Puerto Rican Amazon 2268811 225583970 2008-07-14T12:36:23Z Joelr31 316482 removing subjective listing and replacing with CITES and IUCN information {{Taxobox | name = Puerto Rican Amazon | status = CR | status_system = IUCN3.1 | trend = stable | status_ref =<ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2006|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2006|id=1069|title=Amazona vittata|downloaded= [[2006-05-11]]}}</ref> | image = Amazona vittata.jpg | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | subphylum = [[Vertebrata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Psittaciformes]] | familia = [[Psittacidae]] | genus = ''[[Amazon parrot|Amazona]]'' | species = '''''A. vittata''''' | binomial = ''Amazona vittata'' | binomial_authority = [[Pieter Boddaert|Boddaert]], 1783 | subdivision_ranks = Subspecies | subdivision = *'''''A. v. vittata''''' *'''''A. v. gracilipes''''' † }} The '''Puerto Rican Amazon''' (''Amazona vittata''), also known as the '''Puerto Rican Parrot''' or '''''Iguaca''''', is a bird [[Endemism in birds|endemic]] to the [[archipelago]] of [[Puerto Rico]] belonging to the [[Neotropic ecozone|neotropical]] genus ''[[Amazon parrot|Amazona]]''. Measuring 28&ndash;30&nbsp;cm (11&ndash;12&nbsp;in), the Puerto Rican Amazon is a predominantly green [[parrot]] with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes. Two subspecies have been described, although there are doubts over the distinctiveness of the form ''gracilipes'' from [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra Island]], extinct since 1912. Its closest relatives are believed to be the [[Cuban Amazon]] (''Amazona leucocephala'') and the [[Hispaniolan Amazon]] (''Amazona ventralis''). Puerto Rican Amazons reach sexual maturity between three and four years of age. They reproduce once a year and are [[Bird nest#Cavity|cavity nesters]]. Once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching. The chicks are fed by both parents and will [[fledge]] 60 to 65 days after hatching. This parrot's diet is varied and consists of flowers, fruits, leaves, bark and nectar obtained from the forest [[Canopy (forest)|canopy]]. The species is the only remaining native parrot in Puerto Rico and has been listed as [[critically endangered]] by the [[World Conservation Union]] since 1994. Initially widespread and abundant, the population declined drastically in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the removal of most of its native habitat, completely vanishing from nearby [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]] and [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona Island]]. Conservation efforts were started in 1968 to save this species from likely extinction. In 2006, the total population comprised an estimated 34 to 40 individuals living in the wild and 143 individuals living in captivity.<ref name="Q & A"/> ==Taxonomy and evolution== The Puerto Rican Amazon was described by Dutch ornithologist [[Pieter Boddaert]] in 1783. It belongs to the large [[Neotropic ecozone|neotropical]] genus ''Amazona'', commonly known as [[Amazon parrot|Amazons]]; these birds have also been given the generic epithet of 'parrot' by the [[American Ornithologists' Union]], hence Puerto Rican Parrot is an alternative common name in North America.<ref name=aud06/> The indigenous [[Taíno]] people called it the ''Iguaca'', an [[onomatopoeic]] name that resembled the parrots' flight call.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2000/r00-026.html |title=Captive-bred Puerto Rican Parrots released in El Yunque |accessdate=2008-06-02 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |date=[[2000-06-28]]}}</ref> There are two recognized subspecies: *'''''A. v. vittata''''' is the [[Subspecies#Nomenclature|nominate]] and only extant subspecies, inhabiting Puerto Rico and formerly nearby [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques Island]] and [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona Island]].<ref name = CMI>{{Cite web|publisher=Conservation Management Institute| title=Taxonomy: Puerto Rican Parrot|url=http://fwie.fw.vt.edu/WWW/esis/lists/e104004.htm|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref> *'''''A. v. gracilipes''''' inhabited [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra Island]] and is now extinct. It is unclear whether it was substantially different from the nominate subspecies ''vittata''. ===Evolutionary history=== There is no evidence that the West Indies were connected to a continent in the past, and thus the various native bird species are assumed to be descended from those that immigrated to the [[Caribbean]] at some point. Some small species would encounter problems traversing large bodies of water, but parrots have flight strength and various behavioral characteristics that would facilitate "over-water" dispersion.<ref name="p.42">{{cite book| title=The Parrots of Luquillo: Natural History and Conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot| author=Snyder, Noel F.R., Wiley, James W. and Kepler, Cameron B.| publisher=[[Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology]]| location=Los Angeles| year=1987| isbn=0-935868-27-5|page =42}}</ref> Most Caribbean bird species originate from [[Central America|Central]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]].<ref name="p.44">Snyder ''et al.'', p. 44</ref> The ''[[Amazon parrot|Amazona]]'' species found in the Caribbean are divided in two groups: five mid-sized species found in the [[Greater Antilles]] and seven large species in the [[Lesser Antilles]].<ref name="p.46">Snyder ''et al.'', p. 46</ref> All the Greater Antillean Amazons display characteristics leading to suppositions of relatedness, including predominantly green-toned color patterns and white rings around the eyes.<ref name="p.46"/> Russello and Amato conclude that all Greater Antillean ''Amazona'' descend from ''[[Amazona albifrons]]'' with ''Amazona vittata'', ''[[Amazona leucocephala]]'', and ''[[Amazona ventralis]]'' constituting a complex, a cluster of species so closely related that they intergrade.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Michael A. Russello and George Amato | year = 2004| month = | title = A molecular phylogeny of Amazona: implications for Neotropical parrot biogeography, taxonomy, and conservation| journal = [[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]]| volume =30 | issue = 2|pages=421&ndash;437| doi = 10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00192-1 | url = | accessdate = |pmid=14715233 |page=433}}</ref> {{userboxtop| toptext=&nbsp;}} {{clade |1=''A. albifrons'' |2={{clade |1=''A. agilis'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''A. collaria'' |2={{clade |1=''A. ventralis'' |2={{clade |1=''A. leucocephala'' |2=''A. vittata'' }} }} }} }} }} }} <small>Greater Antillean ''Amazona'' phylogeny after Russello and Amato, 2004.</small> {{userboxbottom}} British ornithologist [[David Lack]] considered that the Puerto Rican Amazon had evolved from the Hispaniolan Amazon (''A. ventralis'') found in [[Hispaniola]], but it has since been argued that he omitted some elements in his analysis, including the similarities found between the [[Black-billed Amazon]] (''A. agilis'') of [[Jamaica]] and the Puerto Rican Amazon.<ref name="p.47">Snyder ''et al.'', p. 47</ref> Subsequent studies showed that size and color patterns were not sufficient, and that patterns changed with relative ease even within members of the same species.<ref name="p.47"/> The research concluded that the Puerto Rican Amazon may rather share a common ancestor with the Jamaican ''A. agilis''.<ref name="p.52">Snyder et al., p. 52</ref> Recent [[phylogenetic]] studies show that the Puerto Rican Amazon is more closely related to the Hispaniolan Amazon and the Cuban Amazon than to the Black-billed Amazon.<ref>Russello and Amato, p. 428</ref> ==Description== The Puerto Rican Amazon measures 28&ndash;30&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] (11&ndash;12&nbsp;[[inch|in]]) and weighs from 250&ndash;300&nbsp;[[gram|g]] (9&ndash;10.5&nbsp;[[ounce|oz]]) with an average of 275&nbsp;g (10&nbsp;oz). Although small when compared with Amazons in general, it is similar in size to other Greater Antilles ''Amazona'' species. [[Sexual dimorphism]] is not present. Both the male and female bird have predominantly green plumage with paler and yellow-tinged underparts, a red forehead and white ovals around the eyes, with green feathers having blue edges. The iris is brown, the bill a horn color and the legs yellow-tan. The wing [[Flight feather#primaries|primaries]] and main [[Covert (feather)|coverts]] are dark blue.<ref name=Forshaw538> {{cite book| author=[[Joseph Forshaw|Forshaw, Joseph M.]] and Cooper, William T. |year=1978| title=Parrots of the World| edition=2nd|publisher=Landsdowne Editions| location=Melbourne| isbn=0-7018-0690-7 |page=538}}</ref> The color of feathers on the bird's underside vary depending on the precise body part where they are located. Those found on the wings' underside, which can be seen during flight, are bright blue while those in the tail exhibit a yellow-green tone. Aside from DNA tests, males and females can only be distinguished by behavioral differences during the breeding season. Immature birds have plumage similar to adults.<ref name=Forshaw538/> ==Population and distribution== The precise distribution of the Puerto Rican Amazon before the arrival of [[Spain|Spanish]] colonialists is uncertain due to a lack of contemporary records and the disappearance of the indigenous Taíno people,<ref name="p.15">Snyder et al., p. 15</ref> but the species was known to be widespread and abundant, with Edward Cavendish Taylor, a British ornithologist, reporting in 1864 that the parrots were still common near [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].<ref name="p.16">Snyder et al., p. 16</ref> There is also evidence the species may have inhabited [[Antigua]], [[Barbuda]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Charles A. Woods and Florence E. Sergile|title=Biogeography of the West Indies: Patterns and Perspectives |edition=2nd. ed. |location=Boca Raton |publisher=CRC |isbn= 0-8493200-1-1 |pages=p. 183}}</ref> and the [[Virgin Islands]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Oberle |first=Mark |year=2003 |title=Las aves de Puerto Rico en fotografías |location=Washington |publisher=Editorial Humanitas |isbn = 0-9650104-2-2|language = Spanish}}</ref><ref name="p.18–19">Snyder et al., pp. 18–19</ref> During the latter half of the 19th century, most of Puerto Rico's virgin forests, historical habitat of the species, were cleared for agricultural development, primarily the production of sugar, cotton, corn and rice. With this development, the Amazon quickly became reliant on these crops as their main food source and became known as a pest; the local farmers repelled or hunted the bird if possible.<ref name="p.22">Snyder et al., p. 22</ref> As the agricultural work expanded, the number of parrots declined and their habitat continued to be reduced. Before this, humans had not been a significant threat to the species; the Taíno were known to hunt the parrot but this did not have a significant effect in their population.<ref name="p.21">Snyder et al., p. 21</ref> [[Image:Amazona vittata range.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Puerto Rican Amazon historical range at left (in red) and current range at right (in green)]] Accounts recorded in the early 1900s place the parrots traveling away from the [[Luquillo]] forest and the Sierra de Cayey towards the main island's coast in order to find food sources.<ref name="p.15"/> Within this timeframe, the species was extirpated from Puerto Rico's smaller islands—Culebra, Vieques and Mona—and became restricted to five locations: two in [[Karst topography|karst-limestone areas]], two in high montane rain forests and one in [[Mangrove|mangrove forest]] at the foot of the Caribbean National Forest (now the [[El Yunque National Forest]]). One of these karst regions, located in the northwestern part of Puerto Rico, was identified as a haven for the species, particularly a region named ''Valle de las Cotorras'' ( Valley of the Parrots) located between [[San Sebastián, Puerto Rico|San Sebastián]] and [[Morovis, Puerto Rico|Morovis]], where there was a sizable population. Some Amazons survived in small pockets of degraded forest but these proved insufficient for the subsistence of large colonies, eventually limiting their natural habitat to the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|Cordillera Central]] and undisturbed forest areas. By 1940, the species was restricted to primary forest at the Luquillo Mountains in the Caribbean National Forest. The species historically occurred in eight mature or old-growth forests in Puerto Rico at all elevations, in holes, in [[cliff]]s, and other diverse habitats at lower elevations. The species could be found at medium elevations in the Guajataca State Forest (until 1910) and the Rio Abajo State Forest (until the 1920s), and at high elevations in the Carite State Forest (until the 1930s)<!--maybe restructuring this is the best idea-->.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060104142436/http://www.fws.gov/endangered/i/b/sab02.html|title = Puerto Rican Parrot (''Amazona vittata'') - Species account|publisher = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service| archived=2006-01-04| accessdate=2008-06-04}}</ref> The species is currently found at elevations between 396 and 823&nbsp;m (1,300 and 2,700&nbsp;ft). Since the species requires mature forests with open-cavity trees for reproduction, it does not occur in dwarf and second growth forests. The current range of the species is 16&nbsp;[[Square kilometre|km²]] (6&nbsp;[[Square mile|sq mi]]), 0.2% of its former range.<ref name="iucn"/> Early estimates of the parrot's numbers vary greatly, with some authorities claiming more than one million individuals,<ref name=RecoveryPlan>{{cite web|title=Technical/Agency Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Puerto Rican Parrot (''Amazona vittata'')|url=http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plans/1999/990430.pdf|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|format=PDF| date=April 1999|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref> while others propose a more modest population of 100,000. During the first 150 years of Spanish rule the human population was small, and in 1650, when the population of the island was 880 people, the species was still abundant throughout the archipelago.<ref name="p.21–22">Snyder et al., pp. 21–22</ref> After 1650 the human population increased exponentially, and the Puerto Rican Amazon population started to decline. Outside of agricultural development, several factors contributed to the decrease in numbers, including the construction of roads, hydroelectric development, and the adoption of young chicks as pets.<ref name="p.29–36">Snyder et al., pp. 29–36</ref> Heinrich Moritz Gaede, a German naturalist, declared that by 1836 the parrot population had noticeably declined.<ref name="p.16"/> In the 1950s, the wild population declined to 200 individuals. This trend continued, reaching an absolute low of 13 individuals in the wild in 1975. A short-lived recovery followed and in August 1989 the population was estimated at a minimum of 47 individuals, but on [[September 18]], [[1989]], [[Hurricane Hugo]] struck the northeast coast of Puerto Rico inflicting heavy casualties on the remaining individuals. In the aftermath of the hurricane the population was estimated at 23 individuals and presently, the wild population is estimated between 34 and 40 individuals.<ref name="BirdLife">{{cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=1666&m=0|title=Puerto Rican Parrot - BirdLife Species Factsheet|publisher=BirdLife International|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref><ref name="Q & A"/> ==Behavior== The Puerto Rican Amazon is diurnal, typically beginning its day half an hour after sunrise.<ref name="p.71">Snyder et al., p. 71</ref> It is generally secretive when inside its nest, using its green plumage as camouflage. In contrast, it may be vocal and noisy when outside the nest. Upon taking flight, its color pattern provides some contrast to the forest. The flight mechanism of this species is simmilar the one found in other Amazons, and involves strokes below the body axis, unlike most birds whose wings flow above their bodies in flight. Amazons can fly moderately fast, reaching a top speed of approximately 30&nbsp;[[kilometres per hour|km/h]] (18&nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]), and are fairly agile when evading predators in mid-air.<ref name=Sny67>Snyder et al., p. 67</ref> When in search of food, the parrots group in pairs. Couples and their [[fledge]]d young display a tendency to stay together.<ref name=Sny68>Snyder et al., p. 68</ref> The Amazon makes two flight calls, a take-off squawk which consist of a pattern of long squawks, and a loud "bugle", commonly used in flight and which may have several meanings depending on the circumstances when it is used.<ref name=Sny70>Snyder et al., p. 70</ref> ===Diet=== Like almost all amazons, the Puerto Rican Amazon is a [[herbivore]]. Its diet consists of flowers, fruits, leaves, bark and nectar obtained from the forest's [[Canopy (forest)|canopy]]. The species has been recorded to consume more than 60 different materials, although its diet was historically more varied due to its larger [[Range (biology)|range]]. Among the items it consumes are the [[Exocarp|pericarp]] of the seeds of sierra palm (''Prestoea montana''), tabonuco (''[[Dacryodes excelsa]]''), and negra lora (''Matayba domingensis''); the fruits of ''bejuco de rana'' (''Marcgravia sintenisii''), camasey (''Miconia sintenisii''), cupey de altura (''Clusia gundlachii''), and ''palo de cruz'' (''Rheedia portoricensis''); the flowers of bejuco de rana, achiotillo (''Alchornea latifolia''), and ''Piptocarpha tetrantha''; the leaves and twigs of cupeillo (''Clusia grisebachiana''), laurel sabino (''[[Magnolia splendens]]''), caimitillo verde (''Micropholis garciniaefolia''), and ''Piptocarpha tetrantha''; the bark of bejuco de rana, cupeillo, and cachimbo cumun (''Psychotria berteriana''); and the [[bud]]s of cuaba (''[[Inga vera]]'').<ref name="p.81–83">Snyder et al., pp. 81–83</ref> It normally selects the fruits positioned directly in front of its eyes, picking them one at a time with some rare exceptions.<ref name=Sny79>Snyder et al., p. 79</ref> When feeding, it uses a foot to pick up the food.<ref name=Sny81>Snyder et al., p. 81</ref> The Amazon feeds in a slow, paused manner taking 8&ndash;60&nbsp;seconds to consume separate items.<ref name=Sny82>Snyder et al., p. 82</ref> ===Breeding=== The Puerto Rican Amazon usually mates for life, with pairs only changing mates if one bird perishes or abandons the nest.<ref name=Sny131>Snyder et al., p. 131</ref> A male may abandon the female if the latter is injured, re-mating with a more "physically perfect" subject.<ref name=Sny131/> The pairing process is unknown; however, new pairs tend to participate in mutual mating dances characterised by coordinated bows, partial extension of the wings and full tail expansion.<ref name=Sny132>Snyder et al., p. 132</ref> The Puerto Rican Amazon is a secondary [[Bird nest#Cavity|cavity nester]], nesting in tree trunk cavities, both naturally-occurring and excavated by other species. It prefers to nest in ''Palo colorado'' trees (''[[Cyrilla racemiflora]]''), but uses other trees, including the laurel sabino (''Magnolia splendens'') and tabonuco (''Dacryodes excelsa''), to a lesser extent. These trees are mature cavity-forming trees which provide protection against [[predator]]s and the entry of water. Recently, the species has also nested in artificial wooden boxes designed as part of the recovery plan for the species. Nest height varies from 7&ndash;15&nbsp;m (23&ndash;50&nbsp;ft) above ground. The male usually leads the search for nest sites, although the final decision seems to be taken by the female.<ref name=Sny141>Snyder et al., p. 141</ref> Once a site is selected, the pair will spend some time inspecting and cleaning it. No lining material is added to the [[Bird nest|nest]]. The Puerto Rican Amazon reaches [[sexual maturity]] at 4&nbsp;years of age in the wild and at 3&nbsp;years in captivity. The species usually reproduces once a year between the months of January and July (the [[dry season]]). Copulation between pairs seems to be closely-related to food transfers, with this possibly serving as a trigger for intercourse.<ref name=Sny149>Snyder et al., p. 149</ref> Amazons have a copulation pattern similar to that found in other parrots throughout the Americas, with the male gripping a perch with one leg while passively placing the other in the female's back.<ref name=Sny150>Snyder et al., p. 150</ref> As the time for egg-laying approaches the pair spends more time in the nest, with the male providing food to the female via regurgitation.<ref name=Sny148>Snyder et al., p. 148</ref> The female lays 2&ndash;4&nbsp;eggs that she exclusively incubates for a period of 24 to 28 days, while the male will be present in the vicinity of the nest when providing food.<ref name=Sny155>Snyder et al., p. 155</ref> Females rarely leave the nest, leaving it on rare occasions involving repelling predators or if the male has not brought food in an extended time frame.<ref name=Sny156>Snyder et al., p. 156</ref> The [[chick]]s are fed by both parents until they leave the nest, usually 60 to 65&nbsp;days after they hatch.<ref name="Q & A">{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/southeast/pubs/facts/PR_parrot_QA.pdf|title=Puerto Rican Parrots - Questions and Answers|publisher=[[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]]| format=PDF| accessdate=2008-06-04}}</ref> Nonetheless, they remain dependent on their parents and travel with them until the next breeding season.<ref name=aud06>{{cite web|title=Puerto Rican Parrot (''Amazona vittata'')|url=http://audubon2.org/webapp/watchlist/viewSpecies.jsp?id=168|publisher=National Audubon Society|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref> Like other Amazons, the Puerto Rican Amazon is [[wikt:gregarious|gregarious]] while performing daily activities, but territorial around its nest.<ref name=Forshaw541>Forshaw, p. 541</ref> The size of the territory around the nest is usually around 50&nbsp;meters (164&nbsp;feet).<ref name = CMI/> Pairs are extremely cautious near their nest, usually moving in a slow manner when leaving the nest to avoid the attention of predators.<ref name=Sny157>Snyder et al., p. 157</ref> Although territorial defense is mostly composed of loud vocalizations there are instances of actual physical combat.<ref name=Sny136>Snyder et al., p. 136</ref> Pairs will defend their nest sites against invading couples, sometimes focusing on the location's defense instead of egg-laying. Pairs nesting in areas uninhabited by other parrots will remain mostly silent unless other parrots enter the zone.<ref name=Sny136/> Some pairs may display moderate territoriality even when not apparently intending to nest, with these tendencies beginning in the latter half of the breeding season. One hypothesis is that this would occur in young pairs that had still not reached full maturity, serving as "practice territoriality".<ref name=Sny139>Snyder et al., p. 139</ref> ==Threats and conservation== On March&nbsp;11, 1967 the Puerto Rican Amazon entered the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species]] list.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/SpeciesReport.do?spcode=B00L| title=Species Profile: Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata)| publisher=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service| accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref> At the time of inclusion the population was estimated at 70 individuals. In 1968, recovery efforts began to increase the population in the wild.<!--http://ecos.fws.gov/SpeciesProfile?spcode=B00L--><ref name="p.225">Snyder et al., p. 225</ref> In 1972, when the estimated population was 16 individuals, the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS) at the Luquillo Aviary began efforts to breed parrots in captivity. Conservation efforts have paid off remarkably. In June 2006, it was reported by the USFWS that its birds in captivity had successfully hatched 39 chicks (the yearly average is around 16). The total wild population is currently estimated between 34-40 individuals. The [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN) lists the Puerto Rican Amazon as a [[critically endangered species]] since 1994.<ref name="iucn"/> The species is regulated under Appendix&nbsp;I of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] (CITES),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |accessdate=2008-07-14 |publisher=[[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]]}}</ref> rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts. ===Threats=== [[Image:RedtailedHawk23.jpg|right|thumb|[[Red-tailed Hawk]] (''B. j. jamaicensis''), known as ''Guaraguao'' in Puerto Rico, a natural predator of the Puerto Rican Amazon.]] The main reason for the population decline of the Puerto Rican Amazon is arguably man.<ref name=RecoveryPlan/> Early settlers of Puerto Rico, such as the Taíno, hunted it for food consumption but managed to maintain a healthy ecological balance. Later, habitat destruction, capture of immature individuals for the pet industry, hunting and predation contributed to the sharp population decline. The clearing of mature forests for agricultural development is the main reason for the decline of population. Natural predators of the Puerto Rican Amazon include the [[Red-tailed Hawk]] (''Buteo jamaicensis''), the [[Broad-winged Hawk]] (''Buteo platypterus''), the [[Peregrine Falcon]] (''Falco peregrinus'') and the [[Pearly-eyed Thrasher]] (''Margarops fuscatus'').<ref name="Q & A"/> The thrasher invaded Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century and has been a problem for the parrot population since 1973; to combat this, specially designed deep nests were prepared for the parrots in subsequent years to prevent competition from the invaders.<ref name=Forshaw540>Forshaw, p. 540</ref> Competition from introduced [[Western honeybee|honeybees]] (''Apis mellifera'') and the related Hispaniolan Amazon (''Amazona ventralis'') for nesting cavities also represent a threat to the species. Introduced [[Black rat]]s (''Rattus rattus'') and [[Small Asian Mongoose|Indian mongooses]] (''Herpestes javanicus'') may eat eggs and chicks and may also compete for nesting cavities.<ref name="BirdLife"/> Natural disasters, such as hurricanes, were not a threat to the Puerto Rican Parrot population when it was more readily self-maintaining, but as a result of the fragmentation and reduction of the population these disasters are now a threat as well. [[Hurricane Hugo]] passed through the species' current range in September 1989, and reduced the population by half from 47 to 23 individuals.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1011| title=Hurricane Effects on Wildlife and Ecosystems| publisher=U.S. Geological Survey| date=[[1998-12-08]]| accessdate=2008-05-18}}</ref> ===Recovery plan=== Due to the low population and endangered status of the Puerto Rican Amazon, a recovery plan was drafted and implemented in 1968. Its main objective was to downlist the species to threatened status by the year 2020.<ref name=RecoveryPlan/> Other objectives included the establishment of two separate viable wild populations (consisting of a stable number of 500 or more individuals for a period of at least five years), the protection of habitat for those populations, and the control of predators, parasites and competitors of the species. A captive population was established in the Luquillo Aviary in 1973, as part of the conservation efforts.<ref name=RecoveryPlan/> Another was established in 1993 when some individuals where transferred from the Luquillo Aviary to the Rio Abajo State Forest under the administration of the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources (''Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales'').<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/bulletin/2003/07-12/16-17.pdf| title=From Cage to Rainforest| author=Thomas H. White, Jr. and Fernando Nuñez-Garcia| publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service| format=PDF| accessdate=2008-06-04}}</ref> ==See also== {{portalpar|Puerto Rico}} {{portalpar|Birds}} *[[Fauna of Puerto Rico]] *[[List of endemic fauna of Puerto Rico]] *[[List of Puerto Rican birds]] *[[List of Vieques birds]] *[[El Toro Wilderness]], the part of El Yunque National Forest where the species is found. == Footnotes == {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Wikispecies|Amazona vittata}} *[http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/caribbean/wildlife-facts/2004/wildlife-facts-august-2004.shtml Wildlife Facts - August 2004 - Puerto Rican Parrot] *[http://www.fws.gov/southeast/prparrot US Fish and Wildlife Service - The Puerto Rican Parrot] [[Category:Amazon parrots]] [[Category:Birds of Puerto Rico|Parrot]] [[Category:West Indian restricted-range endemic bird species]] [[de:Puerto-Rico-Amazone]] [[es:Amazona vittata]] [[fr:Amazone de Porto Rico]] [[lt:Puertorikinė amazonė]] [[hu:Puerto Ricó-i amazonpapagáj]] [[ja:アカビタイボウシインコ]] [[ru:Пуэрториканский амазон]] [[fi:Puertoriconamatsoni]] [[tr:Porto Riko papağanı]] [[uk:Пуерто-риканський амазон]]