhere in the [[Iberian peninsula]] (Oviedo says different versions have him as [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque]], or [[Andalusia]]n), and very few others finally made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in several versions, but Oviedo disregarded it as myth.<ref> Columbus, Christopher; Cohen, J. M. (translator) (May 5, 1992). ''The Four Voyages'', pp. 27–37. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044217-0.</ref> ====Egyptians and Mesopotamians==== The apparent similarity between the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] and the temples of some New World civilizations &mdash; such as the [[Mayas]], [[Aztecs]], and [[Incas]] &mdash; has fueled speculations that either the Egyptians had traveled to the Americas, or that the civilizations on both sides of the ocean had sprung from a common source (such as the mythical lost continent of [[Atlantis]]). Sometimes the comparison was made between the [[pyramid]]s of the New World and the [[ziggurat]]s of [[Mesopotamia]] to imply contact with the [[Sumerians]] or other people of the region. However, the typical American pyramid was built as a platform for a [[temple]], and was periodically enlarged with new layers; the design apparently evolved from an artificial earth mound, which was later covered with plaster and stone. In contrast, the Egyptian pyramid was just a tomb for one [[pharaoh]] and his immediate family, with no temple proper; it was never enlarged after its completion; and its design evolved from smaller stone tomb structures. Old Kingdom Egyptian pyramids such as the [[great pyramid of giza|great pyramid]] of [[Cheops|Cheops/Khufu]] were built using precisely hewn [[limestone]] or [[granite]] blocks whereas [[mesoamerican]] pyramid-temples had a [[brick]] structure and outer appearance, but used a much less sophisticated "rubble-fill" construction for the mass of the building, in order to facilitate the enlargenings. Many other cultures which engaged in monumental building projects used pyramidical forms, and while this may be seen to imply common inspiration, logic suggests that it is arguably the simplest, easiest and most natural form for such a building to take; it is quite possible that their development was entirely separate. Other claims of contacts with Egypt were based on reports that some chemical tests run on Egyptian [[mummy|mummies]] had found traces of plant products native to the Americas, such as [[tobacco]] and [[coca]], which some have proposed were brought to them by [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] merchants. However, these results may have resulted from modern contamination or some other experimental error in the absence of verification by other scientists. [[Image:Tecaxic calixtlahuaca head.jpg|thumb|300px|The Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head.]] ====Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans==== {{Main|Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head}} Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of [[Classical Antiquity]] &mdash; chiefly the [[Roman Empire]], but sometimes also with [[Greece]], [[Carthage]] and other [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] cities, and other cultures of the age &mdash; have been based on isolated alleged archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World. The disputed [[Bat Creek Inscription]] is one example. In 1933, in the [[Toluca Valley]], 72 kilometres southwest of [[Mexico City]], a small [[terracotta]] head, showing a beard and European-like features, was found in a burial offering under three intact floors of a [[Spanish conquest of Mexico|pre-colonial]] building dated between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist [[Robert von Heine-Geldern]], both of whom stated that that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculpture of the 2nd century. In 1999, the head was dated by [[thermoluminescence]] to 870 BCE–1270 CE.<ref>Hristov and Genovés (2001).</ref> While it is often dismissed as a deliberately planted hoax, perhaps intended as a joke,<ref>See Michael E. Smith for doubts on the find.</ref> if genuine and if not placed there after 1492 the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New Worlds.<ref> Hristov and Genovés (1999).</ref> In 1963, what appeared to be [[Roman currency|Roman coins]] were discovered in [[New Albany, Indiana]], across from [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/coins/fallsoh.htm | title= Roman Coins from the Falls of the Ohio | author= J. Huston McCulloch | date= 6/12/04 |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> All but two of the coins have vanished; the remaining ones appear to depict [[Roman Emperor]]s [[Claudius Gothicus]] and [[Maximinus]]. More recently, what appear to be Roman coins from the same period have been found on the other side of the [[Ohio River]]. The coins were found buried in what might have been a disintegrated leather pouch. There is no evidence that these were buried/lost before 1492. In 1982, Brazilian newspapers reported that fragments of [[amphorae]] had been recovered by treasure hunter and underwater archaeologist [[Robert F. Marx]], from the bottom of [[Guanabara Bay]], in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. [[Elizabeth Lyding Will]] of the University of Massachusetts identified the finds as being Roman, manufactured at [[Kouass]] (Dehar Jedid) in Morocco, and dated them to the 3rd century. A bottom survey by [[Harold E. Edgerton]], an MIT researcher, located what Marx thought to be remains of two disintegrating ships.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} This potential find aggravated Brazilian and Spanish government officials as Spain was in the process of planning the 500th anniversary celebration of Columbus' arrival in the New World. These claims were also disputed when [[Amerigo Santarelli|Américo (Amerigo) Santarelli]], an Italian diver living in Rio de Janeiro, revealed in a book that he had 18 such amphors made by a local potter, and had placed 16 of them himself at various places in the bay. He said that he intended to recover the encrusted amphors later, to decorate his house at [[Angra dos Reis]]. It should be noted, however, that Marx claimed that the Brazilian government prevented any additional research and that the Brazilian Navy dumped sand over the site in the bay to ensure that no further artifacts would ever be recovered. The Navy denied this. Robert Marx, incidentally, was prohibited from working in Brazil due to his insistence on trying to locate the alleged Roman wrecks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9402E2DA1139F936A15755C0A963948260&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/S/Salvage |title=Underwater Exploring is Banned in Brazil |first=Marlise |last=Simons |publisher=The New York Times |date=June 25, 1985}}</ref> Claims of contact have often been based on occurrences of similar motifs in art and decoration, or on depictions in one World of species or objects that are thought to be characteristic of the other World. Famous examples include a Maya statuette depicting a bearded man rowing, a cross in [[bas-relief]] at the [[Temple of the Cross]] in [[Palenque]], or a [[pineapple]] in a [[mosaic]] on the wall of a house at [[Pompeii]]. Nevertheless, most of these finds can be explained as the result of mis-interpretation. The Palenque "cross", for instance, is almost certainly a stylized [[maize]] plant; and the Pompeii "pineapple" is more likely to be a pine [[conifer cone|cone]]. Some contact claimants note that the [[Nahuatl language|Aztec]] word for "god", ''teotl'', is similar to Greek ''theos'' and [[Latin]] ''deus''. Linguists generally ascribe such similar words to coincidence and identify them as [[false cognate]]s, a common linguistic fallacy. The established presence of Romans and probably Phoenicians in the [[Canary Islands]] has led some researchers to suggest that the islands may have been used as a stepping-off point for such journeys, as the islands lie along the same favorable sea route undertaken by Columbus on his first voyages to the Americas. ====Israelites==== Claims have been made that [[King Solomon]] may have sent expeditions to America in search of gold and other resources based on references to [[Ophir]], a land of gold mines, and [[Tarshish]], a land famous for mineral wealth. It is unclear which lands either of these might have been, and some theorize that one of them or both might have been in America.<ref> [http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=169 Incas and Jews], By Gustavo Perednik, WZO website, accessed 2/11/08. </ref><ref> [http://www.aefosc.org/newsite/index.php?con=expeditions_grandophir_about About the Origins of the Grand Ophir Expedition], Andean Explorers Foundation, accessed 2/11/08. </ref><ref> [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Blogs/Message.aspx/2384 Did King Solomon’s Navy Discover America?], INN website, accessed 2/11./08. </ref> The dubious [[Bat Creek inscription]] has also led some researchers to suggest the possibility that [[Jew]]ish seafarers may have come to America after fleeing the [[Roman Empire]] at the time of the [[Jewish Revolt]]. This would be during an era many centuries later than the era of King Solomon.<ref>Biblical Archaeology Review, July-August, 1993.</ref> ====Indians==== An image in a temple in [[South India|southern]] [[India]] is said to depict a goddess holding maize, a crop native to the Americas; the image is more usually taken to be of a native grass like [[sorghum]] or [[pearl millet]], which bears some resemblance to maize or that it represents an imaginary fruit bearing pearls known in Sanskrit as "Muktaphala".<ref> Payak, M.M., and Sachan, J.K.S. 1993 "Maize Ears Not Sculpted in 13th Century Somnathpur Temple in India." Economic botany. APR 01 1993, vol. 47 no. 2, P. 202- </ref> There is also a purported reference to [[Mayan civilization]] in the [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epic]] ''[[Mahabharata]]''. 'Mayudu' (a king known for his architectural skills) is asked by the Pandavas to build a palace for them. 'Mayadu' and his culture are said to resemble the Maya Civilization, also known for palaces and other buildings built with relatively advanced architecture. Some perceive a similarity in Mayan carvings and designs to those of early Hindu temples, including depictions of the postures of lions.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ====In Mormonism==== The ''[[Book of Mormon]]'' mentions three groups that travelled from the Old World to the New. The first left from the [[Tower of Babel]] and eventually sailed to the Americas (see [[Jaredites]]); the second and third groups consisted of [[Ancient Israel|Israelite]]s that migrated from the [[Middle East]] to ancient America around 600 BCE (see [[Lehites]] and [[Mulekites]]). Others have speculated that one of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes of Israel]] may have ended up in America. According to Mormon archaeologists, some evidence exists for Book of Mormon accounts of trans-oceanic migration, such as [[Izapa Stela 5]].<ref>{{cite journal|title= Archaeology and the Book of Mormon|first=William|last=Hamblin|author=William J. Hamblim|work=Archaeology and the Book of Mormon|volume=5|issue=1 |pages=250–272| url= http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?id=126&table=review}}</ref> However, the majority of archaeologists are doubtful.<ref>For example, Julia Guernsey Kappelman, author of a definitive work on Izapan culture, finds that early Mormon research "belies an obvious religious agenda that ignored Izapa Stela 5's heritage" (p. 53).</ref> ====Welsh==== According to legend, [[Madoc]] was a prince from [[Wales]] who explored the [[Americas]] as early as 1170. Whether or not this is true (and most scholars believe it is not), the legend was used as justification for British control of the Americas since a Briton arrived before other European nations (such as Spain).<ref>Williams, Gwyn A (1979): Madoc: The Making of a Myth. London : Eyre Methuen</ref> A memorial tablet has been erected at Fort Morgan, Mobile Bay which reads: "In memory of Prince Madog, a Welsh explorer, who landed on the shores of Mobile Bay in 1170 and left behind, with the Indians, the Welsh language." ==New Worlders contacting the outside world== ===Caecilius Metellus=== [[Pomponius Mela]] writes,<ref name="Pomponius">Pomponius Mela. ''De situ orbis libri III'', chapter 5.</ref> and is copied by [[Pliny the Elder]],<ref>In Pliny's ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.</ref> that [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (consul)|Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer]] (died 59 BCE), [[proconsul]] in [[Gaul]] received "several Indians" (''Indi'') as a present from a [[Germanic king]]. The Indians were driven by a storm to the coasts of [[Germania]] (''in tempestatem ex Indicis aequoribus''). <!-- <blockquote> Metellum Celerem adjicit, eumque ita retulisse commemorat: Cum Galliae proconsule praeesset, Indos quosdam a rege [Suevorum] dono sibi datos; unde in eas terras devenissent requirendo, cognôsse, vi tempestatum ex Indicis aequoribus abreptos, emensosque quae intererant, tandem in Germaniae litora exiise. Restat ergo pelagus; sed reliqua lateris ejusdem assiduo gelu durantur, et ideo deserta sunt. </blockquote> --> {{quotation|Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was proconsul in [[Gaul]], he was given people from "India" by the king of the [[Sueves]]; upon requesting why they were in this land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became castaways, and finally landed on the coast of Germany. They thus resisted the sea, but suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they left.|<ref name="Pomponius"/>}} It is unclear whether these castaways may have been people from [[India]] or Eastern Asia, or possibly American Indians. [[Edward Herbert Bunbury]] suggested that they were [[Finnish people|Finns]]. This account is open to some question, since Metellus Celer died just after his consulship, before he ever got to Gaul. ===António Galvão=== According to the Portuguese seafarer [[Antonio Galvão]]{{Fact|date=November 2007}}, "certain Indians" (''certos Indios'') were picked up at sea in 1153 and sent to [[Lübeck]]. Galvão said they were probably from [[Bacalao]], a mythical island often believed to be [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. ===Bartolomé de las Casas=== According to [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] two dead bodies that looked like those of Indians were found on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Flores Island (Azores)|Flores Island]] in the [[Azores]]. He said he found that fact in Columbus' notes, and it was one of the reasons why Columbus assumed that India was on the other side of the ocean.<ref> De Las Casas, Bartolomé; Pagden, Anthony (September 8, 1999). ''A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indias''. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044562-5.</ref> === Ferdinand Columbus === In [[Ferdinand Columbus]]' biography of his father Christopher, he says that in 1477 his father saw in [[Galway]], Ireland two dead bodies which had washed ashore in their boat. The bodies and boat were of exotic experience, and could have been [[Inuit]] who had drifted off course.<ref>Seaver (1995), p.208</ref> ===Túpac Inca Yupanqui=== [[Túpac Inca Yupanqui]], the tenth [[Inca]] emperor, is said to have led an expedition lasting around nine months to a year into the Pacific Ocean around 1480. It has been suggested that the islands he visited are the [[Galapagos Islands|Galapagos]]<ref>http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20218/20218-8.txtHistory of the Incas, by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Edited by Sir Clements Markham, Translated by Sir Clements Markham, note 104</ref>. The Polynesian islands have also been suggested but the story says that he brought back gold, brass and the skin and jaw of a horse, none of which would have been found in Polynesia. ===Chili peppers in Europe=== In 1995, Professor Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in ''[[Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift]]'' on pre-Columbian [[chili pepper]]s in Europe.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cayennepeppar från Lunds medeltid||first=Hakon|last=Hjelmqvist|author=Hakon Hjelmqvist|work=Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift, vol 89|pages=193-}}</ref> According to him, archaeologists at a dig in [[Saint Botolph|St Botulf]] in [[Lund]] found a [[Capsicum frutescens]] in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also claims that ''Capsicum'' was described by the Greek [[Theophrastus]] (370-286 BCE) in his ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'', and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet [[Martialis]] (Martial) described "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, but describes them as long and containing seeds, a description which seems to fit [[chili pepper]]s. ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * [[Geoffrey Ashe|Ashe, Geoffrey]], ''The Quest for America'' (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971); * Fagan, Brian M. ''The Great Journey''. Thames and Hudson. 1987); * Feder, Kenneth L. (1999) "Frauds, myths, and mysteries: science and pseudoscience in archaeology" (3rd ed., Mountain View, Calif. : Mayfield Pub. Co., 1999) * Fell, Barry (1984) ''America B.C. : Ancient Settlers in the New World'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984) * William J. Hamblim ''Archaeology and the Book of Mormon'' (Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 1993), Volume 5, Issue 1, pp. 250–272, [http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?id=126&table=review Text] ; * Gerol, E. Harry ''Dioses, Templos y Ruinas''. *{{aut|Guernsey, Julia}} (2006) ''Ritual and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art'', University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, ISBN 978-0292713239. * Hey, J. (2005). "On the number of New World founders: A population genetic portrait of the peopling of the Americas" ''Public Library of Science Biology, 3'', e193. *Holst, Sanford (2005) ''Phoenicians - Lebanon's Epic Heritage'', Cambridge & Boston Press, Los Angeles, California. * Howgaard, William (1971) ''The Voyages of the Norsemen to America'' (New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1914, Kraus Reprint Co., 1971); * Hristov, Romeo H. and Santiago Genovés T. (2001) [http://www.unm.edu/~rhristov/Romanhead.html "The Roman Head from Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca, Mexico: A Review of the evidence"], Paper prepared for the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans (2001). * Hristov, Romeo H. and Santiago Genovés (1999) "Mesoamerican Evidence of Pre-Columbian Contacts", ''Ancient Mesoamerica'', Vol 10, pp. 207-213 ( [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=06A3B8617982331C3D7A763CBF06523B.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=43757 abstract here]). * Huyghe, Patrick (1992) ''[[Columbus was Last: A Heretical History of who was First]]'' (New York: Hyperion, 1992; Anomalist Books, 2005) * Ingstad, Helge ''Westward to Vinland'' (New York: St. Martins, 1969); * Jairazbhoy, R. A. ''Ancient Egyptians and Chinese in America'' (Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1974); * Johnson, Adrian ''America Explored'' (New York: The Viking Press, 1974); * Jones, Gwyn ''A History of the Vikings'' (Oxford University Press, 1984); * Jones, Peter N. ''American Indian mtDNA, Y Chromosome Genetic Data, and the Peopling of North America''. Boulder: Bauu Press. 2004; * {{cite book|author=Lawrence, Harold G.|year=1962|title=African Explorers of the New World|publisher=John Henry and Mary Louisa Dunn Bryant Foundation|id=ISBN B0007HV7US}} * Arlington Mallery and Mary Roberts Harrison, ''The Rediscovery of Lost America'' (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1979); * Marcus, G. J., "The Conquest of the North Atlantic" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); * Mowat, Farley (1998) ''The Farfarers'' (Toronto, Key Porter Books, 1998) ISBN 1-55013-989-4; * Olsen, Brad (2003) ''Sacred Places North America'', CCC Publishing, Santa Cruz, California * Frederick J. Pohl, ''The Lost Discovery'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1952); * Frederick J. Pohl, ''The Viking Explorers'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1966); * Gary A. Rendsburg, "'Someone Will Succeed in Deciphering Minoan': Minoan Linear A as a West Semitic Dialect," Biblical Archaeologist, 59:1 (1996), pp. 36-43, esp. p. 40. * Seaver, K.A.(1995) ''The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America ca A.D. 1000-1500'' Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 3161 6 * Simon, Soltan A. ''Atlantis: The Seven Seals'' (Vancouver, 1984); * Smith, Michael E. "[http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/tval/RomanFigurine.html The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca]", accessed December 2007. *Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages." In: ''Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World''. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. Pp. 238-297. ISBN-13: ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN-10: ISBN 0-8248-2884-4 *Sorenson, John L.; Raish, Martin H. (1996) ''Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas Across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography.'' 2v. 2d ed., rev., Provo, Utah: Research Press, ISBN 0-934893-21-7. *Stirling, Matthew (1967) "Early History of the Olmec Problem", in ''Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec'', E. Benson, ed., Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. *Storey, Alice A.;Ramırez, Jose Miguel; Quiroz, Daniel; Burley, David V.; Addison, David J.; Walter, Richard; Anderson, Atholl J.; Hunt, Terry L.; Athens, J. Stephen; Huynen, Leon; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A. (2007) "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile", in ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'', June 19, 2007, v. 104, n. 25, pp. 10335–10339. * {{cite book|author=Van Sertima, Ivan|year=1976|title=They Came Before Columbus|publisher=Random House|id=ISBN 0-394-40245-6}} * {{cite book|author=Von Wuthenau, Alexander|year=1975|title=Unexpected Faces in Ancient America: The Historical Testimony of Pre-Columbian Artists|publisher=Crown Publishers|id=ISBN 0-517-51657-8}} * Wauchope, Robert (1962) ''Lost Tribes & Sunken Continents''. University of Chicago Press. * Williams, Stephen (1991) "Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0-8122-8238-8/0-8122-1312-2. * ''Man across the sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian contacts'' (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1971). * Brazilian newspaper ''O Globo'', [[September 23]], [[1982]]. * Article on Robert Marx in the online agazine [http://naufragium.blogspot.com/2004_07_01_naufragium_archive.html Naufrágios] (in Portuguese). * Report of Severin's trip in the ''National Geographic Magazine'', Volume 152, Number 6 (December 1977). ==See also== *[[Timeline of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]] *[[Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories]] *[[Olmec alternative origin speculations]] *[[Kensington Runestone]] *[[Models of migration to the New World]] *[[Newport Tower (Rhode Island)|Newport Tower]] *[[Viking colonization of the Americas]] *[[Vinland map]] *[[Westford Knight]] *[[Diffusion (anthropology)]] *[[Institute for the Study of American Cultures]] ==External links== *[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Pacific.htm India on Pacific Waves] *[http://www.utexas.edu/research/tarl/research/Gault/artifacts/artifacts.htm ''Interpreting the Clovis Artifacts from the Gault Site''] by [[Michael B. Collins]] and [[Thomas R. Hester]], at the University of Texas. *[http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/curriculum/lm15/olmec1.jpg Olmec head photo] at Michigan State University. *[http://www.unm.edu/~rhristov/Romanhead.html Paper given at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology (2001) on The Calixtlahuaca Head] *[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Misc/mummies.htm The Mystery of the Cocaine Mummies] (Transcript of television broadcast) *[http://www.thehallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=45 A look at the Evidence for Cocaine in Mummies by British Biochemist Duncan Edlin] *Thomas Hughes: [http://www.ghi-dc.org/publications/ghipubs/bu/033/79.pdf "The German Discovery of America: A Review of the Controversy over Didrik Pining’s Voyage of Exploration in 1473 in the North Atlantic"], in: ''GHI Bulletin'', Nr. 33 (Fall 2003) *[http://chronicle.com/weekly/v46/i41/41a01901.htm Anthropologist Offers Surprising Theory of Zuni Past] *[http://geocities.com/olmec982000/index.html]&[http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Bay/7051]&[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/8919/]& [http://clyde.winters.tripod.com/junezine]&[http://www.geocities.com/clydewinters@sbcglobal.net/Index2.htm] related texts by Clyde A. Winters *[http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=73 Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs, an article from Current Anthropology] *[http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=88 Plant Evidence for Contact between Africa and the New World by Professor Bernard Ortiz de Montellano] *[http://biblescripture.net/Indians.html Native American Indians] *[http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=74 Goodbye Columbus? The Pseudohistory of Who Discovered America] {{IndigPeopleAmericas nav}} [[Category:Anthropology]] [[Category:History of North America]] [[Category:History of South America]] [[Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact| ]] [[Category:Pseudohistory]] [[ca:Descobriment d'Amèrica]] [[da:Opdagelsen af Amerika]] [[de:Entdeckung Amerikas]] [[es:Descubrimiento de América]] [[fr:Contacts trans-océaniques précolombiens]] [[nl:Ontdekking van Amerika]] [[ja:アメリカ大陸の発見]] [[nds:Opdecken vun Amerika]] [[ru:Контакты с Америкой до Колумба]] [[sr:Откриће Америке]] [[sh:Otkriće Amerike]] [[fi:Amerikan löytäminen]]