Proto-Indo-European religion 508376 224391164 2008-07-08T17:23:38Z Rwflammang 1121700 /* Pantheon */ Vulgate ref is off-topic. see talk {{sprotected2}} {{Indo-European topics}} {{Original research|date=June 2008}} The existence of similarities among the [[Deity|deities]] and religious practices of the [[Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] (IE) peoples allows glimpses of a common '''[[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) religion and mythology'''. This hypothetical religion would have been the ancestor of the majority of the [[Paganism|pagan religions]] of [[Europe]], and of the [[Indian religions]] as well as [[Zoroastrianism]] in Iran. Indications of the existence of this ancestral religion can be detected in commonalities between languages and religious customs of Indo-European peoples. The scientific method of [[triangulation]] is used by historical linguists to reconstruct the names of gods and goddesses, the names and processes for religious rituals and many related elements of belief and practice. In addition, many texts relating to the Indo-European religions exist, such as mythological tales and descriptions of religious rituals, including explicit instructions on how to perform them. Archaeological evidence is difficult to match to any specific culture in the earliest period of the Indo-European culture, which is defined as the time when all Indo-European-speaking people could still understand each other and conservatively thought to be about 4000 BCE.<ref>''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth'', by J. P. Mallory, Thames and Hudson, New York, 1989.</ref> However, there is a vast amount of archaeological evidence that can be connected to specific Indo-European cultures and especially religious topics, such as temple site digs, [[votive deposit|votive offerings]] and inscriptions. The names of gods are often the first words we find written in each of the Indo-European languages. ==Pantheon== Linguists are able to reconstruct the names of some deities in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deities are more readily accepted among scholars than others. In order to present a consistent notation, the reconstructed forms used here are cited from Mallory and Adams ''Oxford Introduction''.<ref>''Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World'', by J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006</ref> Use of this source does not imply agreement in either direction. The laryngeals H<sub>e</sub> H<sub>a</sub> H<sub>o</sub> have been capitalized to make them a little easier to read. * ''*dyēus pH<sub>a</sub>tēr'' is the god of the daylit sky and the chief god of the Indo-European [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]]. The name survives (p. 409, 431, ''Oxford Intro.'') in Greek [[Zeus]] with a vocative form Zeu patēr; Latin [[Jupiter (god)|Jūpiter]] (from the archaic Latin ''Iovis pater'') and [[Dispater]] (Dis is actually from the Latin word ''dives'' meaning ''rich''), Sanskrit [[Dyaus Pita|Dyáus Pitā]], and Illyrian Dei-pátrous. * ''*deiwos-'', Deva or Deos (masculine, p. 408, ''Oxford Intro.'', but from *dhy-, according to [[Jaan Puhvel]]), Hittite, sius 'god'; Greek, dios 'god' (but usually theos); Oscan, Diovis; Latin, Jove, a particular god, also with forms deus, divus, 'god, rich man'; Sanskrit [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]; in Avestan, the [[daeva]]s, (later Persian divs) were demonized by Zarathustra; Lith. [[Dievas]]; Latv. Dievs, a god who causes the rye fields to ripen; [[Old Norse language|ON]] [[Týr]], [[Old High German|OHG]] Ziu, Old English, Tiw, a particular god; Welsh duw; Irish dia, `god', and possibly Irish [[The Dagda|Dagda]], and Slavic [[Dazbog]]. * ''*{{PIE|pltH<sub>2</sub>wiH<sub>2</sub>}}'' is reconstructed (p. 267, ''Oxford Intro.'') as ‘Plenty’, a goddess of wide flat lands and the rivers that meander across them. Forms include Hittite Lelwanni, a goddess of the underworld “the pourer” (G&I, p. 760<ref name="G&I">''Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture'' (Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 80, 2 Vol. Set), by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, and Vjaceslav V. Ivanov, with Werner Winter, ed., and Johanna Nichols, translator (original title ''Indoevropeiskii iazyk i indoevropeistsy''), M. De Gruyter, Berlin & NY, 1995.</ref>); Sanskrit [[Prthivi]]; from the ancient Persian the [[Euphrates]] river (Bopp, p. 28<ref>''Grammaire Comparée des Langues Indo-Européennes'' by M. François Bopp, translated by M. Michel Bréal, Imprimerie Impériale, Paris, 1866</ref>); Greek [[Leto]]; in Latin, Latona, the eponymous ancestor of the Latins; and also Greek [[Ploutos]], borrowed into Latin as [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]]. He is responsible for pushing the water up into the springs that form on hillsides. * ''*[[Perkwunos]]'', known as the “striker” is reconstructed (p. 410, 433, ''Oxford Intro.'') from Skt. [[Parjanya]], Prussian Perkuns, Lithuanian [[Perkunas|Perkūnas]], Latvian Pērkons, Slavic [[Perun]] and Norse [[Fjörgyn]] and [[Frigg]]. Fjörgyn was replaced by [[Thor]] among the Germanic speaking people. These gods give their names to Thursday, the fourth day of the week. * ''*H<sub>a</sub>eusos'' is the name of certain specific gods, usually the sun, the stars, especially the planet Venus or hearth fires; a class of gods (`those that shine with a golden light'); and a general word for `a god, any god'. These gods are also general to the Indo-Europeans. ** ''*H<sub>a</sub>eus(os)'', is believed to have been the goddess of dawn (p. 409, 410, 432, Oxford Intro.), continued in Greek mythology as [[Eos]], in Rome as [[Aurora (mythology)|Aurora]], in Vedic as [[Ushas]] but this word is later demonized as an [[Asura|Ashura]] 'demon'; Avestan, [[Ahura Mazda]], the good god of the Zoroastrians; [[Ahura]], a good spirit; in [[Lithuanian mythology]] as Aušra 'dawn' or Auštaras (Auštra) 'the god (goddess) of the northeast wind', Latvian [[Auseklis]], the morning star(Lithuanian Aušrinė, 'morning star'); Ausera, and Ausrina, goddesses of dawn or of the planet Venus ; Hittite, assu 'lord, god'; Gallic [[Esus]], a god of hearths; Old Norse, [[Aesir]] (pl.), and Old English Os (sg.), general words for a god, any god; Slavic, [[Jarilo|Iaro]], a god of summer. The form Arap Ushas appears in Albanian folklore, but is a name of the Moon. See also the names for the Sun which follow. ** ''*H<sub>a</sub>eust(e)ro'' (p. 294, 301, ''Oxford Intro.'', but see also the form ''*as-t-r'', with intrusive -t- [between s and r] in northern dialects" given on p. 702, and 780, G&I<ref>''Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture'' (Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 80, 2 Vol. Set), by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, and Vjaceslav V. Ivanov, with Werner Winter, ed., and Johanna Nichols, translator (original title ''Indoevropeiskii iazyk i indoevropeistsy''), M. De Gruyter, Berlin & NY, 1995.</ref>) Anatolian dialects: Estan, Istanus, Istara; Sanskrit, demonized and replaced with [[Agni]]; Avestan [[Atar]], sacred fire of the Zoroastrians; Greek, [[Hestia]], goddess of the hearth; Latin [[Vesta]], goddess of the hearth; in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] as [[Astghik]], a star goddess; and possibly also in Germanic mythology as [[Eostre]] or Ostara; Baltic, Austija; and possibly the Tibetan Buddhist goddesses like [[Green Tara]]. * ''*priH<sub>x</sub>eH<sub>a</sub>'', is reconstructed (p. 208, ''Oxford Intro.'') as “beloved, friend” (Sanskrit ''priya''), the [[love goddess]]. She is known in Hittite as the object of the Purulli festival. In Avestan, she is demonized as ''Paurwa'', but replaced by [[Anahita]]. In Greek she is recognized as [[Aphrodite]]. In Latin [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] takes her place (whose name corresponds to Sanskrit ''vanas'' "lust", an epitheton of Ushas), and in Old Norse she is [[Freya]]. In Albanian she is Perendi, Christianized as St. Prendi. J. Grimm refers to an Old Bohemian form Priye, used as a gloss for Aphrodite (DM p.303). Many of these goddesses give their name to the fifth day of the week, Friday. They are also very well known in lesser form such as the Germanic [[Elves]] and the Persian [[Peri]]s, charming and seductive beings in folklore. There are also masculine forms of this deity, Sanskrit Prajapati, Greek Priapos, borrowed into Latin as [[Priapus]], and Old Norse [[Freyr]]. * ''*deH<sub>a</sub>nu-'' 'River goddess' is reconstructed (p. 434, ''Oxford Intro.'') from Skt. [[Danu (Hindu goddess)|Danu]], Irish [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]; Welsh [[Don]], and a masc. form Ossetic Donbettys. The name has been connected with the Dan rivers which run into the Black Sea ([[Dnieper]], [[Dniester]], [[Don River (Russia)|Don]], and [[Danube]]) and other river names in Celtic areas. *''*{{PIE|welnos}}'', is reconstructed as a god of cattle from Slavic [[Veles (god)|Veles]], and Lithuanian [[Velnias]] (in archaic Lithuanian vėlės means 'shades' or 'spirits of the departed'), "protector of flocks"; as well as Old Norse [[Ullr]], and Old English Wuldor, and even the Elysian fields in Greek myth and ritual (according to Jaan Puhvel). There may be a god of cattle in the northern lands, but the argument is very thin. These names were also once thought to be connected to Sanskrit [[Varuna]] and Greek [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]] for example by Max Muller (''Comparative Mythology'' p. 84), but this is now rejected on linguistic grounds, ("the etymology is disputed" Shapiro, JIES 10, 1&2, p. 155,<ref>The Journal of Indo-European Studies, publ. by JIES, Washington, DC., 1973 and continuing</ref>). * Divine Twins: There are several sets (the Indo-Europeans seem to be quite fond of twins), which may or may not be related. ** The Sun and Moon are discussed in the next section. ** Yama and Manu, the first mortals, (or the first gods to die), become the ancestors of everyone and king(s) of the dead. The first ancestor of men was called ''*Manu-'', see Germanic [[Mannus]], Hindu [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] (p. 435, ''Oxford Intro.''). See also [[#Mythology|Mythology]] section. ** [[Divine Twins|Horse Twins]], usually have a name that means `horse' ''*ekwa-'', but the names are not always cognate (no lexical set, p. 432, ''Oxford Intro.''). They are always male and usually have a horse form, or sometimes, one is a horse and the other is a boy. They are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, sons of the Sky god, continued in Sanskrit [[Ashvins]] and Lithuanian [[Ašvieniai]], identical to Latvian [[Dieva deli]]. Other horse twins are: Greek, Dioskuri (Polydeukes and Kastor); borrowed into Latin as [[Castor and Pollux]]; Irish, the twins of [[Macha]]; Old English, [[Hengist]] and [[Horsa]] (both words mean `stallion'), and possibly Old Norse [[Sleipnir]], the eight-legged horse born of Loki; Slavic Lel and Polel; possibly Christianized in Albanian as Sts. Flori and Lori. The horse twins may be based on the morning and evening star (the planet [[Venus]]) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun, (JIES 10, 1&2, p. 137-166, Michael Shapiro, who references D. Ward, ''The Divine Twins,'' Folklore Studies, No. 19, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, 1968,). * A water or sea god is reconstructed (p. 438, ''Oxford Intro.'') as ''*H<sub>2</sub>epom nepots'' `grandson/nephew of waters' from Persian and Vedic [[Apam Napat]], and as ''*neptonos'' from Celtic [[Nechtan (mythology)|Nechtan]], Etruscan [[Nethuns]], Germanic Hnikar and Latin [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]]. This god may be related to the Germanic water spirit, the [[Nix]] and the [[Neckar]] River.<ref>Jaan Puhvel, ''Analecta Indoeuropaea,'' (a collection of articles), publ. by Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, Innsbruck, 1981</ref> Similarly, most major Lithuanian rivers begin in ne-. [[Poseidon]] (etymology highly arguable, but certainly not cognate) fulfills the function of this deity in Greek. The [[Sun deity|Sun]] and [[Moon deity|Moon]] are often seen as the twin children of various deities, but in fact the sun and moon were deified several times and are often found in competing forms within the same language. The usual scheme is that one of these celestial deities is male and the other female, though the exact gender of the [[Sun]] or [[Moon]] tend to vary among subsequent Indo-European mythologies. Here are two of the most common PIE forms: * ''*seH<sub>a</sub>ul'' with a genitive form ''*sH<sub>a</sub>-en-s'' Sun, appears as Hindu Svar, and [[Surya]], fem. and Surya, masc. form; Avestan, Hvara; Greek [[Helios]] (and [http://whitedragon.org.uk/articles/troy.htm Helen], the form in the Dorian Greek of the Spartans); Latin Sol; Old Norse [[Sól (Sun)|Sól]]; OE Sigel and Sunna, modern English Sun. Other forms are Russian [[The Zorya|Zorya]], and [[Zaria (goddess)|Zaria]] in folklore; Old Prussian, Lithuanian [[Saule (Lithuanian mythology)|Saulė]], Latvian Saule; Albanian Diell, seen in the name of Sunday and in demonized form as a name for the devil. (Most of these forms are given from ''Encyclopedia of IE Culture'', p. 556.) * ''*meH<sub>1</sub>not'' Moon, gives Avestan, Mah; Greek Selene (unrelated), although they also use a form Mene; Latin, Luna, later [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] (unrelated), ON [[Mani (god)|Mani]], Old English Mona; Sl. Myesyats; Lithuanian,*[[List of Lithuanian gods#Gods_and_god-_like_beings|Meno]], or Mėnuo (Mėnulis); Latv. Meness. In Albanian, Hane is the name of Monday, but this is not related. (''Encyclopedia of IE Culture,'' p. 385, gives the forms but does not have an entry for a moon goddess.) * ''*peH<sub>2</sub>uson'' is reconstructed (p. 434, ''Oxford Intro.'') as a pastoral god, based on the Greek god [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]], the Roman god [[Faunus]] and the [[Faun]]s, and Vedic [[Pashupati]], and [[Pushan]]. See also [[Paganism#Etymology|Pax]]. * There may have been a set of nature spirits or gods akin to the Greek [[Satyr]]s, the Celtic god [[Cernunnos]] and the Dusii, Slavic Veles and the [[Leszi]], the Germanic [[Woodwose]], [[elf|elves]] and [[dwarf|dwarves]]. There may also have been a female cognate akin to the Greco-Roman [[nymph]]s, Slavic [[Slavic fairies|vila]]s, the [[Huldra]] of [[Germanic folklore]], and the [[Hindu]] [[Apsaras]]. * There may also have been a savage dog or wolf (hellhound) guarding the underworld, such as Greek [[Cerberus|Kerberos]], and Norse [[Garm]]; Kerberos and Garm (and Grendel) are derived from the Proto-Indo-European root, ''*gher-'' (thought to be an onomatopoetic reference to the dog's growl).<ref>{{cite journal | last = Alby | first = Stone | title = Hellhounds, Werewolves and the Germanic Underworld | journal = Mercian Mysteries | volume = 20 | date = [[1994]] | url = http://www.primitivism.com/hellhounds.htm | accessdate = 2007-10-07 }}</ref> * It is also likely that they had three fate goddesses, see the [[Norns]] in [[Norse mythology]], [[Moirae]] in [[Greek mythology]], Sudjenice of [[Slavic folklore]] and [[Deives Valdytojos|Deivės Valdytojos]] in [[Lithuanian mythology]]. A fuller treatment of the subject of the Indo-European Pantheon would not merely list the [[cognate]] names but describe additional correspondences in the "family relationships", festival dates, associated myths (but see [[Proto-Indo-European Religion#Mythology|Mythology section]]) and special powers. ===Pandemonium=== Pandemonium is [[Jaan Puhvel]]'s word for the mutual demonization that occurred when the (Younger-)Avesta demonized the ''[[daeva]]''s, and the (post-[[Rig Veda|Rig]]-)Vedic texts demonized the ''asura''s. Neither demonization occurs in the oldest texts: In the Rigveda, there is not yet any hard-and-fast distinction between ''asura''s and ''deva''s, and even in the later Vedas, the two groups (though thematically in opposition) also cooperate at certain times.<ref>{{citation|last=Kuiper|first=F.B.J.|title=Ancient Indian Cosmology|editor-last=Irwin|editor-first=J.|location=Delhi|publisher=Vikas|year=1983}}.</ref> In the Old Avestan texts the ''daevas'' are to be rejected for being misguided by the "lie", but they are still gods, and not demons.<ref>{{citation|last=Herrenschmidt|first=Clarisse|last2=Kellens|first2=Jean|chapter=*Daiva|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=6|year=1993|publisher=Mazda|location=Cosa Mesa|pages=601}}.</ref> However, in the 19th century this distinction between the older and younger texts had yet to be made, and in 1884 Martin Haug "postulated his thesis that the transition of both the words [Asuras and Devas] into the designations of the demons.... is based on a prehistoric schism in religion...."<ref>{{citation|last=Hillebrandt|first=Alfred|editor-last=Sarma|editor-first=Sreeramula Rajeswara, trans.|title=Vedic Mythology|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=New Delhi|year=1891<!--facsimile-->/1981|volume=2|pages=264}}.</ref> The observation was reiterated by Jacob Grimm (DM3, p. 985), who, like Haug, considered it to be the theological basis of Zoroastrianism's [[dualism]]. Prior to this (in the 1850s), Westergaard had attributed the (Younger) Avesta's demonization of the ''daevas'' to a "moral reaction against Vedic polytheism," but that&mdash;unlike the general notion of a mutual demonization&mdash;was very quickly rejected, and by 1895 James Darmesteter noted that it has "no longer [had] any supporter."<ref>{{citation|last=Darmesteter|first=James|title=Sacred Books of the East|volume=4|editor-last=Müller|editor-first=Max|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|year=1895|pages=lii}}.</ref> Nonetheless, some modern authors like Mallory and Adams still refer to Zoroastrianism as a "religious reformation" of Vedic religion (p. 408-9, ''Oxford Intro.''). Most scholars however stress that there were two independent developments in ancient Iran and post-Rigvedic India, but nonetheless to be considered against the common background of prehistoric [[Indo-Iranian]] religion where both groups coexisted, with the *Asuras perhaps even as a subset (having a particular common characteristic, like the Adityas) of the *Daivas, the national gods. ==Mythology== {{Original research|date=April 2008}} There seems to have been a belief in a [[world tree]], which in [[Germanic mythology]] was an [[ash tree]] (Norse [[Yggdrasil]]; [[Irminsul]]), in [[Hinduism]] a [[banyan]] tree, in [[Lithuanian mythology]] [[Jievaras]], and an [[Oak|oak tree]] in [[Slavic mythology]], and a [[hazel|hazel tree]] in [[Celtic mythology]]. In classical [[Greek mythology]], the closest analogue of this concept is [[Mount Olympus]]; however, there is also a later folk tradition about the World Tree, which is being sawed by the [[Kallikantzaroi]] (Greek goblins), perhaps a reborrowing from other peoples. ===Dragon or Serpent=== One common myth which can be found among almost all Indo-European mythologies is a battle ending with the slaying of a [[serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], usually a dragon of some sort: examples include *[[Thor]] vs. [[Jörmungandr]], [[Sigurd]] vs. [[Fafnir]] in [[Scandinavian mythology]]; *[[Zeus]] vs. [[Typhon]], [[Kronos]] vs. [[Ophion]], [[Apollo]] vs. [[Python (mythology)|Python]], [[Heracles]] vs. the [[Lernaean Hydra|Hydra]], [[Ladon (mythology)|Ladon]], [[Perseus]] vs. [[Ceto]] and [[Bellerophon]] vs. the [[Chimaira]] in Greek mythology; *[[Indra]] vs. [[Vrtra]] in the [[Rigveda]]; [[Krishna]] vs. [[Kaliya]] in [[Bhagavata]] mythology; [[Fereydun|Θraētaona]], and later [[Garshasp|Kərəsāspa]], vs. [[Zahhak|Aži Dahāka]] in [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Persian mythology]]. *[[Perun]] vs. [[Veles]], [[Dobrynya Nikitich]] vs. [[Zmey]] in Slavic mythology; *[[Tarhunt]] vs. [[Illuyanka]] of [[Hittites|Hittite]] mythology; There are also analogous stories in other neighbouring mythologies: [[Anu]] or [[Marduk]] vs. [[Tiamat]] in [[Mesopotamian mythology]]; [[Ra]] vs. [[Apep]] in [[Egyptian mythology]]; [[Baal]] or [[El (god)|El]] vs. [[Lotan]] or [[Yam (god)|Yam-Nahar]] in Levantine mythology; [[Yahweh]] or [[Gabriel]] vs. [[Leviathan]] or [[Rahab (demon)|Rahab]] or [[Tannin (demon)|Tannin]] in [[Jewish mythology]]; [[Michael (archangel)|Michael the Archangel]] and, [[Christ]] vs. [[Satan]] (in the form of a seven-headed dragon), [[Virgin Mary]] crushing a serpent in [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] iconography, [[Saint George]] vs. [[Saint George and the Dragon|the dragon]] in [[Christian mythology]]<ref>.[http://mhsymp.com/?p=104 The Wheel or the Sun, The Hammer, The Lightning Bolt, The Light, The Eagle, The Lion]</ref> The myth symbolized a clash between forces of order and chaos (represented by the serpent), and the god or hero would always win (except in some mythologies, such as the [[Norse]] [[Ragnarok]] myth)).<ref>[http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/esp_thunderboltgods03.htm Mysteries of the Cosmic Thunderbolt]</ref> It is therefore most probable that there existed some kind of dragon or serpent, possibly multi-headed (cf. ''Śeṣa'', the ''hydra'' and ''Typhon'') and likely linked with the god of underworld and/or waters, as serpentine aspects can be found in many chthonic and/or aquatic Indo-European deities, such as for example the many Greek aquatic deities, most notably [[Poseidon]], [[Oceanus]], [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]], Typhon (who carries many chthonic attributes while not specifically linked with the sea), Ophion, and also the Slavic Veles. Possibly called ''*{{PIE|kʷr̥mis}}'', or some name cognate with *''[[Varuna|Velnos/Werunos]]'' or the root *''Wel''/''Vel''- ([[Vedic Sanskrit|VS]] ''Varuna'', who is associated with the serpentine ''naga'', ''Vala'' and ''Vṛtra'', [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''Veles'', [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] ''velnias''), or "serpent" ([[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''Illuyanka'', VS ''[[Vritra|Ahis]]'', [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] ''[[Zahhak|azhi]]'', [[Greek languages|Greek]] ''ophis'' and ''[[Ophion]]'', and [[Latin]] ''anguis''), or the root *''dheubh''- (Greek ''Typhon'' and ''Python''). ===Sun=== Related to the dragon-slaying myth is the "Sun in the rock" myth, of a heroic warrior deity splitting a rock where the Sun or Dawn was imprisoned. Such a myth is preserved in Rigvedic [[Vala (Vedic)|Vala]], where [[Ushas]] and the cows, [[cattle raid|stolen]] by the [[Panis]] were imprisoned, connected with other myths of abductions into the [[netherworld]] such as the mysteries of [[Eleusis]] connected with [[Persephone]], [[Dionysus]] and [[Triptolemus]]. The [[Sun]] was represented as riding in a [[Sun chariot|chariot]]. ===Earth as a body=== There was a creation myth involving the world being made from the body of a giant. The elements in the myth are (1) *Yemós, the "twin" who is (2) dismembered by (3)*Mánu, his brother, and then the parts of the twin's body are used to (4) create the world according to a specific formula "his bones are the rocks, his blood made the rivers and seas", etc. Each entry is followed by the original source of the myth, and then a place where it was published. Many of the references are from the SBE = ''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'', ed. by Max Müller.<ref>''Sacred Books of the East'', transl. by various Oriental scholars, series ed. by Max Müller, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1879-1904.</ref> While the substance of the formula is essentially folkloric (rocks do look like "bones of the earth"), the use of the formula in this particular context and the linguistic correspondence of the names makes possible the reconstruction of a Proto-Indo-European myth, as recognized by Cox, p. 189.<ref>''The Mythology of the Aryan Nations'' by George W. Cox, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1887.</ref> This myth also appears in the ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Mallory and Adams, p. 129-130, and other modern authors, which is why it was chosen as an example. * [[Vedic Sanskrit]] (ca. 1500<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period</ref> to 500 BCE) ** [[Yama|Yamá]] dies (it doesn't say how). "Yamá surrendered his dear body." The original source is the [[RV 10]].13.4. This was published in ''Vedic Mythology,'' Vol. 2, p. 223.<ref>''Vedic Mythology'' by Alfred Hillebrandt, transl. by Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma, publ. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1981 (orig. 1891)</ref> ** "Yama died as the first of mortals." The original source is the ''[[Atharva Veda]]'' XVIII.3.13, and this was also published in ''Vedic Mythology'', Vol. 2, p. 222.<ref>Ibid.</ref> ** later Sanskrit (1000 - 500 BCE). First a bull, then the wife of [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], named Manâvî is killed (with Manu's permission) in sacrifice by the Ashuras (no world making!). The original source is the ''[[Satapatha-Brâhmana]]'': 1 Kanda, 1 Adhyâya, 4 Brâhmana 14-17. This was published in the SBE, Vol. 12 (trans. by Julius Eggeling), pp. 29-30. * [[Avestan]] ** [[Jamshid|Yima Kshaeta]] makes the world grow larger three times, but he does this while he is still alive. This version is clearly mythological. Yima is the Avestan form of Sanskrit Yama and Kshaeta means "brilliant, shining." The original source is the ''Zend-[[Avesta]],'' Vendidad, Fargard II, and this was published in SBE, Vol. 4 (translated by James Darmesteter), p. 12-21. ** Avestan "....[[Zahhak|Aži Dahâka]] and Spityura, he who sawed Yima in twain." According to the editor of the text (Darmesteter), Spityura was a brother of Yima. The original source is the ''Zend-Avesta,'' Zamyâd Yasht, VIII: 46, published in SBE, Vol. 23, p. 293-297. ** [[Middle Persian]] of the 9th-11th centuries. In these source [[Gayomart]] ''Gaya Maratan'', the primordial bull, is killed by Ahriman (spelled Aharman in Darmesteter). Out of the bull's body grows the world, including the first humans, Mâshya and Mâshyana (male and female). The name Gayomard is not a good cognate with Yima Kshaeta, but Jaan Puhvel equates them on the basis of the similarity of the stories. The original source is the ''Bundahišn,'' Ch. 3, part 23, ("Gayomard spoke thus: `mankind will be all of my race'") and Ch. 15, the whole of it. This is published in SBE Vol. 5 (translated by E.W. West), p. 19 and p. 52, etc. An analysis of this was published by Jaan Puhvel, under the title ''Remus and Frater'', pp. 300-311.<ref>Jaan Puhvel, ''Analecta Indoeuropaea'', (a collection of articles), publ. by Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, Innsbruck, 1981</ref> ** Middle Persian. Here there is only the bare statement: "Spîtûr was he who, with Dahâk, cut up Yim." The original source is also the ''Bundahišn,'' Chap XXXI, Verse 5, and this was published in SBE Vol. 5, p. 131. ** Persian (around 1100 CE, written by [[Ferdowsi|Firdausi]]). In this source, Jemshid is sawed in two by Zohak. (Jemshid is the Persian form of earlier Yima Kshaeta. Zohak is the Persian form of earlier Aži Dahâka.) In this text, Gayomart is a ''man'', the first king, but he simply "passes away" after winning a battle against the son of Ahriman. The original source is the ''[[Shah Namah]],'' which was produced in many books often with beautiful Mughal style illustrations. The first section of it is a "book of kings", hence the name. The ''Shah Namah'' has been published in English in many very bad verse translations. The one used here is Vol. 1 of the ''Shahnama of Firdausi,'' translated by Arthur George Warner and Edmond Warner, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1905. There is also an abridged prose version of this on the net, transl. by Helen Zimmerm, 1883, at sacred-texts. ** Old Norse texts written down in the 13th cent. but composed earlier. Ymir is dismembered by Odin and his brother gods to make the World with the formula: "Of Ymir's flesh the earth was fashioned, And of his sweat the sea; Crags of his bones, trees of his hair, And of his skull the sky. Then of his brows, the blithe gods made Midgard for sons of men; And of his brain, the bitter-mooded Clouds were all created." The original source is [[Grimnismal]] 40-41 (''[[Poetic Edda]]''). This version is quoted from p. 21, ''The [[Prose Edda]]'' by Snorri Sturleson, transl. by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, The American-Scandinavian Foundation, Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1923. ===Brothers=== * Latin (before CE 17). There are almost no mythological tales of Rome, but the early "history" of Rome is recognized as being an historicized version of various old myths. Romulus and Remus were twin brothers. They both have stories in which they are killed. ** Remus is killed by his brother Romulus at the foundation of Rome; and ** Romulus is dismembered by the senators, "...there were some who secretly hinted that he had been torn limb from limb by the senators..." There is no world making here, but Romulus is the eponymous ancestor of the Romans, and the founder of Rome. One of the original sources for the stories of Romulus and Remus is Livy's ''History of Rome'' Vol. 1, parts iv-vii and xvi. This has been published in an Everyman edition, transl. by W.M. Roberts, E.P. Dutton & Co. NY, 1912. ** Gemini is the actual Latin word for `twins' though it usually applies to Castor and Pollux, see Horse Twins in the Pantheon section. They were worshipped all over the Roman world with votive altars with inscriptions, which remained after the Romans were gone. This may be the source of some names which appear in early Christian myths.{{what}} * The Germanic languages have information about both Ymir and Mannus, but they never appear in the same myth, rather they appear only in myths widely separated in both time and circumstances. ** A Roman text (dated CE 98) tells that Mannus, the son of Tuisto, was the ancestor of the Germanic people, according to Tacitus, writing in Latin, in ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' 2. We never see this being again, but the names Allemagne and German(s) are interpreted (perhaps by folk etymology) as "all-men" the German name for themselves. ===Bulls=== * Celtic (in this case Irish) texts were written down between the 11th and 14th centuries CE. In one myth a bull is killed and dismembered by another bull and the parts of his body are distributed around Ireland, which explains the names of many features of the landscape, though not the cause of their existence. "It was not long before the men of Erin [Ireland], as they were there in the company of Ailill and Madb early on the morrow, saw coming over Cruachan from the west, the Brown Bull of Cualnge with the Whitehorned [Bull] of Ai in torn fragments hanging about his ears and horns." Among some of the less revolting distributions is this one: "Then he raised his head, and the shoulder-blades of the Whitehorned fell from him in that place. Hence, Sruthair Finnlethe ('Stream of the White Shoulder-blade') is the name given to it." The original source is the last chapter of the ''Táin Bó Cúalnge,'' usually called in English, ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley.'' These quotations are from the ''The Ancient Irish Epic Tale, Táin Bó Cúalnge,'' transl. by Joseph Dunn, publ. David Nutt, London, 1914. * In Lithuanian, a folktale tells of a bull and 3 cows which are beheaded by Aušrinė, (the morning star) and then the land appears. "The maiden upon returning released her bull. The bull knelt down and spoke in a man's voice: "Chop off my head!" The maiden did not want to chop it off, but she had to. She chopped the head off--a fourth of the seas disappeared, became land. Her brother emerged from the bull. She cut off the heads of all three cows, who were her sisters. All the seas disappeared, turned to land. The earth sprang to life." The original source for this is a folktale called ''Saulė and Vejų Motina'' (The Sun and the Mother of the Winds), pp. 309-13, of M. Davainis-Silvestraitis' Collection, ''Pasakos, Sakmės, Oracijos'' (Tales, Legends and Orations) publ. in Vilnius, 1973. The English version is from p. 67 ''Of Gods and Men'' by Algirdas J. Greimas, transl. by Milda Newman, Indiana Univ. Press, Indianapolis, 1992. ==Other myths== Other myths may have included: '''[[Creation myth]]s''' * Birth of the Horse Twins from the grain/horse mother (Cox, p. 234, found in 7/11 language groups, which is a very conservative statistic) * Danu killed and cut open to produce a river (a Partition Creation myth, 3/11) '''Cyclic Myths''' * Spring kills Winter, usually with his sprinkler or his striker (Cox, p. 559, found in 4/11 language groups) * Cloud/cows stolen from the sun god by the wind god and then released (Cox, p. 232, 4/11) * Death of the [[Life-death-rebirth deity|Dying Corn God]], rebirth, causes seasons (Frazer, Vol. 8 and 9 of the ''Golden Bough'' esp. Vol. 9, p. 412-423; 4/11) * Uncle Water melts the ice and releases the water causing flooding (G&I, 5/11) * Quest of the golden apples of immortality, usually by a wind god (Cox, p. 512, 4/11) '''Culture Myths''' * Culture myths, stories in which some godlike being teaches the "arts of civilization" (actually technologies) to humans, are found in all cultures. The culture myths of the Indo-Europeans tell how the [[Culture hero|Culture Gods]] taught humans such arts as how to make fire, the proper way to kill and butcher an animal (sacrifice), religious rituals and law codes, smithing, weaving, ploughing, and healing. Culture gods (e.g. [[Prometheus]] and [[Loki]]) sometimes have an intermediate position between gods and humans. They are certainly supernatural, but they often die or are tortured by other gods for their beneficence to humans, nevertheless they are often revived and worshipped like regular gods. Mallory and Adams call them Craft Gods and argue that they are not linguistically reconstructable, however, Cox compares Greek Prometheus with Hindu Pramanthu (Cox, p. 421). Smith gods, a subset of the Culture gods, are slightly reconstructable according to Mallory and Adams. ==Development== The various Indo-European daughter-cultures continued elements of PIE religion, syncretizing it with innovations and foreign elements, notably [[Ancient Near East]]ern and [[Dravidian]] elements, the reforms of [[Zoroaster]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and the spread of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. *Anatolian **[[Hittite mythology]] *[[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion|Indo-Iranian]] **Indo-Aryan ***[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] & [[Vedic mythology]] ***[[Kalash]] surviving para-Vedic religion in Chitral, NWFP, Pakistan ***[[Hinduism]] & [[Hindu mythology]] ***[[Buddhism]] & [[Buddhist mythology]] ***[[Jainism]] ***[[Sikhism]] ***[[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]] **Iranian ***[[Zoroastrianism]] ***[[Persian mythology]] ***[[Islamic conquest of Persia]] *Greek **[[Ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]] & [[Greek mythology]] **[[Hellenistic religion]] **[[Greco-Buddhism]] **[[Decline of Hellenistic polytheism]] *Italic **[[Roman religion]] & [[Roman mythology]] **[[Roman Catholic Church]] *Baltic **[[Latvian mythology]] **[[Lithuanian mythology]] *Slavic **[[Slavic mythology]] **[[Christianization of the Slavs]] *Celtic **[[Celtic polytheism]] & [[Celtic mythology]] **[[Lusitanian mythology]] **[[Celtic Christianity]] *Germanic **[[Germanic mythology]] & [[Norse mythology]] **[[Germanic Christianity]] *Tocharian **[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] *Armenian **[[Armenian mythology]] **[[Armenian Orthodox Church]] *Prehistoric Balkans **[[Paleo-Balkanic mythology]] ==See also== {{portal|Mythology|Ddraig.svg}} * [[Chariot burial]] * [[Soma]] * [[Horse sacrifice]] * [[Neolithic religion]] * [[Aesir-Asura correspondence]] * [[World Tree]] ==Notes== <references /> ==References== * ''The Mythology of the Aryan Nations'' by George W. Cox, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1887. * ''[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]'' ed. J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams, Fitzroy Dearborn, London, 1997. (abbrev. EIEC) * ''[[Teutonic Mythology]]'' by [[Jacob Grimm]], (transl. by Stallybrass), George Bell and Sons, London 1883 (abbrev. DM) * ''[[Golden Bough]]'' by [[James Frazer]], MacMillan & Co. Ltd. London, 1919-1920 (12 vol. edition) * ''Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture'' (Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 80, 2 Vol. Set), by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, and Vjaceslav V. Ivanov, with Werner Winter, ed., and Johanna Nichols, translator (original title ''Indoevropeiskii iazyk i indoevropeistsy''), M. De Gruyter, Berlin & NY, 1995. (abbrev. G&I) * ''Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World'', by J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006 * [[J.P. Mallory|Mallory, J.P.]], (1989). ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'' London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1 * [[Colin Renfrew|Renfrew, Colin]] (1987). ''Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins''. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-02495-7 * ''Indo-European Language and Society'' by Emile Benveniste (transl. by Elizabeth Palmer, orig. title ''Le vocabulaire des institutions Indo-Europeennes'', 1969), University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, Fla., 1973. ==External links== * [http://indoeuro.bizland.com/tree/balk/messapic.html Bizland linguistic sources] * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/index.htm Internet Sacred Texts Archive] * [http://www.adf.org/articles/cosmology/ierelpos.html Neo-pagan article on PIE religion] {{paganism}} [[Category:Comparative mythology]] [[Category:History of religion]] [[Category:Indo-European deities]] [[Category:Indo-European mythology]] [[de:Indogermanische Religion]] [[fr:Religion proto-indo-européenne]] [[pt:Religião proto-indo-européia]] [[ru:Индоевропейская мифология]]