Racism 25613 225981748 2008-07-16T09:08:41Z 196.207.32.37 /* See also */ {{FixBunching|beg}} {{Discrimination (sidebar)}} {{FixBunching|mid}} {{Race}} {{FixBunching|end}} '''Racism''', by its simplest definition, is [[discrimination]] based on the [[race (classification of human beings)|racial groups]] to which people belong. People with racist beliefs might hate certain groups of people according to their racial groups. In the case of [[institutional racism]], certain racial groups may be denied rights or benefits, or get preferential treatment. Racism typically points out [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] differences between different groups of people, even though anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic differences. According to the [[United Nations]] conventions, there is no distinction between the term '''racial discrimination''' and '''ethnic discrimination'''. == Definitions == While the term ''racism'' usually denotes race-based [[prejudice]], [[violence]], [[discrimination]], or [[oppression]], the term can also have varying and hotly contested definitions. ''[[Racialism]]'' is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative meanings. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], racism is a belief or ideology that all members of each racial group possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another racial group or racial groups. The [[Webster's Dictionary|Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]] defines racism as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular racial group, and that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief. The ''[[Macquarie dictionary|Macquarie Dictionary]]'' defines racism as: "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective [[culture]]s, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."{{fact|date=March 2008}} ==== Legal ==== According to the [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]], <blockquote>''the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], colour, [[descent]], or national or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of [[human rights]] and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.'' '<ref>[http://www.hri.org/docs/ICERD66.html UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination], NEW YORK 7 March 1966 </ref> </blockquote> This definition does not make any difference between prosecutions based on [[ethnicity]] and [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], in part because the distinction between the ethnicity and race remains debatable among [[Anthropology|anthropologists]].<ref>A. Metraux (1950) "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race" in ''American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145)</ref> According to British law, ''racial group'' means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".<ref>[http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/rrpbcrbook.html The CPS : Racist and Religious Crime - CPS Prosecution Policy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==== Sociological ==== Some [[Sociology|sociologists]] have defined racism as a system of group privilege. In ''Portraits of White Racism'' David Wellman (1993) has defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities,” (Wellman 1993: x). Sociologists Noel Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “...a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,” (Cazenave and Maddern 1999: 42). Sociologist and former American Sociological Association president [[Joe Feagin]] argues that the [[United States]] can be characterized as a "total racist society" because racism is used to organize every social institution (Feagin 2000, p. 16). More recently, Feagin has articulated a comprehensive theory of racial oppression in the U.S. in his book ''Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression'' (Routledge, 2006). Feagin examines how major institutions have been built upon racial oppression which was not an accident of history, but was created intentionally by white Americans. In Feagin's view, white Americans labored hard to create a system of racial oppression in the 17th century and have worked diligently to maintain the system ever since. While Feagin acknowledges that changes have occurred in this racist system over the centuries, he contends that key and fundamental elements have been reproduced over nearly four centuries, and that U.S. institutions today reflect the racialized hierarchy created in the 17th century. Today, as in the past, racial oppression is not just a surface-level feature of this society, but rather pervades, permeates, and interconnects all major social groups, networks, and institutions across the society. Feagin's definition stands in sharp contrast to psychological definitions that assume racism is an "attitude" or an irrational form of bigotry that exists apart from the organization of social structure. ==Racial discrimination== [[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, January 2005]] Racial discrimination is treating people differently through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including Dean Karlan and Marianne Bertrand, at the [[MIT]] and the [[University of Chicago]] found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], etc.)<ref> [[Sendhil Mullainathan]] and Marianne Bertrand (2003). "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination", NBER Working Paper No. 9873, July, 2003). </ref> === Institutional === {{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}} [[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|Critics have replied that Carmichael's definition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves no room to question whether the members of a group are failing or not meeting standards due not to discrimination but due to their own dysfunctional behaviour and bad choices. [http://www.shef.ac.uk/socstudies/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 48381 bytes -->}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref> [[Maulana Karenga]] argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples."<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref></blockquote> ===In economics=== Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.) The common hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies. ===Declarations against racial discrimination=== Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings. In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]".<ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref> The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966: <blockquote> ''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)<ref> [http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref> </blockquote> In 2001, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination in the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to [[Institutions of the European Union]]: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref> == Ideology == [[Image:Racistcampaignposter1.jpg|thumb|A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 [[Pennsylvania]] [[governor|gubernatorial]] election]] As an ideology, racism existed during the 19th century as "[[scientific racism]]", which attempted to provide a [[typology (anthropology)|racial classification]] of humanity.<ref> [[Pierre-André Taguieff]], ''La force du préjugé'', 1987 {{fr icon}}</ref> Although such racist ideologies have been widely discredited after [[World War II]] and the [[Holocaust]], the phenomena of racism and of racial discrimination have remained widespread all over the world. It was already noted by DuBois that in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but culture: “…a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life”<ref>The Conservation of Races - W.E.B. DuBois, 1897 (p. 21)[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1119]</ref> Late nineteenth century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity and "[[survival of the fittest]]" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.<ref>The Idea of National Superiority in Central Europe, 1880 – 1918, Marius Turda, ISBN10: 0-7734-6180-9 ISBN13: 978-0-7734-6180-2, 2005</ref> According to this view, [[culture]] is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" became virtually equivalent to superiority of race. Bolstered by some [[Nationalism|nationalist]] and [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "Racism does not originate from the existence of ‘races’. It ''creates'' them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."<ref> National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY - Annamaria Rivera [http://fra.europa.eu/fra/material/pub/RAXEN/4/RV/CS-RV-NR-IT.pdf]</ref> This definition explicitly ignores the fiery polemic on the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of [[David C. Rowe]] "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."<ref>David C. Rowe in Heredity 87 (2001) 254-255 : Book review on The Emperor's New Clothes: biological theories of race at the new millennium. Joseph L. Graves Jr. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. 2001, ISBN 0-8135-2847-X) [http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v87/n2/pdf/6889531a.pdf]</ref> Until recent history this racist abuse of [[Biological anthropology|physical anthropology]] has been politically exploited. Apart from being unscientific, racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the [[Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination]], adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).<ref>INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION AGAINST RACISM AND ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND INTOLERANCE - Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee, 2002 [http://scm.oas.org/doc_public/ENGLISH/HIST_02/CP09414E07.DOC]</ref> Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]], [[hate speech]] and violence (such as [[pogrom]]s, [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s). Despite the persistence of racial [[stereotype]]s, humor and epithets in much everyday language, [[racial discrimination]] is illegal in many countries. Some [[politician]]s have practiced ''[[race baiting]]'' in an attempt to win votes. ===Ethnic nationalism=== {{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}} <!-- necessary contextual information for the emergence of ethnic nationalism --> After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted with the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[France|Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], the "[[sick man of Europe]]," was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remain so today, with the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders.<ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problem of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref> [[Ethnic nationalism]], which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influences was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It was opposed to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived of the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873).<ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref> Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951<ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate in the founding of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s.<ref name=Arendt/> These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state. Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.<ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref> At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]]. ==Ethnic conflicts== {{See|Ethnicity}} Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians). Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208) [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History''). [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]] argued that during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the [[Qing dynasty|Chinese]] and [[Japanese Empire]]s were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too. ==Academic variants== {{see|Race and intelligence}} [[Image:Races and skulls.png|left|upright|thumb|Drawings from [[Josiah C. Nott]] and [[George Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857), which suggested [[black people]] ranked between [[white people]] and [[chimpanzee]]s in terms of intelligence.]] Academic racism was pushed by white supremacists during the period when [[white people]] garnered great profits from slavery and colonialism. Academic racism had the effect of attempting to deny the culture, history and ancestry from the victims of the profitable slave and colonial systems. [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating: "Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material."<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref> Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences."<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref> German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people."<ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref> In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." Hegel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent" (''On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany'', Boston: C.W. Hall, 1982, p. 94). Fewer than 30 years before [[Nazi Germany]] started [[World War II]], the German [[Otto Weininger]], claimed: "A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence" (''Sex and Character'', New York: G.P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302). The German conservative [[Oswald Spengler]] remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in ''The Hour of Decision'' Spengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to [[jazz]] music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture" (''The Hour of Decision'', pp. 227-228). During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.<ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref> [[Image:Humanzoogermany.jpg|upright|thumb|People Show (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]] ===Scientific variants=== {{Main|Scientific racism}} {{see|Unilineal evolution}} The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term ''scientific racism'' refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "[[survival of the fittest]]", a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864, associated with ideas of competition which were named [[social Darwinism]] in the 1940s. [[Charles Darwin]] himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.<ref name=dom>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 |title=The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex |accessdate=2007-12-02 |author=Charles Darwin |authorlink=Charles Darwin|date= 1871 |publisher=John Murray}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Desmond |first=Adrian | last2 = Moore | first2 = James | author2-link =James Moore (biographer) |year=1991 |title=Darwin | publication-place = London | publisher =Michael Joseph, Penguin Group | isbn =0-7181-3430-3 }} pp. 28, 147, 580.</ref> At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based their conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetic level. However, the modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular those related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes. ====Heredity and eugenics==== {{see|Eugenics}} The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of ''[[degeneration]]''. He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshadowing future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]''). During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.<ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref> According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed: <blockquote> ''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.'' </blockquote> The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in the [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''. ====Polygenism and racial typologies==== {{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}} Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among human beings, giving it the legitimacy of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorists to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he claimed that the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "[[Jew]]" was the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic race|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne (province)|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish people|Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order<ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref> The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916). ====Human Zoos==== [[Human Zoo]]s (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel |title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists |publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news |title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale |publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]]. [[Carl Hagenbeck]], inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals aside of human beings considered as "savages".<ref name=Diplo> [http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo Human Zoos], by Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, in ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', August 2000 {{en icon}} [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html French - free] </ref><ref> [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_16_131/ai_n13463375 Savages and Beasts - The Birth of the Modern Zoo], Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press {{en icon}} </ref> Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 98955 bytes -->}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]]. ==Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism== Biologists [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] were puzzled by the fact that race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that [[natural selection]] would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because most of the earliest humans, who lived in [[Africa]], would never have met a member of a different race. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance. Their colleague [[Robert Kurzban]] designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the [[Memory confusion protocol]], they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors which the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small. <ref name="KurzbanToobyCosmides2001ErasingRace">{{ cite journal |title=Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization |author=Robert Kurzban , John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=December 18, 2001 | volume=98 | issue=26 |pages=15387–15392 |url=http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/papers/eraserace.pdf |accessdate=2008-06-11 | doi=10.1073/pnas.251541498 | pmid=11742078}}. The authors provide a summary and other comments at {{cite web |url=http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/erasingrace.htm |title=(untitled) }}.</ref> [[Image:Alaskadeathtrapa.jpg|thumb|right|U.S government poster from WWII featuring a Japanese soldier depicted as a rat</small>]] Mainly [[dehumanization]], but also racism, played a role in the [[American mutilation of Japanese war dead]] during [[World War II]] ==As state-sponsored activity== {{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Generalplan Ost|Eugenics in Showa Japan|Apartheid in South Africa|Racial segregation in the United States|Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia|Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea}} [[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]. State racism also played a major part in the formation of the Dominican Republic's identity [http://www.primicias.com.do/articulo,5408,html] and violent actions encouraged by Dominican governmental [[xenophobia]] against Haitans and "Haitian looking" people. Currently the [[Dominican Republic]] employs a de-facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of Haitians and black Dominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access to health care.<Ref>AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL USA http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGUSA20070321002</Ref> These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal. <ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272 </ref><ref>Anti-Haitianism, Historical Memory, and the Potential for Genocidal Violence in the Dominican Republic University of Toronto Press ISSN 1911-0359 (Print) 1911-9933 (Online) Issue Volume 1, Number 3 / December 2006 DOI 10.3138/7864-3362-3R24-6231 </ref><ref>[http://www.eldiariony.com/noticias/detail.aspx?section=17&&id=1708240 El Diario/LA PRENSA OnLine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == In history == ===In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance=== {{see|Limpieza de sangre}} Racist opinions occurred in the works of some [[Arab]] historians and geographers. In the 14th century CE, the Tunisian [[Ibn Khaldun]] wrote: <blockquote>- :''"beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings."'' ''"Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."''<ref> [http://www.al-eman.com/islamlib/viewchp.asp?BID=163&CID=8#s3]. The Muqaddimah, Translated by F. Rosenthal</ref><ref>[http://www.colorq.org/Articles/article.aspx?d=2002&x=arabviews West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era]</ref></blockquote> In the same period, the Egyptian Al-Abshibi (1388-1446) wrote, ''"It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."''<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |authorlink = Bernard Lewis |year=2002 |title=Race and Slavery in the Middle East |pages=93 |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=ISBN 0195053265 }}</ref> [[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]] (912, the rule of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] - 1066, [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada massacre]]).<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed. </ref> It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[Cleanliness of blood]]'' doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "[[blue blood]]" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly [[white supremacist]] context, as author Robert Lacey explains: <blockquote> ''It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin--proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a [[white people|white]] man--Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.''<ref> Robert Lacey, ''Aristocrats''. Little, Brown and Company, 1983, p. 67 </ref> </blockquote> Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. An Inquisition was carried out by members of the [[Dominican Order]] in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc. At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to another Dominican [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries. Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref> Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work. However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion &mdash; which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups &mdash; but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people". He conceived France as divided between various nations &mdash; the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] &mdash; which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]]. Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]". While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such movements as [[pan-Germanism]], [[Zionism]], [[pan-Turkism]], [[pan-Arabism]], and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse. ===As part of colonialism in the 19th century=== {{Main|Second European colonization wave (19th century–20th century)}} Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist ideology ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907, or [[Armenian Genocide]], 1915-1917). [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the [[Western culture|European culture]] over the rest of the world, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous people, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs. However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the [[Arab slave trade]] in Africa,<ref>[http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server?show=nav.5938&outputFormat=print Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History]</ref> as well as in suppression of the slave trade in [[West Africa]].<ref>[http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/visit_see_victory_cfexhibition_infosheet.htm Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade]</ref> Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]]. Examples of racial theories used to legitimate the imperialist conquest include the creation of the "[[Hamitic]]" [[ethno-linguistic]] group during the [[European exploration of Africa]]. Used in different ways, the term was first used by [[Johann Ludwig Krapf]] (1810-1881) to qualify all languages of Africa spoken by black people. It was then restricted by [[Karl Friedrich Lepsius]] (1810-1877) to African non-Semitic languages. The term then became quite popular, and was applied to different groups ([[Ethiopian]]s, [[Eritrean]]s, [[Berber people|Berbers]], [[Nubian]]s, [[Somali people|Somali]]s, etc.) Europeans conceived "Hamitic" people, allegedly descendants of the biblical [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham, son of Noah]], as leaders within Africa. However, the allegedly Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have 'failed' as rulers, a failing that was sometimes explained by [[miscegenation|interbreeding]] with "non-Hamites". So, in the mid-20th century the German scholar [[Carl Meinhof]] (1857-1944) claimed that the "[[Bantu]] race" was formed by a merger of Hamitic and "[[Negro]] races". The 'Hottentots' ([[Namaqua|Nama]] or [[Khoi]]) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and [[Bushmen]] ("[[San]]) races" &mdash; both being termed nowadays as [[Khoisan]] peoples). The term "Hamitic" is nowadays obsolete. Racism spread throughout the "New World" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Whitecapping]] which started in Indiana in the late 19th century soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. === In the Age of Enlightenment === While modern racism has an essentialist and biological conception of race, racist or xenophobic opinions have been shared by some authors, from the Antiquity to the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. However, this early form of racism did not conceive of "race" as a biological concept &mdash; as [[biology]] itself did not exist as such &mdash;, but as the accidental effect of climate on physical traits.<ref name=Thomson> Ann Thomson, [http://www.cromohs.unifi.it/8_2003/thomson.html Issues at stake in eighteenth-century racial classification], ''[[Cromohs]]'', 8 (2003): 1-20 {{en icon}}</ref> With the [[Age of Discovery]], the diversity of mankind became an important topic of research, leading to debates concerning [[monogenism]] and [[polygenism]], respectively endorsing the unique origin of mankind (coherent with the [[Genesis]] Biblical account) and the multiple origins of mankind. [[Pierre de Maupertuis]] (1698-1759), for example, reconciled the Biblical account with the present diversity of "races" in his ''Essai de philosophie morale'' (1749, Essay on Moral Philosophy), explaining "racial" differences by climatic factors.<ref name=Thomson/> He thus explained the colour of black people through the [[inheritance]] of acquired characteristics, claiming white was the original colour of mankind.<ref name=Thomson/> He also highlighted the spiritual strength of Africans seized as [[slavery|slaves]], pointing out how, like the Ancient [[Stoic]] philosophers, they prefer to die rather than to survive to capture.<ref name=Thomson/> Arguments on the influence of climate found additional weight with [[Buffon]]'s ''Histoire naturelle'' in the middle of the 18th century, and his thesis on the unity of mankind was taken back by [[Diderot]] and [[d'Alembert]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' in the article ''Humaine, espèce'' (Human, Specie).<ref name=Thomson/> According to Ann Thomson, although Buffon did establish a "clear hierarchy [...] between the beautiful white civilised races of the temperate zone and those savages who have [[degeneration|degenerated]] in more extreme climates, his emphasis on the unity of the human race and his distinction between humans and other animals were extremely influential.<ref name=Thomson/>" The [[abolitionism|abolitionist]]s thus used his arguments to show that Africans were not naturally inferior, and could be improved by different treatment and different climate.<ref name=Thomson/> The [[abbé Demanet]] (1767) claimed that a Portuguese colony in Africa had become black after several generations, due to the effect of climate, a story which was given wide credence by abolitionists, quoted for example by [[Pierre Jean George Cabanis|Cabanis]] (1757-1808) and[[Thomas Clarkson]] (1760-1846)<ref name=Thomson/><ref name=Thomson/> The abolitionist [[Physiocrat]] abbé [[List of French language authors|Pierre-Joseph-André Roubaud]] alleged that black Africans would change skin colour if they lived in different climatic conditions.<ref name=Thomson/> According to Ann Thomson, <blockquote> ''What emerges from these examples is the overwhelming desire to insist on the unity of the human race by emphasizing the effect of the climate and other environmental causes, but not necessarily to claim the equality of all humans; for the existence of a hierarchy is not systematically denied but, on the contrary, frequently accepted [''exceptions quoted by Thomson includes [[James Dunbar]] and the [[abbé Grégoire]].'']. This of course was to have long-lasting effects in the Nineteenth Century, when the arguments about climate were countered and the hierarchy was seen to be permanent, as the differences between humans were innate.''<ref name=Thomson/> </blockquote> Moral factors were also considered to influence physical and psychical traits. The American abolitionist [[Anthony Benezet]] stated, in the ''Historical Account of Guinea'' (1772), that Africans in Africa were a sociable, virtuous and intelligent people; but that their [[Slavery in the United States|servile condition in Amercia]] explained their "degeneration" and adoption of the vices of Europeans.<ref name=Thomson/> Furthermore, the theory of the [[Great Chain of Being]], which asserted a continuity between animals and humans, thus contradicting Christian religion (and henceforth supported by materialists such as Diderot) was used by some, such as [[Edward Long]], spokesman for the [[Economic history of India|West India Lobby]], or [[Charles White]]’s ''Account of the Regular Gradation in Man'' (1799 &mdash; White denied the effect of climate) to assert the animal nature of some humans.<ref name=Thomson/> ==Interminority variants== Inter-minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [[Power (sociology)|power]] in society. Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur, for example conflicts between blacks and [[Korean Americans]] (notably in the [[Los Angeles riots of 1992]]), between blacks and Jews (such as the [[Crown Heights riot|riots in Crown Heights]] in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as [[Hispanics in the United States|Latinos]]), or towards whites.<ref>http://www.recomnetwork.org/articles/01/08/16/0254240.shtml</ref><ref>[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?pid=902 SPLCenter.org: The Rift<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://www.michnews.com/artman/publish/article_12516.shtml</ref><ref>http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-4/1137481512176100.xml</ref> There has been a long-running racial tension between [[African Americans]] and [[Mexican Americans]].<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9587776 Race relations | Where black and brown collide | Economist.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618.shtml Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School]</ref><ref>[http://.www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5192595&ft=1&f=1001]</ref> There have been several significant riots in [[California]] prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/race-riot-put-down-at-california-state.php JURIST - Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison]</ref><ref>[http://newsmine.org/archive/security/incarceration/racial-segregation-continues-in-california-prisons.txt Racial segregation continues in California prisons]</ref> There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2036580,00.html A bloody conflict between Hispanic and black gangs is spreading across Los Angeles]</ref><ref>[http://www.blackamericaweb.com/site.aspx/bawnews/stateof/hutchinson105 The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter]</ref><ref>[http://.www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=9600]</ref><ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/10/03/navarrette/index.html Commentary: Black-brown friction waste of energy]</ref> There had also been cases in the late 1920s [[California]] in which [[Filipino American|Filipino]] [[immigrants]] have been victimized for moving into a predominantly white neighborhood, or for working in an overwhelmingly white workplace.<ref>[http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/cali.html Filipino Migrant Workers in California<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Recently there has also been an increase in racial violence between [[European American|whites]] and Hispanic immigrants<ref>[http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/content/news/stories/2007/07/25/7_25_07_ethnic_intimidation.html Late-night snack soured by racially motivated violence]</ref> and between [[Africans in the United States|African]] immigrants and American blacks.<ref>[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613.stm African immigrants face bias from blacks]</ref> The [[Aztlan]] movement has been described as racist. The movement's goal involves the pursuit of repossessing the American southwest. It has also been called the Mexican "reconquista"(re-conquest) whose name was inspired by the Spanish "reconquista" which led to the expulsion of the [[Moors]] from Spain.<ref>[http://www.aztlan.net La Voz de Aztlan<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the [[Mexican Mafia]] and the Black Guerilla family, a rival [[African American]] [[prison gang]], has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders, or shot callers, that they have issued a "green light" on all blacks. A sort of gang-life [[fatwa]], this amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia.<ref>[http://www.blackamericaweb.com/site.aspx/bawnews/stateof/hutchinson105 BAW: The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as any minority group suffers with the majority population. In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the [[Handsworth riots]] and in the smaller [[2005 Birmingham riots]]. Tensions between Muslims and Sikhs - two groups who have a history of bad relations - have flared in [[Slough]]<ref>[http://www.easterneyeonline.co.uk/iframe_story.asp?NID=2505 Untitled<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and at some colleges to the west of London.<ref>http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/1995/03March95.html#Sikh/Muslim%20clash,%20Isleworth http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/index.php?link=template&story=61</ref> In [[Dewsbury]], a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.<ref>http://www.dewsburyreporter.co.uk/viewarticle.aspx?sectionid=28&articleid=2955186 http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/dewsbury bit</ref> During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998-2003), [[Pygmies]] were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of [[cannibalism]]. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of [[Mbuti]] pygmies, has asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of [[genocide]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN]</ref> ==See also== *[[Albophobia]] *[[Apartheid]] *[[Anti-racism]] *[[Black Panthers]] *[[Black separatism]] *[[Bnai Brith]] *[[BNP]] *[[Capital Jury Project]] *[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]] *[[Chicano Movement]] *[[Discrimination]] *[[History of slavery]] *[[Intersectionality]] *[[James Hal Cone]] *[[Ku Klux Klan]] *[[La Raza]] *[[Liberation theology]] *[[List of racism-related topics]] *[[Louis Farrakhan]] *[[Malcolm X]] *[[Nation of Islam]] *[[Nazism]] *[[Neo-Nazism]] *[[Nur für Deutsche]] *[[Police brutality]] *[[Prejudice]] *[[Race and Inequality]] *[[Paris Peace Conference, 1919#Japanese approach|Racial equality proposal]] *[[Racial Separatism vs Racial Supremacy]] *[[Racism by country]] *[[Reverse discrimination]] *[[Slavery in Africa]] *[[Social criticism]] *[[Teaching for social justice]] *[[White power skinhead]] *[[Whiteness studies]] *[[Xenophobia]] ==Further reading== * Allen, Theodore. (1994). 'The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1'' London, UK: Verso. * Allen, Theodore. (1997). ''The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2'' London, UK: Verso. * Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. *Cazenave, Noel A. and Darlene Alvarez Maddern. 1999. “Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course.” Race and Society 2: 25-50. * Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory) * [[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]] (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY. *Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), ''The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. * Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY. * Feagin, Joe R. (2006). ''Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression.'' NY: Routledge. * Feagin, Joe R. (2000). ''Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations.'' NY: Routledge. *Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/%7Ergibson/againstracism.htm * Graves, Joseph. (2004) ''The Race Myth'' NY: Dutton. * Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. ''How the Irish Became White'' NY: Routledge. * [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]). * [[Albert Memmi|Memmi, Albert]], ''Racism'', University of Minnesota Press (1999) ISBN 978-0816631650 * Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press. * Smedley, Audrey and Brian D. Smedley. (2005) "Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real." American Psychologist 60: 16-26. * Smedley, Audrey. 2007. ''Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview. * Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL]. * Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism) * [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte. * Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press. *[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 * [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3389823,00.html Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007] * Wellman, David T. 1993. Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *[[Howard Winant|Winant, Howard]] ''The New Politics of Race'' (2004) *[[Howard Winant|Winant, Howard]] and [[Michael Omi|Omi, Michael]] ''Racial Formation In The United States'' Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994). * Wohlgemuth, Bettina. "Racism in the 21st century - ''How everybody can make a difference''", Saarbrücken, DE, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller e.K., (2007). [http://books.google.com/books?id=NvJcGQAACAAJ&dq=isbn:9783836410335 ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5] * Wright W. D. (1998) ''"Racism Matters"'', Westport, CT: Praeger. ==References & notes== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commonscat|Racism}} *[http://www.facinghistory.org Facing History and Ourselves] - Social Justice Organization *[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Race, history and culture - Ethics - March 1996] -Extract of two articles by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] *[http://academic.udayton.edu/race/ Race, Racism and the Law] - Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law. *[http://indianeye.org/2008/01/12/unfair-and-lowly-fairness-creams-and-racist-tones/ Unfair and Lowly] - Fairness Creams and Racist Tones in the Indian context. *[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] - Companion website to a PBS documentary about race. *[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the Power of Illusion] Information on a documentary about race. {{Template group |list = {{Racism topics|state=collapsed}} {{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}} {{Discrimination}} }} [[Category:Racism| ]] [[Category:Core issues in ethics]] [[Category:Discrimination]] [[Category:Hate]] [[Category:Politics and race]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Concepts (nationalism studies)]] [[ar:عنصرية]] [[an:Razismo]] [[ast:Racismu]] [[zh-min-nan:Chéng-cho̍k-chú-gī]] [[bs:Rasizam]] [[br:Gouennelouriezh]] [[bg:Расизъм]] [[ca:Racisme]] [[cs:Rasismus]] [[cy:Hiliaeth]] [[da:Racisme]] [[de:Rassismus]] [[et:Rassism]] [[el:Ρατσισμός]] [[es:Racismo]] [[eo:Rasismo]] [[eu:Arrazismo]] [[fa:نژادپرستی]] [[fr:Racisme]] [[ga:Ciníochas]] [[gl:Racismo]] [[ko:인종 차별]] [[hr:Rasizam]] [[id:Rasisme]] [[is:Kynþáttahyggja]] [[it:Razzismo]] [[he:גזענות]] [[ka:რასიზმი]] [[sw:Ubaguzi wa rangi]] [[lb:Rassismus]] [[lt:Rasizmas]] [[hu:Rasszizmus]] [[mk:Расизам]] [[ms:Rasisme]] [[nl:Racisme]] [[ja:人種差別]] [[no:Rasisme]] [[nn:Rasisme]] [[oc:Racisme]] [[pl:Rasizm]] [[pt:Racismo]] [[ro:Rasism]] [[ru:Расизм и расовая дискриминация]] [[scn:Razzismu]] [[simple:Racism]] [[sk:Rasizmus]] [[sl:Rasizem]] [[sr:Расизам]] [[sh:Rasizam]] [[fi:Rasismi]] [[sv:Rasism]] [[th:เผ่าพันธุ์นิยม]] [[vi:Phân biệt chủng tộc]] [[tr:Irkçılık]] [[uk:Расизм]] [[yi:ראסיזם]] [[bat-smg:Rasėzmos]] [[zh:种族主义]]