Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
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:''[[Hydro-storage]] redirects here. For storage of water for other purposes, see [[Reservoir]].''
{| align="right"
|[[Image:Pumpstor racoon mtn.jpg|thumb|right| Diagram of the TVA pumped storage facility at [[Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant]]]]
|-
|[[Image:Pumpspeicherkraftwerk engl.png|thumb|Power spectrum of a pumped-storage hydroelectricity. Green
represents power consumed in pumping; red is power generated.]]
|-
|{{portal|Energy}}
|}
'''Pumped storage hydroelectricity''' is a type of [[hydroelectric]] [[power generation]] used by some [[power plant]]s for ''[[load balancing (electrical power)|load balancing]]''. The method stores energy in the form of water, pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation. Low-cost off-peak electric power is used to run the pumps. During periods of high electrical demand, the stored water is released through [[turbine]]s. Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system increases [[revenue]] by selling more electricity during periods of ''[[peak demand]]'', when electricity prices are highest. Pumped storage is the largest-capacity form of [[grid energy storage]] now available.
==Overview==
At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as pump and turbine (usually a [[Francis turbine]] design). Some facilities use abandoned mines as the lower reservoir, but many use the height difference between two natural bodies of water or artificial reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the water between reservoirs, but combined pump-storage plants also generate their own electricity like conventional [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric plants]] through natural stream-flow. Plants that do not use pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in the [[Electric power transmission|electrical grid]] as pumped storage, by deferring output until needed.
Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses, approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical energy used to pump the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained. The technique is currently the most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy on an operating basis, but capital costs and the presence of appropriate geography are critical decision factors.
The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either a very large body of water or a large variation in height. For example, 1000 [[kilogram]]s of water (1 [[cubic meter]]) at the top of a 100 [[meter]] tower has a potential energy of about 0.272 [[Watt-hour|kW·h]]. The only way to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located on a hill relatively near, but as high as possible above, a second body of water. In some places this occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water have been man-made.
This system may be economical because it flattens out load variations on the power grid, permitting thermal power stations such as [[Fossil fuel power plant|coal-fired plants]] and [[nuclear power plant]]s that provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency ([[Base load power plant]]s), while reducing the need for "peaking" power plants that use costly fuels. Capital costs for purpose-built hydrostorage are high, however.
Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical network [[frequency]] and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency and [[voltage]] instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes within seconds.
[[Image:Stwlan.dam.jpg|thumb|left|The upper reservoir (Llyn Stwlan) and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in north Wales. The lower power station has four water turbines which generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the need arising. The size of the dam can be judged from the car parked below.]]
The first use of pumped storage was in the 1890s in [[Italy]] and [[Switzerland]]. In the 1930s reversible hydroelectric turbines became available. These turbines could operate as both turbine-generators and in reverse as electric motor driven pumps. The latest in large-scale engineering technology are variable speed machines for greater efficiency. These machines generate in [[Alternator|synchronisation]] with the network frequency, but operate [[Electric motor#Three-phase AC induction motors|asynchronously]] (independent of the network frequency) as motor-pumps.
A new use for pumped storage is to level the fluctuating output of [[intermittent power sources]]. The pumped storage absorbs load at times of high output and low demand, while providing additional peak capacity. In certain jurisdictions, [[Electricity market|electricity prices]] may be close to zero or occasionally negative ([[Ontario]] in early September, 2006), indicating there is more generation than load available to absorb it; although at present this is rarely due to [[Wind power|wind]] alone, increased wind generation may increase the likelihood of such occurrences. It is particularly likely that pumped storage will become especially important as a balance for very large scale [[photovoltaic]] generation.<ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/rep8_02s.htm Summary Energy from the Desert - Practical Proposals for Very Large Scale Photovoltaic Power Generation (VLS-PV) Systems<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
In 2000 the United States had 19.5 [[Watt|GW]] of pumped storage capacity, accounting for 2.5% of baseload generating capacity. PHS generated (net) -5.5 GWh of energy<ref>http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec8_8.pdf</ref> because more energy is consumed in pumping than is generated; losses occur due to water evaporation, electric turbine/pump efficiency, and friction.
In 1999 the [[EU]] had 32 GW capacity of pumped storage out of a total of 188 GW of hydropower and representing 5.5% of total electrical capacity in the EU.<!-- Comment Capacity should presumably be in GW not GWh -->
==Potential technologies==
The use of underground reservoirs as lower dams has been investigated. [[Salt mine]]s could be used, although ongoing and unwanted dissolution of salt could be a problem. If they prove affordable, underground systems might greatly expand the number of pumped storage sites. Saturated [[brine]] is about 20% more dense than fresh water.
A new concept in pumped storage is to utilise wind turbines to drive water pumps directly, in effect an 'Energy Storing Wind Dam'. This could provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out the variabilities of energy captured from the wind.
==Worldwide list of pumped storage plants==
<div style="-moz-column-count:2;">
;[[Argentina]]
*Rio Grande-Cerro Pelado Hydroelectric Complex (1986), 750 MW
; [[Australia]]
*[[Bendeela hydroelectric pumping station|Bendeela]] (1977), 80 MW
*[[Kangaroo Valley hydroelectric pumping station|Kangaroo Valley]] (1977), 160 MW
*[[Tumut Power Station, New South Wales|Tumut Three]], (1973), 1,500 MW
*[[Wivenhoe Power Station, Queensland|Wivenhoe Power Station]], 510 MW
;[[Austria]]
*Häusling (1988), 360 MW
*Lünerseewerk (1958), 232 MW
*Kraftwerksgruppe Fragant, 100 MW
*Kühtai (1981), 250 MW
*Malta-Hauptstufe (1979), 730 MW
*Rodundwerk I (1952), 198 MW
*Rodundwerk II (1976), 276 MW
*Roßhag (1972), 231 MW
*Silz (1981), 500 MW
;[[Belgium]]
*Coo, (1979), 1100 MW
;[[Bulgaria]]
*PAVEC Chaira, (1998), 864 MW
*PAVEC Belmeken (197?), 375 MW
*PAVEC Orfey, (1975), 160 MW
*PAVEC Peshtera, (1959), 128 MW
*PAVEC Batak, (1958), 48 MW
*PABEC Vacha, (1973), 20 MW
;[[Canada]]
*[[Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations]], (1957) near Niagara Falls, reversible Deriaz turbines, 174 MW
;[[China]]
*Guangzhou, (2000), 2,400 MW - (World's largest)<ref>[http://www.ssaa.org.hk/ssaa/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=24&Itemid=28 The World's Largest Pumped Storage Power Station in Conghua, Guangdong]</ref>
*Tianhuangping (2001), 1,800 MW
;[[Croatia]]
*CHE Fužine (1957) 4.6 MW
*RHE Lepenica (1985), 1.14/1.25 MW<ref>[http://www.hep.hr/proizvodnja/en/basicdata/hydro/west/vinodol.aspx HE Vinodol, HEP Proizvodnja<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*RHE Velebit (1984), 276/240MW<ref>[http://www.hep.hr/proizvodnja/en/basicdata/hydro/south/velebit.aspx RHE Velebit, HEP Proizvodnja<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
;[[Czech Republic]]
* [[Dalešice Dam|Dalešice]], (1978), 480 MW
* [[Dlouhé Stráně Dam|Dlouhé Stráně]], (1996), 650 MW
* [[Štěchovice Reservoir|Štěchovice]], (1947), 45 MW
;[[France]]
*Grand Maison (1997), 1,070 MW
*La Coche (1976), 285 MW
*Le Cheylas (1979), 485 MW
*Montézic (1983), 920 MW
*[[Rance tidal power plant|Rance]] (1966), 240 MW hybrid pumped [[Tidal power|water-tidal]] plant
*Revin (1976), 800 MW
*Super Bissorte (1978), 720 MW
;[[Germany]]
*Erzhausen (1964), 220 MW
*[[Geesthacht]] (Hamburg) (1958), 120 MW
*Goldisthal (2002), 1,060 MW
*Happurg (1958), 160 MW
*Hohenwarte II (1966), 320 MW
*Koepchenwerk (1989), 153 MW
*Langenprozelten (1976), 160 MW
*Markersbach (1981), 1,050 MW
*Niederwartha, Dresden (1958), 120 MW
*Waldeck II (1973), 440 MW
<!-- 50 -->
;[[India]]
* Bhira(Maharashtra) pump storage unit 150 MW
* Kadamparai, Near Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,(4*100)MW
* Nagarjuna Sagar PH, Andhra Pradesh, 810 MW (1 x 110 MW + 7 x 100 MW)
* Purulia Pumped Storage Project, Ayodhya Hills, Purulia, West Bengal, 900 MW
* Srisailam Left Bank PH, Andhra Pradesh, 900 MW (6 x 150 MW)
* Tehri dam, Uttranchal, 1000 MW (under construction)
;[[Iran]]
*Siah Bisheh, [[Iran]], (1996), 1,140 MW
;[[Ireland]]
*[[Turlough Hill]] (1974), 292 MW
;[[Italy]]
*Chiotas (1981), 1,184 MW
*Lago Delio (1971), 1,040 MW
*Piastra Edolo (1982), 1,020 MW
*Presenzano (1992), 1,000 MW
;[[Japan]]
*Imaichi (1991), 1,050 MW
*Kannagawa (2005), 2,700 MW
*Kazunogawa (2001), 1,600 MW
*Kisenyama, 466 MW
*Matanoagawa (1999), 1,200 MW
*Midono, 122 MW
*Niikappu, 200 MW
*Okawachi (1995), 1,280 MW
*Okutataragi (1998), 1,932 MW
*Okuyoshino, 1,206 MW
*Shin-Takasegawa, 1,280 MW
*Shiobara, 900 MW
*Takami, 200 MW
*Tamahara (1986), 1,200 MW
*Yagisawa, 240 MW
*[http://www.jcold.or.jp/Eng/Seawater/Seawater.htm Yanbaru], Okinawa (1999), 30 MW (First high-head seawater pumped storage in the world) [http://www.hitachi.com/rev/1998/revoct98/r4_108.pdf Hitachi]
<!-- is the first seawater pumped hydro plant. - what about Rance in France -->
;[[Lithuania]]
*[[Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant]], (1993) Designed - 1,600 MW, installed - 900 MW
;[[Luxembourg]]
*Vianden, (1964), 1,100 MW
;[[Norway]]
Note that Norway has a high density of hydroelectric power generation, so some of the following locations are simply pumps that never generate power themselves, but transfer water to reservoirs where it can be re-used by existing hydroelectric power stations. This information comes from [http://www.statkraft.no/pub/vannkraft/Kraftverkene/index.asp], [http://www.mika.no/Nygaard%20pumpekraftverk.htm], and [http://www.miljostatus.no/aust-agder/tema/vann/vassdrag/vassdragsregulering/kraftverk.htm]
*Aurland III, [[Hordaland]], (1979), 270 MW
*Breive, [[Bykle]], [[Aust-Agder]]
*Duge, [[Rogaland]]
*Hjorteland, [[Rogaland]]
*Hunnevatn, [[Rogaland]]
*Jukla, [[Hordaland]], 40 MW
*Kastdalen, [[Hordaland]]
*Mardal, [[Møre og Romsdal]]
*Monge, [[Møre og Romsdal]]
*Nygard, [[Modalen]], [[Hordaland]]
*Saurdal, [[Rogaland]], 640 MW
*Skarje, [[Bykle]], [[Aust-Agder]]
*Skjeggedal, [[Hordaland]]
*Stølsdal, [[Rogaland]], 17 MW
*Tverrvatn, [[Nordland]]
<!-- 110 -->
;[[Philippines]]
*CBK, 700MW
;[[Poland]]
* Dychów, 79.5 MW
* Niedzica, 92.6 MW
* Porąbka-Żar, 500 MW
* Solina, 200 MW
* Żarnowiec, 716 MW
* Żydowo, 150 MW
;[[Portugal]]
* Aguieira, 270MW
* Alqueva, 260MW
* Alto Rabagão, 72MW
* Torrão, 144MW
* Vilarinho II, 74MW
;[[Russia]]
* Kuban (1968) 15.9/19.2 MW
* Zagorsk (1994) 1,200/1,320 MW
* Zelenchuk (under construction) 140/150.6 MW
;[[Serbia]]
* Bajina Basta (1982) 614 MW
;[[Slovakia]] [http://www.seas.sk/elektrarne/vodne-elektrarne/9400.html]
* Čierny Váh 735.16 MW
* Liptovská Mara 198 MW
* Ružín 60MW
* Dobšiná 24 MW
;[[Slovenija]]
* Avče 600 MW
;[[South Africa]]
* [[Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme|Drakensberg]], [[South Africa]], (1983) 1,000 MW
* [[Palmiet Pumped Storage Scheme|Palmiet]] 400 MW
* [[Ingula]] 1332KW (Under Construction)
;[[Spain]]
* Aguayo (Cantabria) 339 MW
* Aldeadavila (Salamanca) 422 MW (2 X 211 MW) [http://industcards.com/hydro-spain.htm]
* Moralets-Llauset (Lleida/Huesca) 210 MW [http://xaf.smugmug.com/gallery/1923365]
* La Muela (Valencia) 628 MW
* Sallente-Estany Gento (Lleida) 451 MW [http://xaf.smugmug.com/gallery/1923289]
* Tajo de la Encantada (Málaga) 360 MW
* Tavascan-Montmara (Lleida) 52 MW
* Villarino (Salamanca) 810 MW (6 X 135 MW) [http://industcards.com/hydro-spain.htm]
;[[Sweden]]
* Juktan, 334 MW <ref>[http://hem.passagen.se/kts/english/turbin/francis/francis.htm Francisturbinen<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
;[[Switzerland]]
* Cleuson-Dixence VS - Lac des Dix - 2099 MW (turbine)
* Guttannen BE / Grimsel 2 (Kraftwerke Oberhasli) - Grimselsee - 1070 MW (turbine)
* Peccia, Cavergno, Verbano, Bavona, Altstafel, Robiei TI (Maggia Kraftwerke AG) - 620 MW (turbine)
* Hongrin VD - Lac de l'Hongrin - 240 MW (420 MW in the future)
* Mapragg SG (Kraftwerke Sarganserland) - Stausee Mapragg - 370 MW (turbine)
* Linthal GL - Linth-Limmern - 340 MW turbine - (1000 MW pump and turbine by 2015)
* Altendorf SZ / Einsiedeln - Sihlsee - 340 m³/s
* Lobbia GR (EW der Stadt Zürich) - 37 MW (pump)
* Ova Spin GR (Engadiner Kraftwerke AG) - 47 MW (pump)
* Ferrera GR - Valle di Lei 82 MW (pump)
;[[Taiwan]]
* Minghu (1985) 1,000 MW
* Mingtan (1994) 1,620 MW
;[[Ukraine]]
* Dniestr HPSP (1st construction phase completed and now provides 972 MW, next phases will give up to 2,268 MW)[http://www.uhp.kharkov.ua/img/photo/dnestrovskaya_hps/photo2.jpg photo]
* Kaniv HPSP (design stage) 1800 MW [http://www.uhp.kharkov.ua/english/projects/?object=kanevskaya_hps_p]
* Kyiv HPSP 235.5 MW [http://www.uhp.kharkov.ua/img/photo/kiev_hps/photo4.jpg]
* Tashlyk HPSP 905 MW/-1325 MW [http://www.uhp.kharkov.ua/img/photo/tashlikskaya_hps/photo7.jpg]
;[[United Kingdom]]
* [[Ben Cruachan]], [[Scotland]] (1965), 440 MW (2 × 120 MW + 2 × 100 MW units)
* [[Dinorwig Power Station|Dinorwig]], [[Wales]] (1984), 1728 MW (6 × 288 MW units)
* [[Falls of Foyers|Foyers]], [[Scotland]] (1975), 305 MW
* [[Ffestiniog power station|Ffestiniog]], [[Wales]] (1963), 360 MW (4 × 90 MW units)
<!-- 162 -->
;[[United States of America|United States]]
<!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Alphabetize states; alphabetical within states. -->
:; California
:* [[Castaic Dam]], (1978) 1,566 MW
:* John S. Eastwood, (1988) 200 MW
:* [[San Luis Dam]] (William R. Gianelli), (1968) 424 MW
:* [[Pyramid Lake (California)|Pyramid Lake]], (1973) 1,495 MW
:* Helms, (1984) 1,200 MW
:* Iowa Hill, (Proposed 2010) 400 MW [http://hydrorelicensing.smud.org/docs/docs_iowa.htm]
:* Edward C. Hyatt, (1968) 780 MW
:;Colorado
:* Cabin Creek (1967), 324 MW
:* [[Mount Elbert]] 200 MW, 1,212 MW
:;Connecticut
:* Rocky River, (1929) 31 MW
:;Georgia
:* Rocky Mountain Pumped Storage Station 848 MW
:* Wallace Dam (operated by GA. Power) Lake Oconee/Lake Sinclair 4 x 52 MW reversible units
:;Hawaii
:* Koko Crater, Oahu, Hawaii (Proposed)
:;Massachusetts
:* [[Bear Swamp Generating Station|Bear Swamp]], (1972) 600 MW
:* [[Northfield Mountain]], (1972) 1,080 MW
:;Michigan
:* [[Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant|Ludington]], (1973) 1,872 MW
:;Missouri
:* [[Mark Twain Lake|Clarence Cannon dam]], (1983) 58 MW (pump-back capability tested twice in 1984 and not used since.[http://mdc.mo.gov/fish/watershed/salt/hydro/])
:* [[Taum Sauk pumped storage plant|Taum Sauk]], pure pump-back 450 MW (out of operation as of December, 2005)
:;New Jersey
:* Mt. Hope 2,000 MW<ref>[http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6263841Developing Mt. Hope: The megawatt line]</ref>
:* Yards Creek Generating Station (1965) 400MW [http://www.pseg.com/companies/fossil/plants/yardscreek.jsp]
:;New York
:* [[Blenheim-Gilboa Pumped Storage Power Project|Blenheim-Gilboa]], (1973) 1,200 MW
:* [[Robert Moses Hydro-Electric Dam|Lewiston Pump-Generating Plant]] (Niagara), (1961) 240 MW
:;Oklahoma
:* Salina Pumped Storage (Grand River Dam Authority)(1971) 260MW
:;Pennsylvania
:* [[Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility|Muddy Run]] 1,071 MW
:* [[Seneca Pumped Storage Generating Station|Seneca]] 435 MW
:;South Carolina
:* Bad Creek, (1991) 1,065 MW, fed by Lake Jocassee.
:* [[Lake Jocassee]], (1973) 610 MW
:;Tennessee
:* [[Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant|Raccoon Mountain]], (1978) 1,530 MW
:;Virginia
:* [[Bath County Pumped Storage Station|Bath County]] 2,100 MW<ref>[http://www.dom.com/about/stations/hydro/bath.jsp Bath County Pumped Storage Station]</ref>
:* [[Smith Mountain Lake]] and [[Leesville Lake]]
:;Washington
:* [[Grand Coulee Dam]], (1981) 314 MW<ref>[http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/html/columbia.html Grand Coulee Dam]</ref>
</div>
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==See also==
*[[List of energy topics]]
*[[Hydroelectricity]]
*[[Hydropower]]
*[[Underground power station]]
*[[Turbine]]
*[[Water turbine]]
*[[Francis turbine]]
*[[Kaplan turbine]]
*[[Grid energy storage]]
==External links==
Articles about [http://www.asme.org/Communities/History/Landmarks/ historical mechanical engineering landmarks] from ASME:
*[http://www.asme.org/Communities/History/Landmarks/Rocky_River_Pumpedstorage.cfm Rocky River Pumped-storage Hydroelectric Plant (1929)]
*[http://www.asme.org/Communities/History/Landmarks/Hiwassee_Dam_Unit_2.cfm Hiwassee Dam Unit 2 Reversible Pump-Turbine (1956)]
[[Category:Energy storage]]
[[Category:Pumped storage plants| ]]
[[cs:Přečerpávací vodní elektrárna]]
[[de:Pumpspeicherkraftwerk]]
[[es:Central hidroeléctrica reversible]]
[[eo:Pumprezerva akvoenergia centralo]]
[[he:אנרגיה שאובה]]
[[nl:Pompcentrale]]
[[ja:揚水発電]]
[[no:Vannkraftverk]]
[[ru:Гидроаккумулирующая электростанция]]