Raccoon
52127
226109734
2008-07-16T21:27:36Z
81.245.176.28
/* Nomenclature */
{{About||the other species called raccoon of the genus Procyon|Procyon (genus)|other uses|Raccoon (disambiguation)}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Raccoon
| status = LR/lc
| status_system = iucn2.3
| image = Procyon lotor (Common raccoon).jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Procyonidae]]
| genus = ''[[Procyon (genus)|Procyon]]''
| species = '''''P. lotor'''''
| binomial = ''Procyon lotor''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map = Raccoon-range.png
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Native range in red, feral range in blue.
| synonyms='''''Ursus lotor''''' [[Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
The '''Raccoon''' (''Procyon lotor''), also known as '''Common Raccoon''', '''North American Raccoon''', '''Northern Raccoon''', '''Washing Bear''' or informal '''Coon''', is a medium-sized [[mammal]] native to [[North America]] and the most widespread species of the family [[Procyonidae]]. Since the mid-20th century they have also been introduced to the [[Europe]]an mainland<ref>Hohmann, p. 9–13</ref> and in the [[Caucasus]] region<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 90–91</ref> after having escaped from [[fur farming|fur farms]] or being deliberately released to the wild.
Two of the most distinctive characteristics of the raccoon are its facial mask around the eyes and extremely sensitive front paws;<ref>Hohmann, p. 55–62</ref> they are also known for their good memory.<ref>Hohmann, p. 71–74</ref> Often raccoons live together in small, loose groups.<ref>Hohmann, p. 133–155</ref> Their original [[habitat]]s are [[deciduous]] or [[Mixed forests|mixed]] [[forest]]s, but due to their adaptability, they are also found in [[urban area]]s where some house owners consider them to be [[Pest (organism)|pest]]s.<ref>Bartussek, p. 30–31</ref> Furthermore, raccoons are [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] and usually most active during the [[Nocturnality|night]].
== Nomenclature ==
The word ''raccoon'' is derived from the word ''ahrah-koon-em'' – other transcripts exist – which was the pronunciation used by [[Algonquin]] Chief [[Powhatan]] and his daughter [[Pocahontas]] for the animal, meaning ''[the] one who rubs, scrubs and scratches with its hands''.<ref>Holmgren, p. 23</ref> Similarly, [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking colonists adopted their word ''mapache'' from the [[Nahuatl]] word ''mapachitli'', meaning ''[the] one who takes everything in its hands''.<ref>Holmgren, p. 52</ref> In the first decades after its discovery by the members of the expedition of [[Christopher Columbus]] (who was also the first person ever to leave a written record about the species<ref>Holmgren, p. 47</ref>), the raccoon was thought to be related to many different species by early [[taxonomist]]s, including dogs, cats, badgers and especially bears.<ref>Holmgren, p. 42–67</ref> One of them was [[Carolus Linnaeus]] who initially placed the raccoon in the genus ''[[Ursus]]'',<ref>Holmgren, p. 64</ref> while genetical analyses have revealed today that their evolutionary relationship is relatively loose.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In many languages, the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that language's term for ''bear'': {{lang|de|''Waschbär''}} in [[German language|German]], {{lang|nl|''wasbeer''}} in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], {{lang|it|''orsetto lavatore''}} in [[Italian language|Italian]] and ''araiguma'' ({{lang|ja|洗熊}}) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] to name a few.
== Description ==
=== Physical characteristics ===
[[Image:Raccoon (Procyon lotor) 2.jpg|thumb|Close-up of face]]
[[Image:Mm Hand.jpg|thumb|Bottom side of the front paw]]
[[Image:Waschbaer_fg01.jpg|thumb|Track]]
Along the body raccoons measure between 41 and 71 [[centimetre|cm]]<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 15</ref> (16.1–28.0 [[inch|in]]), not including their bushy [[tail]] which can measure between 19.2 and 40.5 cm<ref>Zeveloff, p. 58</ref> (7.6–15.9 in), but is usually not much longer than 25 cm<ref>Hohmann, p. 77</ref> (9.8 in). The shoulder height is between 22.8 and 30.4 cm (9.0–12.0 in).<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 16</ref> The body weight of an adult raccoon varies strongly with habitat and can range from 1.8 to 13.6 [[kilogram|kg]] (4.0–30.0 [[Pound (mass)|lb]]), but is usually between 3.9 and 9.0 kg (8.6–19.8 lb).<ref>Zeveloff, p. 58–59</ref> The smallest species are found in Southern [[Florida]], while those near the Northern limits of the raccoon's range tend to be the largest.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 59</ref> Male specimen are usually 15 to 20% heavier than females.<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 18</ref> Due to their fat storage raccoons can weigh as much as 50% more at the beginning of winter than in spring. The largest recorded raccoon weighed 28.4 kg (62.6 lb), by far the largest size recorded for a family member of the [[Procyonidae]].<ref>Zeveloff, p. 59</ref>
The most characteristic physical feature of a raccoon is the area of black [[fur]] around the [[eye]]s. This reminiscent of a “[[Domino mask|bandit's mask]]” has enhanced its reputation for mischief. The mask, which slowly fades with increasing age, sets itself apart from the surrounding white face coloring. The slightly rounded [[ear]]s are also bordered by white fur. It is assumed that a raccoon recognizes the posture and mimic of conspecifics much faster thanks to this noticeable face coloring and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail;<ref>Hohmann, p. 65–66; MacClintock, p. 5; Zeveloff, p. 63</ref> the dark mask might also reduce glare and thus enhance night vision.<ref>MacClintock, p. 6; Zeveloff, p. 63</ref> With the exception of the rare [[albinism|albinos]], the coat on the other parts of the body consists of gray and brown hairs. Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because animals with such a coloring were among the ones being initially released to the wild.<ref name="stellungnahme">{{cite web |url=http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/aktuelles/stellungnahme/ |title=Ökologische und ökonomische Bedeutung des Waschbären in Mitteleuropa – Eine Stellungnahme |accessdate=2008-06-26 |last=Michler |first=Frank-Uwe | coauthors=Köhnemann, Berit A. |year=2008 |month=May |work=„Projekt Waschbär“ |language=German }} (See the photo of Rolf Haag together with a black raccoon.)</ref>
The raccoon is a [[plantigrade]] species,<ref>{{cite video |people=Müller, Gaby |date2=2008-03-12 |title=Raccoon walk! |url=http://www.lotor.de/download/bewegungsstudie.mpg |format=mpg |medium=Videotape |accessdate=2008-06-26}} (codec: mpegv, length: 2 min 47 sec, file size: 87.4 MByte)</ref> and can sit on its hind legs to examine objects with its front [[paw]]s. With their short legs compared to their compact torso raccoons are not able to run fast or to jump far. The [[dentition]] of raccoons – 40 teeth with the dental formula 3142/3142 – is adapted to their [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] lifestyle. The chewing surface is not as wide as for [[herbivore]]s, but the teeth are not as sharp and pointed as those of a [[carnivore]]. The [[penis bone]] of male raccoons is around 10 cm (3.9 in) long and strongly bent at the front end.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} <!-- will provide sources for all statements in the next days, shouldn't be too controversial, though -->
=== Senses ===
The most important sense for the raccoon is its [[Somatosensory system|sense of touch]].<ref>Hohmann, p. 55</ref> The “hyper sensitive”<ref>Hohmann, p. 55</ref> front paws with five freestanding [[finger]]s are surrounded by a thin layer of [[callus]] for protection. Almost two thirds of the area responsible for [[Perception|sensory perception]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] is specialised for the interpretation of tactile impulses, more than in any other animal.<ref>Hohmann, p. 56</ref> With their [[vibrissa]]e above their sharp, not retractable [[claw]]s they are able to identify objects before touching them.<ref>Hohmann, p.57</ref> It is still unexplained why it has no negative effects to its tactile perception when a raccoon stands in cold water below 10° C for hours.<ref>Hohmann, p. 60,62</ref> However, the paws lack an opposable [[thumb]] and thus the agility of the [[hand]]s of [[primates]].<ref>Zeveloff<!-- page has to be suplemented --></ref>
The eyes of raccoons, which are [[Color blindness|color blind]], work especially well for green light.<ref>Hohmann, p. 63</ref> Although they are able to see well in the twilight thanks to their [[Tapetum lucidum]] behind the [[retina]]<ref>Hohmann, p. 63</ref> and their [[Accommodation (eye)|accommodation]] of 11 [[Dioptre]] is comparable to that of humans,<ref>Hohmann, p. 65</ref> the [[visual perception]] is of subordinate importance to raccoons.<ref>Hohmann, p. 65</ref> Apart from being useful for the orientation in the dark their [[olfaction]] is particularly important for communicating with other raccoons.<ref>Hohmann, p. 67</ref> Urine, feces, and gland [[secretion]]s, usually distributed with their [[anal glands]], are used for marking.<ref>Hohmann, p. 68–70</ref> With their [[audition]] they are able to perceive very low noices like those produced by [[earthworm]]s underground.<ref>Hohmann, p. 72</ref> Concerning high tones, their hearing limit is located at around 50–85 [[Hertz|kHz]].<ref>Hohmann, p. 66</ref>
=== Intelligence ===
Very few studies, most built upon their sensory perception, have been done to determine the mental abilities of raccoons. In 1908, ethologist H. B. Davis compared their learning speed with those of [[Rhesus Macaque]]s after they opened eleven of 13 complex locks in less than ten tries.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Davis | first = H. B. | year = 1907 | month = October | title = The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 447–489 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Champaign, Illinois | url = http://www.jstor.org/pss/1412576 | accessdate = 2008-06-29}}</ref> Studies in 1963, 1973, 1975 and 1992 concentrated on their memory and showed that raccoons remember the solution to once learned tasks up to three years later.<ref>Hohmann, p. 71– 72</ref> [[Stanislas Dehaene]] reports in his book ''The number sense'' that raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those containing three.<ref>{{cite book |last= Dehaene |first= Stanislas |title= The number sense |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511004-8 |pages=12 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=[...] researchers have proved that raccoons, when presented with several transparent boxes with grapes inside, can learn to systematically select those that contain three grapes and to neglect those that contain two or four.}}</ref>
== Behavior ==
[[Image:Waschbaer auf dem Dach.jpg|left|thumb|On the roof of a house in [[Albertshausen]], [[Hesse]], [[Germany]]]]
=== Daily life ===
Raccoons are [[nocturnal]], but can also be active at daylight to take advantage of available food sources.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 99</ref> Sheltered [[tree hollow]]s of old [[oak]]s are their favorite sleeping places, especially in bad weather.<ref>Hohmann, p. 97–100</ref> If raccoons are out of reach of their preferred main sleeping places, they will chose places like [[Quarry|quarries]], [[Sett|badger setts]], the [[undergrowth]] or the top of tree crotches.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 95–96</ref> If threatened, raccoons will quickly climb up the next available tree. This is why they avoid open terrain and areas with many [[beech tree]]s or similar trees as they can't climb up smooth tree trunks.<ref>Hohmann, p. 94</ref> Raccoons often travel along lakes or rivers to catch fish, amphibians and other animals at the shore. They can swim with an average speed of about 4.8 km/h (3.0 m/h) and stay in the water for several hours.<ref>MacClintock, p. 33</ref> In the northern parts of its distribution range, the raccoon will reduce its activity in a [[winter rest]] drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food impossible.<ref>MacClintock, p. 108–113</ref>
=== Diet ===
[[Image:Mm im Apfelbaum.jpg|thumb|On an apple tree]]
The diet of the [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] raccoon consists of about 40% of [[invertebrate]]s, 33% of [[plant]] foods and 27% of [[vertebrate]]s.<ref>Hohmann, p. 82</ref> According to [[Zoology|zoologist]] Samuel I. Zeveloff, the raccoon “may well be one of the world's most omnivorous animals”.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 102</ref> While eating mostly [[insect]]s, [[worm]]s and other animals already available as food source in spring,<ref>Hohmann, p. 85–86</ref> raccoons prefer [[fruit]] and [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s rich in calories in autumn to build up a fat storage for winter.<ref>Hohmann, p. 88</ref> [[Fish]] and [[amphibian]]s are their main prey animals regarding vertebrates and easily caught with their front paws.<ref>Hohmann, p. 83</ref> Contrary to popular belief, [[bird]]s and small [[mammal]]s are only occasionally eaten since raccoons rarely bother to hunt them down.<ref>Hohmann, p. 83</ref> If food is plentiful in one area, raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods.<ref>MacClintock, p. 44</ref>
=== Dousing ===
Captive raccoons sometimes “wash”, or douse, their food in water before eating it.<ref>MacClintock, p. 56–57</ref> While all raccoons sample objects with their front paws to get a picture of it and to remove unwanted parts and it increases the sensibility of their front paws if the callus is softened underwater,<ref>Hohmann, p. 55; Zeveloff, p. 7</ref> wild raccoons never carry their food to a watering hole to “wash” it.<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p. 57</ref> French [[Natural history|naturalist]] [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]] (1707–1788) believed that raccoons do not have adequate [[salivary gland]]s to moisten food;<ref>Holmgren, p. 70</ref> however, this is certainly incorrect.<ref>Holmgren, p. 70; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 7</ref> Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently, when a watering hole with a ground similar to a stream bottom is no further away than 3.0 m (10 ft).<ref>MacClintock, p. 57</ref> It is widely believed that dousing is a [[vacuum activity]] to mimic foraging at shores.<ref>Hohmann, p. 44–45; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41–42; Zeveloff, p. 7</ref> This theory is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently.<ref>MacClintock, p. 57</ref> Cleaning dirty food most likely doesn't play a role for “washing”.<ref>MacClintock, p. 57</ref> Some experts point out that even wild raccoons may dunk very dry food,<ref>Holmgren, p. 22</ref> a view opposed by others.<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41</ref>
=== Social behavior ===
[[Image:Raccoons_eat_deer.png|thumb|Group eating]]
Studies done in the 1990s by the [[Ethology|ethologists]] Stanley D. Gehrt and [[Ulf Hohmann]] have shown that raccoons are not typically [[loner]]s, as previously thought.<ref name="gehrt">Stanley D. Gehrt: ''Raccoon social organization in South Texas.'' 1994 (dissertation at the University of Missouri)</ref><ref>Hohmann, p. 133–155</ref> Instead they show a gender-specific [[social behavior]].<ref>Hohmann, p. 139–141</ref> Related females often live in a so-called ''fusion-fission-society'', that is, they share a common area, and occasionally meet at feeding grounds or main sleeping berths.<ref>Hohmann, p. 141–142</ref> Unrelated male raccoons often live together in ''male social groups'' so that they can better sustain their position against invaders and in particular against foreign conspecifics during the mating season.<ref>Hohmann, p. 152–154</ref> Such a group normally does not consist of more than four individuals. On the other hand, mothers will separate from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to be able to defend themselves.<ref>Hohmann, p. 155</ref> This society system is called a ''three class society'' by Hohmann.<ref>Hohmann, p. 133</ref>
If the food supply is sufficient the home ranges of raccoons can overlap drastically without conflict. However, some male raccoons may show aggressive behavior against unrelated kits.<ref>Hohmann, p. 124–126</ref> For information exchange about rich feeding grounds or sheltered sleeping places raccoons meet with other conspecifics at gathering places or leave messages in the form of odor marks.<ref>Hohmann, p. 142–147</ref> Raccoons also meet for collective eating, sleeping and playing.
=== Reproduction ===
[[Image:Common Raccoon (Procyon lotor) in Northwest Indiana.jpg|thumb|Kit (estimated eight weeks old)]]
Raccoons usually [[Mating|mate]] between late January and mid-March<ref>MacClintock, p. 81</ref> in a period triggered by increasing daylight.<ref>Hohmann, p. 150; Zeveloff, p. 122</ref> However, there are large regional differences not completely explainable by solar conditions: Raccoons in southern states typically mate later, and it's known that the mating season of raccoons living in [[Manitoba]] peak in March but may occur as late as June.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 122</ref> If a female does not get [[Pregnancy|pregnant]] or loses her kits early, she sometimes gets ready for conception again 80 to 140 days later.<ref>Hohmann, p. 124; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 45</ref> During the mating period, the males restlessly roam their home ranges and court the females, whose three to four days long conception periods coincide,<ref>Hohmann, p. 131, 149–150</ref> at central meeting places.<ref>Hohmann, p. 148–149; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 47; MacClintock, p. 81–82</ref> Copulation, including foreplay, can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights.<ref>Hohmann, p. 150–151</ref> It is assumed that weaker members of a ''male social group'' also get the chance for mating, since stronger ones cannot mate with all available females in their home range.<ref>Hohmann, p. 153–154</ref>
After around 63 to 65 days of pregnancy (54–70 days possible),<ref>Hohmann, p. 131; Zeveloff, p. 121</ref> a litter of typically two to five young is born.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 126</ref> The average litter size varies strongly with habitat, ranging from 2.5 in [[Alabama]] to 4.8 in [[North Dakota]].<ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 50; Zeveloff, p. 126</ref> Larger litter sizes are more common in areas with a high mortality rate, for example due to hunting<ref>Bartussek, p. 32</ref> or long and cold winters.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 126</ref> Males have no part in raising the young. The kits are blind and deaf at birth, but their mask already stands out on their light fur.<ref name="zp127">Zeveloff, p. 127</ref> The birth weight of the 9.5 cm (3.7 in) long kits is between 60 and 75 g (2.1–2.6 oz).<ref name="zp127" /> They open their eyes for the first time after around 21 days.<ref name="zp127" /> Weighing around 1 kg (2.2 lb), the kits leave the den and consume solid food for the first time after 6 to 9 weeks.<ref>Hohmann, p. 119</ref> After that, their mother lactates them with decreasing intensity, usually not longer than 16 weeks in total.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 129</ref> In fall, after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds, the juveniles split up.<ref>Hohmann, p. 126–127. Zeveloff, p. 130</ref> While many females stay close to the home range of their mother,<ref>Hohmann, p. 130; Zeveloff, p. 132–133</ref> males often move away more than 20 km (12.4 mi).<ref>Zeveloff, p. 132</ref> This is considered to be an [[instinct]]ive behavior to prevent [[incest]].<ref>Hohmann, p. 128; Zeveloff, p. 133</ref> However, in colder areas mother and offspring may share one den during the first winter.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 130</ref>
=== Life expectancy ===
While raccoons in the wild can get as old as 16 years, most live only a few years.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 119</ref> It is not unusual that just half of the young born in one year survive until their first birthday.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 119</ref><ref>Hohmann, p. 163</ref> After that, the yearly mortality rate drops to 10 to 30%.<ref>Hohmann, p. 163</ref> One of the main natural causes of death for recently born raccoons besides losing their mother is [[starvation]] during the next winter, especially if it's a cold and long one.<ref>MacClintock, p. 73</ref> The most frequent natural cause of death in North America is the disease [[distemper]] which can get [[epidemic]] and kill most raccoons living in one area.<ref name="ergebnisse">{{cite web |url=http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/erste-ergebnisse/ |title=Erste Ergebnisse |accessdate=2008-06-24 |author=Frank-Uwe Michler |year=2008 |month=June |work=„Projekt Waschbär“ |language=German }}</ref><!-- chapter “Staupe bei Waschbären” --> In areas with much traffic and where raccoons are hunted heavily, those two causes can account for up to 90% of all deaths of adult raccoons.<ref>Hohmann, p. 162</ref> Getting killed by [[bobcat]]s, [[coyote]]s and other [[predators]] usually doesn't play a significant role as death cause for raccoons, especially since many bigger predators have been exterminated in many areas by humans.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 111–112</ref> In conclusion, the species' life expectancy in the wild is only about 1.8 to 3.1 years, dependent on the local conditions in terms of traffic volume, hunting and extreme weather conditions.<ref>Zeveloff, p. 118–119</ref>
== Range ==
=== Distribution in North America ===
Raccoons are common throughout North America from [[Canada]] to [[Panama]].
=== Distribution outside North America ===
<!-- not "in Europe", since something about Japan will be added -->
All raccoons living outside North America are the offspring of animals which escaped from [[fur farm]]s or were deliberately released to the wild. Today, stable populations exist in most parts of [[Germany]] as well as areas of the bordering countries. Other populations are located in the South of [[Belarus]], the [[Caucasus]] region and in the North of [[France]] where several were released by American soldiers near [[Laon]] in 1966.
==== Distribution in Germany ====
[[Image:Waschbaer-verbreitung.png|right|thumb|Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or found dead by hunters in the hunting years 2000/01, 01/02 and 02/03 in the administrative districts of Germany]]
On [[April 12]] [[1934]], two pairs were released into the German wilderness at the [[Edersee]] in the north of [[Hesse]] by forest superintendent Wilhelm Freiherr Sittich von Berlepsch upon request of their owner, the poultry grower Rolf Haag.<ref>Hohmann, p. 9–10</ref> He released them two weeks before getting permission from the [[Prussia]]n hunting office to "enrich the [[fauna]]" by doing so.<ref>Hohmann, p. 10</ref> Although there had been several prior attempts to introduce raccoons into the local environment, none had been successful.<ref>Hohmann, p. 11</ref><ref>Lagoni-Hansen, p. 84</ref> <!-- The [[oak]]-rich environment of the Edersee was a nearly perfect habitat for the raccoons.<ref>Hohmann, p. 11</ref> -->
A second population originated in [[East Germany]] in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen to the east of [[Berlin]] after an air strike. The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the [[parasite]] ''[[Baylisascaris procyonis]]'', but none of the [[Brandenburg]]ian population. <!-- Although a [[population bottleneck]] has been the result of this [[founder effect]], there are no signs of a negative effect to the general health of the European population. -->The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in 1956 and over 20,000 animals in 1970 in the Hessian region<ref>Hohmann, p. 11</ref> and between 200,000 and 400,000 animals in 2008 in the whole of Germany.<ref name="ergebnisse" /><!-- chapter “Verbreitung” -->
The raccoon was a protected species in Germany until having been declared a [[Game (food)|game animal]] in 14 [[States of Germany|states]] since 1954.<ref>Hohmann, p. 18, 21</ref> Hunters and [[Environmentalism|environmentalists]] argue that the raccoon spreads uncontrollably, having a devastating effect on protected birds and other species.<ref name="stellungnahme" /> This view is opposed by zoologists Ulf Hohmann and Frank-Uwe Michler.<!--, who have studied raccoons for at least seven years.<ref>Hohmann, p. 41</ref><ref name="stellungnahme">{{cite web |url=http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/kontakt-und-ansprechpartner/ |title=Projektleitung / Ansprechpartner |accessdate=2008-06-28 |last=Michler |first=Frank-Uwe | coauthors=Köhnemann, Berit A. |work=„Projekt Waschbär“ |language=German }}</ref> --> Hohmann argues that the absence of natural predators does not justify extensive hunting since predation does also not play a significant role as death cause in North America.<ref>Hohmann, p. 13–14</ref> Michler outlines that there are no signs that a high population density of raccoons has negative effects to the [[biodiversity]] of the area<!--counteractive measures are either useless or too expensive in most cases-->.<ref name="stellungnahme" /> Both acknowlede that raccoons can decimate local bird populations, but denounce unscientific finger pointing at raccoons as “scapegoats”.<ref>Hohmann, p. 18–19</ref><ref name="stellungnahme" />
=== Urban raccoons ===
Due to its adaptability, the raccoon has been able to use [[urban area]]s as a habitat. The first sightings occurred in a [[suburb]] of [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], in the 1920s. Since the 1950s, raccoons have been present in metropolises like [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Chicago]], and [[Toronto]].<ref name="untersuchungen">{{cite paper | first = Frank-Uwe | last = Michler | title = Untersuchungen zur Raumnutzung des Waschbären (''Procyon lotor, L. 1758) im urbanen Lebensraum am Beispiel der Stadt Kassel (Nordhessen) | pages = 7 | date = 2003-06-25 | url = http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Diplomarbeit-Waschbaer-Michler.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2008-07-01}}</ref> Since the 1960s, [[Kassel]] hosts Europe's first and densest population in a large urban area with about 50 to 150 animals per square kilometer (129–388 animals per square mile), a figure comparable to those in urban habitats in North America.<ref>Hohmann, p. 108</ref><ref name="untersuchungen" /> Home range sizes of urban raccoons drop to about 0.03 to 0.38 km² (0.01–0.15 mi²) for females and 0.08 to 0.79 km² (0.03–0.31 mi²) for males.<ref name="Stand der Wissenschaft">{{cite web |url=http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/stand-der-wissenschaft/ |title=Stand der Wissenschaft |accessdate=2008-07-01 |last=Michler |first=Frank-Uwe | coauthors=Köhnemann, Berit A. <!-- | year=not earlier than 2006 --> |work=„Projekt Waschbär“ |publisher=Gesellschaft für Wildökologie und Naturschutz e.V. |language=German }}<!-- chapter “Forschungsstand im autochthonen Verbreitungsgebiet ” --></ref> In small towns and suburbs, many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in the settlement area.<ref>Bartussek, p. 20</ref><ref name="untersuchungen" /> Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in the garbage are easily available food sources.<ref>Bartussek, p. 21</ref> There also exists a large number of additional sleeping places like tree hollows in old garden trees, cottages, garages, abandoned houses and attics. The number of raccoons sleeping in houses varies, ranging from 15% in Washington, D.C. (1991)<ref>Hohmann, p. 108</ref> to 43% in Kassel (2003).<ref>Bartussek, p. 20</ref>
== Diseases ==
[[Image:Baylisascaris larvae.jpg|thumb|upright|''Baylisascaris procyonis'' larvae]]
Raccoons can carry [[Baylisascaris|''Baylisascaris'' roundworm]], [[canine distemper]], [[parvovirus]] and [[rabies]].<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rabies/natural_history/nathist.htm Rabies - Natural History]</ref> Of the 6,844 documented rabies cases reported in the United States in 2004, 37.5% were in raccoons {{Harv|Krebs|Mandel|Swerdlow|Rupprecht|2005|pp=1912–1925}}. Raccoon rabies is as dangerous to humans as any other strain, even though there is only one documented case in which it has led to a fatal case of human rabies.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5245a4.htm First Human Death Associated with Raccoon Rabies - Virginia 2003]</ref> Saliva and other bodily fluids may carry the rabies [[virus]]. Rabies is so prevalent in some populations of wild raccoons that several states and the [[U.S. federal government]], as well as authorities in Canada, have developed programs of oral [[vaccination| vaccination]] to try to reduce the spread of this lethal disease.<ref>[http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan97/rabies.quebec.hrs.html Cornell-Quebec project aims to turn back raccoon rabies from international border]</ref><ref>[http://www.epi.state.nc.us/epi/rabies/orv1.html Preventing Spread of Raccoon Rabies West of North Carolina: Oral Rabies Vaccine Program]</ref><ref>[http://health.state.tn.us/FactSheets/raccoon.htm Raccoons and Rabies]</ref> In Europe, raccoons have not yet been found to play a notable role in the spread of rabies or canine distemper; however, the Baylisascaris roundworm is widely present in the population originating in [[Hesse]], Germany.<ref>[http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/forsten/wildtiere/de/waschbaer.shtml Information page] by Berlin authorities, retrieved Jan 30 2008 (in german)</ref>
Among the main indicators for rabies in raccoons are appearing sick, impaired mobility, abnormal vocalization and acting aggressive.<ref name="rabies">{{cite journal | last = Rosatte | first = Rick | coauthors = Sobey, Kirk; Donovan, Dennis; Bruce, Laura; Allan, Mike; Silver, Andrew; Bennett, Kim; Gibson, Mark; Simpson, Holly; Davies, Chris; Wandeler, Alex; Muldoon, Frances | year = 2006 | title = Behavior, Movements, and Demographics of Rabid Raccoons in Ontario, Canada: Management Implications | journal = Journal of Wildlife Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 589–605 | publisher = The Wildlife Disease Association | location = USA | issn = 0090-3558 | url = http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/content/full/42/3/589 | accessdate = 2008-06-27}}</ref> On the other hand, most won't show the aggressive behavior known from [[red fox]]es and other [[canidae]]s<ref>Hohmann, p. 182</ref> and will retire to their den instead.<ref name="stellungnahme" /><!-- chapter „Waschbären als potentieller Vektor für Krankheiten und Parasiten“ --> There may also be no visible signs of sickness.<ref name="rabies" /> It is recommended not to approach conspicuous looking or acting animals and to notify proper authorities like an [[animal control officer]] from the local [[health department]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/misc/raccoon/raccoon.htm | title=The Raccoon—Friend or Foe? | accessdate=2008-06-27 | work=Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry - USDA Forest Service}}</ref> Seeing a raccoon at daylight is also thought to be an indicator of rabies, but healthy animals, especially nursing mothers, occasionally also forage in the daytime.
== Subspecies ==
Mammal Species of the World, Third Edition, lists 21 subspecies (one extinct) of ''Procyon lotor'':
*''Procyon lotor lotor''
*''Procyon lotor auspicatus''
*''Procyon lotor elucus''
*''Procyon lotor excelsus''
*''Procyon lotor fuscipes''
*''Procyon lotor gloveralleni'' [[Extinct|†]]
*''Procyon lotor grinnelli''
*''Procyon lotor hernandezii''
*''Procyon lotor hirtus''
*''Procyon lotor incautus''
*''Procyon lotor inesperatus''
*''Procyon lotor insularis''
*''Procyon lotor litoreus''
*''Procyon lotor marinus''
*''Procyon lotor maynardi''
*''Procyon lotor megalodous''
*''Procyon lotor pacificus''
*''Procyon lotor pallidus''
*''Procyon lotor psora''
*''Procyon lotor pumilus''
*''Procyon lotor simus''
*''Procyon lotor vancouverensis''
== Raccoons and people ==
[[Image:Urban raccoon and skunk.JPG|left|thumb|A [[skunk]] and raccoon share cat food morsels in a [[Hollywood]], [[California]] back yard]]
=== Conflicts ===
The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in extremely diverse reactions ranging from absolute rejection to intensive feeding.<ref>Hohmann, p. 103–106</ref> Some wildlife experts caution against feeding wild animals, because they might get increasingly obtrusive and dependant on humans as food source.<ref>Bartussek, p. 34</ref> Other challenge such arguments and give advice for feeding wildlife in their books.<ref>Holmgren, p. 117–121</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen |coauthors=Baker, Phil |title=Urban Foxes |publisher=Whittet Books |location=Suffolk |year=2001 |isbn=978-1873580516 |pages=78–79}}</ref> Showing no fear of humans is most likely not an indicator for rabies, but a behavior adjustment after living in the city for many generations.<ref>Bartussek, p. 24</ref> Raccoons usually don't prey on domestic [[cat]]s and [[dog]]s, but individual cases of killings have been reported.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/282218_racoons23.html | title = Raccoons rampaging Olympia | accessdate = 2008-07-02 | date = 2006-08-23| work = seattlepi.com | publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer}}</ref>
While overthrown [[trash can]]s and raided [[fruit tree]]s are merely regarded as a nuisance by house owners, it can cost thousands of dollars to repair damages caused by the use of attics as dens.<ref>{{cite paper | first = Frank-Uwe | last = Michler | title = Untersuchungen zur Raumnutzung des Waschbären (''Procyon lotor, L. 1758) im urbanen Lebensraum am Beispiel der Stadt Kassel (Nordhessen) | pages = 108 | date = 2003-06-25 | url = http://www.projekt-waschbaer.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Diplomarbeit-Waschbaer-Michler.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2008-07-02}}</ref> However, relocating or killing single animals often only solves problems with particularly wild or even aggressive individuals, since adequate dens are either known to several raccoons or will be rediscovered soon.<ref>Bartussek, p. 32; Hohmann, p. 142–144, 169</ref> Instead, counter meassures like cutting tree branches to prevent raccoons from getting into the house are much more effective and cheaper.<ref>Bartussek, p. 36–40; Hohmann, p. 169</ref> Since raccoons are able to increase their reproduction rate accordingly, extensive hunting does often not solve problems with raccoon populations (see the chapter about “Reproduction”). Older males also claim larger home ranges, resulting in a lower population density.<ref name="stellungnahme" /> The costs of large-scale measures to drive out all raccoons from one area temporarily are usually many times higher than the costs of the damages done by the raccoons.<ref name="stellungnahme" />
=== In mythology and culture ===
[[Image:Spiromoundsraccoon.gif|thumb|upright=0.5|Depicted on a shell drawing from the [[pre-Columbian]] civilization at [[Spiro Mounds]], [[Oklahoma]].]]
In the [[mythology]] of the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] the raccoon was the subject of [[folk tale]]s.<ref>Holmgren, p. 25–46</ref> Stories like ''How raccoons catch so many [[crayfish]]'' from the [[Tuscarora (tribe)|Tuscarora]] centered on its skills at foraging.<ref>Holmgren, p. 41–43</ref> In other tales, the raccoon played the role of the [[trickster]] who outsmarts other animals like coyotes and [[wolf|wolves]].<ref>Holmgren, p. 26–29, 38–40</ref> Among others, the [[Dakota Sioux]] believed that the raccoon has [[spirit powers]] due to its facial mask which resembled the facial paintings used during sacred [[ritual]]s.<ref>Holmgren, p. 15–17</ref> The [[Aztec]]s linked supernatural forces especially to females.<ref>Holmgren, p. 17–18</ref>
In Western culture, several [[Autobiography|autobiographical]] [[novel]]s about living with a raccoon exist, mostly written for [[Children's literature|children]]. The most well known is [[Sterling North]]'s ''[[Rascal (book)|Rascal]]'' in which he tells how he raised a kit during the time of the [[World War I|First World War]]. In the last years, [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] raccoons played a main role in the animated television series ''[[The Raccoons]]'', the computer-animated film ''[[Over the Hedge (film)|Over the Hedge]]'' and the video game series ''[[Sly Cooper (series)|Sly Cooper]]''. (→ [[List of fictional raccoons]])
=== As pets ===
[[Image:Mm Gehege 02.jpg|thumb|Pen]]
Raccoons are sometimes kept as [[pet]]s, though this is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not a [[domestication|domesticated]] species and may act unpredictable and aggressive in certain situations.<ref>Bartussek, p. 44</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://fohn.net/raccoon-pictures-facts/pet-raccoons.html |title=Pet Raccoons? |accessdate=2008-06-22 |date=2005 |work=Raccoon Tracks }}</ref> In many states it is illegal to keep raccoons as [[pet]]s, in other states<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnsi.net/~remocoon/regulats.htm |title=State Regulations Concerning the Possession of Raccoons as Pets |accessdate=2008-06-22 |date=2000-01-10 |work=Remo Raccoon's Home Page }}</ref> as well as in Germany<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lotor.de/waschbaer-und-mensch/haltung.html |title=Haltung von Waschbären |accessdate=2008-06-22 |author=Oliver Knörzer |date=2008-01-16 |work=Lotor.de: Alles über Waschbären |language=German }}</ref> an [[exotic pet]] permit is required. It is also possible for a pet raccoon to be taken out by local authorities for a rabies test after biting another person. However, a raccoon acquired from a reputable [[breeder]] can make a suitable pet if kept according to its needs by a responsible owner.
Many raccoons which have reached their sexual maturity will show aggressive natural behaviors like biting during mating season.<ref>Bartussek, p. 44</ref> [[Neutering]] them at around five or six months of age decreases the chance of this happening.<ref>Hohmann, p. 186</ref> They can develop [[obesity]] and other disorders due to unnatural diet, like feeding [[cat food]] over a long time period,<ref>Hohmann, p. 180</ref> and lack of exercise. They may also grow lonely if not having contact to conspecifics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waschbaeren-hilfe.de/grundsaetzliches.htm |title=Grundsätzliches zur Haltung |accessdate=2008-06-22 |author=Kathrin Grüning |work=Waschbären-Hilfe |language=German }} (currently offline)</ref> Due to its inborn curiosity, a raccoon will most likely wreak havoc in the household.<ref>Bartussek, p. 44</ref> Often, it is already required by law to keep them in a [[Pen (enclosure)|pen]]. Captive raccoons can be trained to be active during the day and sleep at night,{{Fact|date=June 2008}} but usually it's impossible to teach raccoons to obey commands.<ref>Bartussek, p. 44</ref><!--<ref name="waisenkinder">{{cite web |url=http://www.diewaschbaerenkommen.de/html/waisenkinder.html |title=Was tun mit Waisenkindern? |accessdate=2008-06-22 |author=Ingo Bartussek |work=Die Waschbären kommen ||language=German }}</ref> -->
Young orphan raccoons born in the wild are usually not kept as pets, but cared for and released back into the wild through professional [[wildlife rehabilitation]]. However, raccoons raised in captivity and released do not typically adapt well to life in the wild.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} It can be dangerous for raccoon kits which are still in the need for a liquid food source to be fed with [[cow milk]] instead of [[Kitten Milk Replacer]] or similar products.<ref>Hohmann, p. 175–176</ref><ref>Bartussek, p. 44</ref>
=== As food ===
While being primarily hunted for their fur, raccoons were also a source of food for many [[indigenous peoples]],<ref>Holmgren, p. 18–19</ref> as well as for early [[American pioneer]]s.<ref>Holmgren, p. 73</ref> Today, several thousand raccoons are eaten each year in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ngpc.state.ne.us/wildlife/raccoon.asp |title=Raccoon |accessdate=2008-06-30 |work=Nebraska Wildife Species Guide |publisher=Nebraska Game and Parks Commission}}</ref> Its culinary use is mainly identified with certain regions of the [[American South]] like [[Arkansas]] where the ''Gillett Coon Supper'' is an important political event.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/legacies/AR/200002687.html |title=Gillett Coon Supper |accessdate=2008-06-26 |last=Berry |first=Marion |work=Local Legacies: Celebrating Community Roots |publisher=The Library of Congress}}</ref> The first edition of ''[[The Joy of Cooking]]'', released in 1931, had a recipe for preparing raccoon. It is suggested that removing the scent glands and fat before [[roasting]] will help tone down the strong [[Game (food)|game]] flavor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/martin/wildrecipes/infrac.php |title=Wild Game Recipes - Raccoon Information |accessdate=2008-06-26 |date=2006-02-17 |work=Martin County Center |publisher=NC State University}}</ref>
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
* {{cite book |last=Zeveloff |first=Samuel I. |title=Raccoons: A Natural History |publisher=Smithsonian Books |location=Washington, D. C. |year=2002 |isbn=978-1588340337}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmgren |first=Virginia C. |title=Raccoons in Folklore, History and Today's Backyards |publisher=Capra Press |location=Santa Barbara, California |year=1990 |isbn=978-0884963127}}
* {{cite book |last=MacClintock |first=Dorcas |title=A Natural History of Raccoons |publisher=The Blackburn Press |location=Caldwell (New Jersey) |year=1981 |isbn=978-1930665675}}
* {{cite book |last=Bartussek |first=Ingo |title=Die Waschbären kommen |publisher=Cognitio |location=Niedenstein, Germany |language=German |year=2004 |isbn=978-3932583100}}
* {{cite book |last=Hohmann |first=Ulf |coauthors=Bartussek, Ingo; Böer, Bernhard |title=Der Waschbär |publisher=Oertel+Spörer |location=Reutlingen, Germany |year=2001 |language=German |isbn=978-3886273010}}
* {{cite book |last=Lagoni-Hansen |first=Anke |title=Der Waschbär |publisher=Verlag Dieter Hoffmann |location=Mainz, Germany |year=1981 |language=German |isbn=3-87341-037-0}}
== External links ==
{{commonsimages|Procyon lotor|raccoons}}
{{wikispecies|Procyon lotor}}
{{wiktionary|raccoon}}
*[http://www.mnsi.net/~remocoon/firstaid.htm First Aid help for raccoons] (note that there are several controversial or wrong statements made on the rest of this website about raccoons and having them as a pet)
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