Psychic 58323 225927636 2008-07-16T01:37:51Z Kaiwhakahaere 6397821 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 225926956 by [[Special:Contributions/67.201.255.200|67.201.255.200]] ([[User talk:67.201.255.200|talk]]) [[Image:Cayce 1910.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Edgar Cayce]] (1877–1945) was one of the best-known American psychics of the 20th century and made many highly publicized predictions.]] In popular culture the word '''psychic''' ({{pronEng|ˈsaɪkɨk}}; from the Greek psychikos—"of the soul, mental") refers to the claimed ability to perceive things hidden from the senses through means of [[extra-sensory perception]]. The term also refers to [[stage magicians|theatrical performers]] who use techniques such as [[slight of hand|prestidigitation]] and [[cold reading]] to produce the appearance of having such abilities. In the past, parapsychologists had attempted to study what some believe are psychic phenomena using a variety of methods such as [[random number generators]] to test for [[psychokinesis]] or the [[Ganzfeld experiment]] to test for [[extra-sensory perception]].<ref name="Gracely"/> To date there is no scientific evidence for the existence of psychic abilities. [[Scientific skepticism|Skeptics]] have pointed out that most demonstrations of psychic occurrences are nothing more than intentional trickery or self [[delusion]].<ref name="Carroll"/> Early examples of individuals thought by some to have psychic powers include the [[Oracle]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] who was thought to provide prophecies from Apollo himself<ref name="Morgan"/> as well as [[Nostradamus]], a [[France|French]] [[apothecary]] who is thought by some to have had the ability to predict the future.<ref name="Bernard"/> During the 19th century belief in psychics became more common and many individuals gained notoriety as psychics, including [[Daniel Dunglas Home]]. Psychics are also very popular in science fiction today and many works of fiction include individuals with psychic abilities, including ''[[The Dead Zone (novel)|The Dead Zone]]'' by [[Stephen King]] as well as [[Jean Grey]] from the Marvel comic book universe. Today, belief in psychic phenomena is widespread amongst the general public. A 2005 [[Gallup poll]] concluded that 41% of Americans believe in [[extra-sensory perception]].<ref name=gallup>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_29/ai_n15400020 Gallup poll shows that Americans' belief in the paranormal persists], Skeptical Inquirer, accessed [[October 28]], [[2006]]</ref> ==History== ===Etymology=== The word psychic is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''psychikos'' (of the soul/mental) and refers in part to the human mind or psyche (ex. "psychic turmoil"). French astronomer and [[spiritualist]] [[Camille Flammarion]] is credited as having first used the word psychic, while it was later introduced to the [[English language]] by Edward William Cox in the 1870s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Psychic. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> Some credit [[William Crookes]], an English [[chemist]] and [[physicist]], as having first used the term in describing [[Mediumship|medium]] and [[Magician (paranormal)|magician]] [[Daniel Dunglas Home]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |authorlink= |title=Psychic |work=Skepdic.com |publisher=The Skeptics Dictionary |date=2005 |url=http://www.skepdic.com/psiassumption.html |accessdate=2007-08-10}}</ref> ===Early seers and prophets=== [[Image:Pythia1.jpg|thumb|right|125px|[[Aegeus]], a mythical king of [[Athens]], consults the Pythia, who sits on a tripod.]] Elaborate systems of [[divination]] and [[fortune-telling]] date back to ancient times. Perhaps the most widely-known system of early civilization fortune-telling was [[astrology]], where practitioners believed the relative positions of [[celestial bodies]] could lend insight into people's lives and even predict their future circumstances. Some fortune-tellers were said to be able to make [[predictions]] without the use of these elaborate systems (or in conjunction with them), through some sort of direct apprehension or [[Vision (religion)|vision]] of the future. These people were known as [[seers]] or [[prophets]], and in later times as [[clairvoyants]] and [[psychics]]. Seers formed a functionary role in early civilization, often serving as advisors, priests, and judges.<ref name="Melton1">{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Prophecy. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> A number of examples are included in biblical accounts. The book of [[1 Samuel]] (Chapter 9) illustrates one such functionary task when [[Samuel (Bible)|Samuel]] is asked to locate the donkeys of the future king [[Saul]].<ref>[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a09.htm 1 Samuel Chapter 9/Hebrew - English Bible]. Retrieved [[19 September]] [[2007]].</ref> The role of prophet appeared perennially in ancient cultures. In [[Egypt]], the priests of [[Ra]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] acted as seers. In ancient [[Assyria]] seers were referred to as ''nabu'', meaning "to call" or "announce".<ref name="Melton1" /> The [[Delphic Oracle]] is one of the earliest stories in [[classical antiquity]] of prophetic abilities. The [[Pythia]], the priestess presiding over the [[Oracle]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]], was believed to be able to deliver [[prophecy|prophecies]] inspired by [[Apollo]] during rituals beginning in the 8th century BC.<ref name=Morgan>Morgan 1990, p. 148.</ref> It is often said that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapors rising from the ground, and that she spoke gibberish, believed to be the voice of Apollo, which priests reshaped into the enigmatic prophecies preserved in Greek literature.<ref>For an example, see Farnell 1907, p. 189.</ref> Other scholars believe records from the time indicate that the Pythia spoke intelligibly, and gave prophecies in her own voice.<ref>Fontenrose 1978, pp. 196-227; Maurizio 2001, pp. 38-54.</ref> The Pythia was a position served by a succession of women probably selected from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. The last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor [[Theodosius I]] ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Recent geological investigations raise the possibility that [[ethylene]] gas caused the Pythia's state of inspiration.<ref>Spiller et al., 2000; de Boer, et al., 2001; Hale et al. 2003.</ref><ref>Mason, Betsy. ''[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/cgi/content/full/2006/1002/2 The Prophet of Gases]'' in ScienceNow Daily News [[2 October]] [[2006]]. Retrieved [[11 October]] [[2006]].</ref> [[Image:Nostradamus.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Michel de Nostredame ([[Nostradamus]]) was a seer who published collections of [[prophecy|prophecies]] in the 1500s.]] One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of [[Michel de Nostredame]] (1503 &ndash; 1566), often [[Latin]]ized to [[Nostradamus]], published during the [[French Renaissance]] period. [[Nostradamus]], was a [[France|French]] [[apothecary]] and seer who wrote collections of [[prophecy|prophecies]] that have since become famous world-wide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book ''Les Propheties'', the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 [[quatrain]]s or prophecies,<ref name=Bernard>Chevignard, Bernard, ''Présages de Nostradamus'' 1999</ref> as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles &mdash; all undated. Nostradamus is a controversial figure. His many enthusiasts, as well as the popular press, credit him with predicting numerous major world events. Interest in his work is still considerable, especially in the media and [[Nostradamus in popular culture|in popular culture]]. By contrast, most academic scholars maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus' quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power.<ref>Lemesurier, Peter, ''The Unknown Nostradamus'', 2003</ref> In addition to the belief that some historical figures were endowed with a predisposition to psychic experiences, some psychic abilities were thought to be available to everyone on occasion. For example, the belief in prophetic dreams was common and persistent in many ancient cultures.<ref name="Melton2">{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Dreams. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> ===Modern psychics=== In the mid-nineteenth century, [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Modern Spiritualism]] became prominent in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The movement's distinguishing feature was the belief that the [[spirit]]s of the dead could be contacted by [[mediumship|medium]]s to lend insight to the living.<ref name="Carroll">{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Bret E. |authorlink= |title=Spiritualism in Antebellum America |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1997 |pages= |isbn=0-253-33315-6}}</ref> The movement was fueled in part by anecdotes of psychic powers. One such person believed to have extraordinary abilities was [[Daniel Dunglas Home]], who gained notoriety during the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] period for his reported ability to levitate to a variety of heights and speak to the dead.<ref name="Podmore">{{cite book |last=Podmore |first=Frank |authorlink= |title=Mediums of the Nineteenth Century |publisher=University Books |date=1997 |pages= |isbn=0-253-33315-6}}</ref> As the Spiritualist movement grew other comparable groups arose, including the [[Theosophical Society]], which was co-founded in 1875 by [[Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] (1831–1891). Theosophy coupled spiritualist elements with [[Eastern mysticism]] and was influential in the early 20th century, later influencing the [[New Age]] movement during the 1970s. Blavatsky herself claimed numerous psychic powers.<ref name="Melton3">{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Theosophical Society. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> ==Popular culture== ===Belief in psychic abilities=== A survey of the beliefs of the general [[United States]] population regarding paranormal topics was conducted by the [[Gallup Organization]] in 2005.<ref name=gallup>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_29/ai_n15400020 Gallup poll shows that Americans' belief in the paranormal persists], Skeptical Inquirer, accessed [[October 28]], [[2006]]</ref> The survey found that 41 percent of those polled believed in [[extrasensory perception]] and 26 percent believed in [[clairvoyance]]. Thirty-one percent of those surveyed indicated that they believe in telepathy or psychic communication. A poll of 439 college students conducted in 2006 by researchers Bryan Farha of [[Oklahoma City University]] and Gary Steward of [[University of Central Oklahoma]], suggested that college seniors and graduate students were more likely to believe in psychic phenomena than college freshmen. Twenty-three percent of college freshmen expressed a belief in paranormal ideas. The percentage was greater among college seniors (31%) and graduate students (34%).<ref>Britt, R.: [http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/060121_paranormal_poll.html "Higher Education Fuels Stronger Belief in Ghosts"] LiveScience, January 2006, Retrieved September 18, 2007. </ref> Some people also believe that psychic abilities can be activated or enhanced through the study and practice of various disciplines and techniques such as meditation, with a number of books and websites being dedicated to instruction in these methods. Another popular belief is that psychic ability is hereditary, with a psychic parent passing their abilities on to their children.<ref>Hargreaves, Julie: ''Psychics - myths & misconceptions'', Nov 2002, Retrieved April 25, 2007. http://www.hark.net.au/articles/psychics_info.htm</ref> ===Psychic advice industry=== Many people proclaim to have psychic abilities and some make a living as professional [[Fortune-telling| fortune tellers]] or earn celebrity hosting their own TV programs. Individuals such as [[John Edward]] and [[Sylvia Browne]] either have their own television shows or are frequently featured on talk shows. (see [[Paranormal television]]). Some psychics are first known by the public as celebrities. Rock singer and actress [[Danielle Egnew]], whose psychic work with law enforcement and claim to many predictions such as the 2001 New York 9/11 Twin Towers disaster and the Iraq War, have resulted in her frequent radio and television appearances as a psychic, rather than a singer. Other celebrity psychics, like Tana Hoy, attempt to help people identify and fine tune their psychic abilities. They teach classes and liken the instruction to coaching a fine art like singing, painting or writing. ===Science fiction=== The use of psychic abilities as a plot device or super power is common in [[fiction]]. Psychic abilities in science fiction are frequently depicted as inborn and heritable, as in [[Alfred Bester]]'s ''[[The Demolished Man]]'', [[A. E. van Vogt]]'s ''[[Slan]]'', and the television series ''[[Babylon 5]]''. Another recurring [[trope]] is the conveyance of psychic power through psychoactive drugs, as in the ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' novels and indirectly in the ''[[Scanners]]'' films. Somewhat differently, in [[Madeleine L'Engle]]'s ''[[A Wind in the Door]]'' and [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'', psychic abilities may be achieved by any human who learns the proper mental discipline, known as ''kything'' in the former work and ''grokking'' in the latter. Psychic characters are also common in [[superhero]] [[comic book]]s, for instance [[Jean Grey]] and [[Professor X]] from the Marvel comic [[X-Men]]. In the [[Pokémon]] series, one of the seventeen elemental types is called the Psychic-type. In addition, an attack of said type is also named Psychic. ==Evidence (or lack thereof)== [[Image:Ganzfeld.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Participant of a [[Ganzfeld|Ganzfeld Experiment]] whose results have been criticized as being misrepresented as evidence for [[telepathy]].]] [[Parapsychology|Parapsychological research]] has attempted to use [[random number generators]] to test for [[psychokinesis]], mild sensory deprivation in the [[Ganzfeld experiment]] to test for [[extra-sensory perception]], and research trials conducted under contract by the U.S. government to investigate [[remote viewing]]. The results of these tests have been generally disparaged by those who are not parapsychologists, and currently research into whether psychic powers exist is relegated to outside of the academic community.<ref name=Gracely>{{cite web |last=Gracely, Ph.D. |first=Ed J. |authorlink= |title=Why Extraordinary Claims Demand Extraordinary Proof |work=PhACT |date=1998 |url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/extraproof.html |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Myers |first=David G |authorlink= |coauthors=Blackmore, Susan |title=Putting ESP to the Experimental Test |work=Hope College |url=http://www.davidmyers.org/Brix?pageID=61&article_part=4 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Parapsychology involves research that does not fit within [[Scientific modeling|standard theoretical models]]. Scientists, when they have commented, have been overtly critical of the methodology and results of parapsychology, like, for example, psychologists [[Ray Hyman]] and James A. Alcock. Methodological flaws in parapsychology have been invoked to explain apparently successful experimental results, as opposed to the paranormal explanations offered by many parapsychologists. Some critical analysts argue that parapsychology crosses the line into [[pseudoscience]]. To date, no evidence has been accepted by the [[scientific community]] as supporting paranormal phenomena.<ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |date=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L. |title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1987 |url= http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |date=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> The evidence presented for psychic phenomena is not sufficiently verified for scientific acceptance (see [[peer review]]) and there exist many non-paranormal alternative explanations for claimed instances of psychic events.<ref name=Carroll>{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |authorlink= |title=Psychic |work=Skepdic.com |publisher=The Skeptics Dictionary |date=2005 |url=http://skepdic.com/psychic.html|accessdate=2007-08-10}}</ref> Even [[parapsychologists]] have agreed that many if not most of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as [[mediumship| mediumism]] and other psychic feats, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as [[cold reading]] and [[hot reading]], or even self-[[delusion]].<ref name=critandcont1>EBauer, berhard (1984) "[http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology - An Overview]", Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, European Journal of Parapsychology, 5, 141-166 (2007-02-09)</ref><ref name=mediumship1>O',Keeffe, Ciarán and Wiseman Richard (2005) "[http://www.psy.herts.ac.uk/wiseman/papers/MediumBJP.pdf Testing alleged mediumship: Methods and results]", British Journal of Psychology, 96, 165–17</ref> [[Magic (illusion)| Magicians]] such as [[James Randi]], [[Ian Rowland]] and [[Derren Brown]] have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they present psychological explanations opposed to paranormal ones.<ref>Rowland, Ian (2002) "[http://ianrowland.com/ItemsToBuy/ColdReading/ColdReadingMain1.html The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading]", Self-Published, ASIN B000NDYWDA</ref> ==See also== {{Paranormal |state=collapsed}} *[[Psychic detective]] *[[Scrying]] *[[Mediumship]] *[[Magic (paranormal)]] *[[Mentalist]] ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== <!-- ATTENTION! DO NOT ADD OR REMOVE LINKS WITHOUT DISCUSSION AND CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE. OTHERWISE THEY WILL BE REMOVED OR REPLACED. --> *[http://www.freepsychicchatonline.org/ Psychic chat] *[http://www.spr.ac.uk/ The Society for Psychical Research] — Founded in 1882 to examine psychic phenomena scientifically. *[http://www.randi.org/ James Randi Educational Foundation] — Educational resource on skepticism of the paranormal, pseudoscientific, and the supernatural. *[http://www.parapsych.org Parapsychological Association website] — Professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena. * [http://skepdic.com/psychic.html Psychic essay] in the ''[[Skeptic's Dictionary]]'', by [[Robert Todd Carroll]]. * [http://www.wooster.edu/geology/FYSW/NonsenseFYS.html Nonsense (And Why It's So Popular)] A course syllabus from The College of Wooster. <br> {{Parapsychology}} [[Category:Parapsychology]] [[Category:Psychic powers]] [[Category:Paranormal terminology]] [[Category:People claiming to have paranormal abilities]] [[fi:Psyykikko]] [[tr:Psişik]]