Racism in the United States 2162835 225998588 2008-07-16T11:23:29Z Dark Tea 3685587 added citation about African American racism against Asians in the minority-minority racism section {{pp-semi|small=yes}} '''Racism in the United States''' has been a major issue in America since the colonial era. Historically, the country has been dominated by a [[settler|settler society]] of religiously and ethnically diverse [[White American|whites]]. Major racially structured institutions include slavery, settlement, Indians reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps. [[Race (classification of human beings)|Racial]] [[stratification]] has occurred in employment, housing, education and government. Racial discrimination was largely criminalized in the mid-20th century, and it became socially unacceptable or morally repugnant as well, but major inequalities still persist and racial politics remain a major phenomena. The heaviest burdens of [[racism]] in the country have fallen upon [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], [[Asian American]]s, [[African American]]s, [[Hispanics in the United States|Latin Americans]] and some other [[Immigration to the United States|immigrant groups]] and their descendants. Racist attitudes, or [[prejudice]], are still held by moderate portions of the U.S population. Members of every American ethnic group have perceived racism in their dealings with other groups.<ref>[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j6qHU0LD6MvZS2pj_v1XTg6OOk2A AFP: US minorities don't trust each other]</ref><ref>[http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=28501933d0e5c5344b21f9640dc13754 Deep Divisions, Shared Destiny - A Poll of Black, Hispanic, and Asian Americans on Race Relations]</ref> ==History by targeted racial group== ===Racism against Native Americans=== {{main|Native Americans in the United States}} Hundreds of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native peoples]] made up of millions of individuals occupied the lands that would become the United States of America. During the colonial and independent periods, a long series of [[Indian Wars]] were fought with the primary objective of obtaining much of North America as territory of the U.S. Through [[List of wars|wars]], [[Wiktionary:massacre|massacre]], [[population transfer|forced displacement]] (such as in the [[Trail of Tears]]), restriction of food rights, and the imposition of treaties, land was taken and numerous hardships imposed. Ideologies justifying the context included stereotypes of Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]]) and the quasi-religious doctrine of [[Manifest Destiny]] which asserted divine blessing for U.S. conquest of all lands west of the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific. The most rapid invasion occurred in the [[California gold rush]], the first two years of which saw the deaths of tens of thousands of Indians. Following the 1848 American [[invasion]], Native Californians were [[Indian slavery|enslaved]] in the new state from statehood in 1850 to 1867.<ref>[[Edward D. Castillo|Castillo, Edward D.]] (1998). ''[http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html Short Overview of California Indian History]", California Native American Heritage Commission.</ref> Military and civil resistance by Native Americans has been a constant feature of American history. So too have a variety of debates around issues of sovereignty, the upholding of treaty provisions, and the civil rights of Native Americans under U.S. law. ====Discrimination, marginalization==== Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eskimo.com/~recall/bleed/0303.htm |accessdate=2008-01-28 |title=Our Daily Bleed... |format=html }}</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2007}} Many Native Americans were relegated to reservations--constituting just 4% of U.S. territory--and the treaties signed with them violated. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives were forced to attend a [[Indian boarding school|residential school system]] which sought to reeducate them in white settler American values, culture and economy--to "kill the Indian, sav[ing] the man."<ref>Ward Churchill, ''Kill the Indian, Save the Man'', 2006.</ref> Further dispossession continued through concessions for industries such as oil, mining and timber and through division of land through legislation such as the Allotment Act. These concessions have raised problems of consent, exploitation of low royalty rates, environmental injustice, and gross mismanagement of funds held in trust, resulting in the loss of $10-40 billion.<ref>United States Senate, [http://www.indiantrust.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=OtherMedia.ViewDetail&Other_id=12&Month=3&Year=2007 Oversight Hearing on Trust Fund Litigation, Cobell v. Kempthorne]. See also, [[Cobell v. Norton]].</ref> The [[Worldwatch Institute]] notes that 317 reservations are threatened by environmental hazards, while [[Western Shoshone]] land has been subjected to more than 1,000 nuclear explosions.<ref>[[Winona LaDuke]], ''All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life'', 1999, p. 2-3.</ref> While formal equality has been legally granted, [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]], [[Alaska Natives]], [[Native Hawaiians]], and [[Pacific Islanders]] remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the country, and suffer from high levels of alcoholism and suicide. {{Or|date=May 2007}} ===Racism against African Americans=== {{main|African American history}} ====Slavery and emancipation==== In colonial America, before [[slavery in the United States|slavery]] became completely based on racial lines, thousands of African slaves served European colonists, alongside other Europeans serving a term of [[indentured servitude]].<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ashorthistory/archive/intro99.shtml The curse of Cromwell]</ref> In some cases for African slaves, a term of service meant freedom and a land grant afterward, but these were rarely awarded, and few former slaves became landowners this way.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} In a precursor to the American Revolution, [[Nathaniel Bacon]] led a [[Bacon's Rebellion|revolt]] in 1676 against the Governor of [[Virginia]] and the system of exploitation he represented: exploitation of poorer colonists by the increasingly wealthy landowners where poorer people, regardless of skin color, fought side by side. However, Bacon died, probably of [[dysentery]]; hundreds of participants in the revolt were lured to disarm by a promised [[amnesty]]; and the revolt lost steam.<ref name="worldbook-nb">{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1992 | title = Bacon, Nathaniel | encyclopedia = The World Book Encyclopedia | publisher = World Book | id = ISBN 0-7166-0092-7 |pages = 18}}</ref> Slaves were primarily used for [[agriculture|agricultural]] labor, notably in the production of [[cotton]] and [[tobacco]]. Black slavery in the Northeast was common until the early 19th century, when many Northeastern states abolished slavery. Slaves were used as a labor force in agricultural production, shipyards, docks, and as domestic servants. In both regions, only the wealthiest Americans owned slaves.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} In contrast, poor whites recognized that slavery devalued their own labor. The social rift along color lines soon became ingrained in every aspect of colonial American culture.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war. According to the 1860 U.S. census, there were about 385,000 slaveowners out of approximately 1.5 million white families.<ref>Alonzo L. Hamby, George Clack, and Mildred Sola Neely. [http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/historybrf/index.htm Outline of US History.] A publication of the US Department of State.</ref> Although the Constitution had banned the importation of new African slaves in 1808, and in 1820 slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death,<ref>[http://www.pdavis.nl/SlaverBackground.htm The legal and diplomatic background to the seizure of foreign vessels]</ref> the practice of chattel slavery still existed for the next half century. All slaves in only the areas of the [[Confederate States of America]] that were not under direct control of the United States government were declared free by the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], which was issued on [[January 1]], [[1863]] by President [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref>[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=34 Emancipation Proclamation (1863)]</ref> It should be noted that the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union, thus the document only freed slaves where the Union still had not regained the legitimacy to do so. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] which was declared ratified on [[December 6]], [[1865]].<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/amend1.htm#13 XIII - Slavery Abolished] The Avalon Project</ref> About 4 million [[African American|black]] [[slavery|slaves]] were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North.<ref>James McPherson, Drawn with the Sword, page 15</ref> Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all [[white American|white]] males aged 13 to 43 died in the civil war, including 6% in the North and an extraordinary 18% in the South.<ref>[http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/050155.html The Deadliest War]</ref> Despite this, post-emancipation America was not free from racism; discriminatory practices continued in the United States with the existence of [[Jim Crow laws]], educational disparities and widespread criminal acts against people of color. ====Nadir of American race relations==== {{main|Nadir of American race relations |Mass racial violence in the United States}} [[Image:Lynching-of-will-james.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The circus-style [[lynching in the United States|lynching]] of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.]] The new century saw a hardening of institutionalized racism and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Although technically able to vote, [[poll tax]]es, acts of terror (often perpetuated by groups such as the [[Ku Klux Klan]], founded in the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] South), and discriminatory laws such as [[grandfather clause]]s kept black Americans disenfranchised particularly in the South but nationwide following the [[Rutherford B. Hayes|Hayes]] election at the end of the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] era in 1877. In response to [[de jure]] racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the [[NAACP]] (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909. This time period is sometimes referred to as the [[nadir of American race relations]] because racism in the United States was worse during this time than at any period before or since. [[Racial segregation|Segregation]], [[racial discrimination]], and expressions of white supremacy all increased. So did anti-black violence, including [[lynchings]] and [[race riot]]s. In addition, racism which had been viewed primarily as a problem in the Southern states, burst onto the national consciousness following the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]], the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the Southern states to the industrial centers of the North after World War I, particularly in cities such as [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], and [[New York City|New York]] ([[Harlem]]). In northern cities, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and [[lynching in the United States|lynchings]]--mob-directed hangings, usually racially motivated--increased dramatically in the 1920s. ====American Civil Rights movement==== {{main|American Civil Rights movement}} [[Image:1963 march lincoln memorial.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Civil Rights marchers at the Lincoln Memorial]] Prominent African American politicians, entertainers and activists pushed for civil rights throughout the twentieth century, quite noticeably during the 1930s and 1940s with noted allies including [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], who facilitated singer [[Marian Anderson]]'s famous 1939 [[Easter]] concert when segregated venues would not accommodate her.<ref>"[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/tmirhfee.html February 26, 1939 Eleanor Roosevelt Resigns from the Daughters of the American Revolution]," Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum.</ref> Activists, particularly [[A. Philip Randolph]] agitated for civil rights throughout the [[Great Depression]] and [[World War II]] years, organizing protest marches and seeking government concessions. The efforts of civil rights activists began to bear fruit with the issuance of wartime [[Executive Order 8802]], signed by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on [[June 25]], [[1941]] to prohibit [[racism|racial discrimination]] in the national [[Defense contractor|defense industry]]. <ref>Ronald Takaki, ''A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America'' (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 397.</ref> This was followed by [[Executive Order 9981]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]] in July 1948, which banned [[racial segregation]] in the [[United States of America|American]] armed forces, and the creation of the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]] in 1957. The 1950s and 1960s saw the peaking of the American [[Civil Rights Movement]] and the desegregation of schools under the 1954 [[Supreme Court]] case [[Brown v. Board]] and the organizing of widespread protests across the nation under a younger generation of leaders.<ref name=Takaki-CivRights>Ronald Takaki, ''A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America'' (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 400-414.</ref> The pastor and activist [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was the catalyst for many [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] protests in the 1960s which led to the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref name=PivenCloward>Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, ''Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail'' (New York: Vintage Books, 1979 [1977]), ch. 4.</ref> This signified a change in the social acceptance of legislative racism in America and a profound increase in the number of opportunities available for people of color in the United States.<ref name=PivenCloward /> While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, black poverty and lack of education<ref>[http://www.jbhe.com/latest/122905_statistical_shocker2005.html JBHE Statistical Shocker of the Year]</ref> deepened in the context of de-industrialization.<ref name=Takaki-CivRights /> ===Discrimination against Latin Americans=== {{Original research|section|date=May 2007}} Americans of Latin American ancestry (often categorized as "[[Hispanic]]") come from a wide variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds; however, Latin Americans have often been viewed as a monolithic group by other Americans. Latinos are often portrayed as passionate, [[hypersexual]], violent, lazy, or [[Machismo|macho]] in literature, films, television and music. Furthermore, recent increases in legal Hispanic immigration have spurred anti-Latino sentiment, particularly in areas of the United States that have previously seen few Hispanic immigrants. The immigration debate has generated negative feelings of [[Nativism (politics)|nativism]] and racist claims that Latin Americans are taking over white Anglo-American society, especially in the [[Southwestern United States]], home to most American Latinos. Due to the diversity of backgrounds encountered in the Hispanic population of the United States, racist policies have varied widely. The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] granted Mexicans in the territories acquired after the [[Mexican-American War]] access to United States citizenship and legal status. [[Puerto Ricans in the United States|Puerto Ricans]] began arriving on the mainland after the [[Spanish-American War]] when the U.S. acquired the island territory from Spain, but the migration peaked between 1930 and 1960. Latinos are not all distinguishable as a racial minority. For example, [[Leander Perez]]'s ancestors were mainly [[Isleño]]s who immigrated to the New Orleans area in the late 1700s, yet Leander had the appearance of, and was considered by almost everyone, to be a white man. Many [[Cuban American]]s, particularly those from the exile generation that arrived immediately after the [[Cuban Revolution|Communist domination of the island]], are also largely integrated into American society. ===West Coast racism=== In the [[Pacific States]], racism was primarily directed against the resident Indian and Latino peoples, Asian immigrants, and black (African-American) populations. Several immigration laws discriminated against the Asians, and at different points the ethnic Chinese or other groups were banned from entering the United States.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/chinese6.html Immigration...Chinese:Exclusion]</ref> Nonwhites were prohibited from testifying against whites, a prohibition extended to the Chinese by [[People v. Hall]].<ref>[http://www.cetel.org/1854_hall.html Text of People v. Hall decision]</ref> The Chinese were generally subject to harder labor on the [[First Transcontinental Railroad]] and often performed the more dangerous tasks such as using dynamite to make pathways through the mountains.<ref>Ronald Takaki, ''A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America'' (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 196-98.</ref> The [[San Francisco Vigilance Movement]], although ostensibly a response to crime and corruption, also systematically victimized Irish immigrants, and later this was transformed into mob violence against Chinese immigrants. {{Fact|date=May 2007}} Legal discrimination of Asian minorities was furthered with the passages of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]], which banned the entrance of virtually all ethnic Chinese immigrants into the United States until 1943. During World War II, the United States created [[Japanese American internment|internment camps for Japanese American citizens]] in fear that they would be used as spies for the Japanese. This was also done with [[Italian American]] and German American <ref>[http://www.foitimes.com/ Internment of German Americans in the United States during World War II<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> populations in the East. {{See also|History of Oregon#Racial discrimination}} A variety of laws were enacted to prevent African American migration to the [[Pacific Northwest]]. While slavery was criminalized in the [[Oregon Territory]] in 1844, a so-called [[lash law]] required that all blacks (slave or free) be whipped twice annually was enacted in June of that year. An exclusion law, barring African Americans from entering the territory was passed in 1847, repealed in 1854, and added to the new Oregon state constitution in 1857. While African Americans have been present at some level since 1805, the demographic reverberations of these laws remain today.<ref name=BlackTimeline>[http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/blaktime.html Timeline of Black History in the Pacific Northwest]</ref> The [[Zoot Suit Riots]] were vivid incidents of racial violence against Latinos in [[Los Angeles]] in 1943. Naval servicemen stationed in a Latino neighborhood conflicted with youth in the dense neighborhood. Frequent confrontations between small groups and individuals had intensified into several days of non-stop rioting. Large mobs of servicemen would enter civilian quarters looking to attack Mexican American youths, some of whom were wearing [[zoot suit]]s, a distinctive exaggerated fashion popular among that group.<ref>Richard Griswold del Castillo, "The Los Angeles "Zoot Suit Riots" Revisited: Mexican and Latin American Perspectives," ''Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos'', Vol. 16, No. 2. (Summer, 2000), pp. 367-391.</ref> The disturbances continued unchecked, and even assisted, by the local police for several days before based commanders declared downtown Los Angeles and Mexican American neighborhoods off-limits to servicemen.<ref>Arthur C. Verge, "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles," The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 3, Fortress California at War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego, 1941-1945. (Aug., 1994), pp. 306-7.</ref></small> The Pacific and [[Western United States|Western]] states were often portrayed to those on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] as more liberal in terms of race relations in the 1960s and 1970s, but California legally allowed racial segregation of public facilities until the 1950s and other forms of racism were felt there as well. ===Hate crimes=== Most hate crimes in the United States target victims on the basis of race or ethnicity (for Federal purposes, crimes targeting Hispanics based on that identity are considered based on ethnicity). Leading forms of bias cited in the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, based on law enforcement agency filings are: anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-white, anti-homosexual, and anti-Hispanic bias in that order in both 2004 and 2005.<ref>[http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2004/openpage.htm Hate Crime Statistics, 2004]. [http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2005/index.html Hate Crime Statistics, 2005].</ref> There are more hate crimes against whites than against Hispanics, Asians, American-Indians and multiple-race groups - a statistically expected trend given that there far more whites than other ethnic groups put together. By contrast, the National Criminal Victimization Survey, finds that per capita rates of hate crime victimization varied little by race or ethnicity, and the differences are not statistically significant.<ref>[www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/hcrvp.pdf Hate Crime Reported by Victims and Police], Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, November 2005, NCJ 209911.</ref> The [[New Century Foundation]], a [[white nationalist]] organization founded by [[Jared Taylor]], argues that blacks are more likely than whites to commit hate crimes, and that FBI figures inflate the number of hate crimes committed by whites by counting Hispanics as "white".<ref>[http://www.nc-f.org/colorcrime1999.htm The Color of Crime], 1999.</ref> Other analysts are sharply critical of the NCF's findings, referring to the criminological mainstream view that "Racial and ethnic data must be treated with caution. ... Existing research on crime has generally shown that racial or ethnic identity is not predictive of criminal behavior with data which has been controlled for social and economic factors."<ref>Preface to Minnesota's official crime data reports, quoted in Southern Poverty Law Center, [http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=255 Coloring Crime].</ref> NCF's methodology and statistics are further sharply criticized as flawed and deceptive by anti-racist activists Tim Wise and the Southern Poverty Law Center.<ref>Tim Wise, "[http://www.lipmagazine.org/~timwise/colorofdeception.html The Color of Deception: Race, Crime and Sloppy Social Science]," 2004.</ref><ref>Southern Poverty Law Center, [http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=255 Coloring Crime].</ref> ===Antisemitism=== {{main|Antisemitism}} [[Antisemitism]] has also played a role in America. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, hundreds of thousands of [[Ashkenazi]] [[Jews]] were escaping the [[pogroms]] of [[Russia]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. They boarded boats from ports on the Baltic Sea and in Northern [[Germany]], and largely arrived at [[Ellis Island]], [[New York]].<ref name=Takaki-JewishMigr>Ronald Takaki, ''A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America'' (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 277-283.</ref> It is thought by [[Leo Rosten]], in his book, '[[The Joys of Yiddish]]', that as soon as they left the boat, they were subject to racism from the port immigration authorities. The derogatory term '[[kike]]' was adopted when referring to Jews (because they often could not write so they may have signed their immigration papers with circles - or kikel in [[Yiddish]]).<ref>Rosten, Leo (1968) "The Joys of Yiddish"</ref> From the 1910s, the Southern Jewish communities were attacked by the [[Ku Klux Klan]], who objected to Jewish immigration, and often used 'The Jewish Banker' in their propaganda. In 1915, [[Texas]]-born, [[New York]] [[Jew]] [[Leo Frank]] was lynched by the newly re-formed Klan, after being convicted of rape and sentenced to death (his punishment was commuted to life imprisonment).<ref name="lynching openly organized">Phagan, 1987, p. 27, states that "everyone knew the identity of the lynchers" (putting the words in her father's mouth). Oney, 2003, p. 526, quotes Carl Abernathy as saying, "They'd go to a man's office and talk to him or ... see a man on the job and talk to him," and an unidentified lyncher as saying "The organization of the body was more open than mysterious."</ref> The events in [[Nazi Germany]] also attracted attention from America. Jewish lobbying for intervention in Europe drew opposition from the [[isolationists]], amongst whom was Father [[Charles Coughlin]], a well known radio priest, who was known to be critical of Jews, believing that they were leading America into the war.<ref name"Coughlin">[http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/53/coughlin.html Father Charles Edward Coughlin (1891-1971)] By Richard Sanders, Editor, Press for Conversion!</ref> He preached in weekly, overtly [[anti-Semitic]] sermons and, from 1936, began publication of a newspaper, Social Justice, in which he printed anti-Semitic accusations such as [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]].<ref name="Coughlin">Mary Christine Athans, "A New Perspective on Father Charles E. Coughlin," ''Church History'', Vol. 56, No. 2. (Jun., 1987), pp. 224-235.</ref> A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, Muslim organizations, and academics consider the [[Nation of Islam]] to be [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]]. Specifically, they claim that the Nation of Islam has engaged in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and exaggerates the role of Jews in the African slave trade.<ref>[http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~antis/papers/occasional.papers.html H-ANTISEMITISM OCCASIONAL PAPERS, NO. 1M<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Jewish [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) alleges that NOI Health Minister, Abdul Alim Muhammad, has accused Jewish doctors of injecting blacks with the [[AIDS]] virus,<ref>[http://www.adl.org/focus_sheets/focus_islam.asp Nation of Islam<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> an allegation that Dr. Abdul Alim Muhammad has denied. ===Anti-White racism=== In the [[United States]], there have been crimes committed against [[White American]]s on the basis of their ethnicity. According to [[FBI]] statistics from 1995-2002, Whites are the second most targeted group for racially motivated hate crime.<ref>[http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/2/6/3/7/p126377_index.html What factors lead to cross-sectional variation in anti-White hate crime on the community district level?], American Society of Criminology (ASC)</ref> These crimes are often localized and occur in areas where White Americans are a racial minority.{{fact|date=June 2008}} They do not receive the same media attention as other racially motivated crimes.{{fact|date=June 2008}} ===Racism against Middle Easterners and Muslims === {{main|Anti-Arabism|Islamophobia}} [[Image:Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg|400px|thumb|An [[ACOE|Assyrian church]] vandalized in [[Detroit]] (2007). [[Assyrians]], although not Arabs and mostly [[Syriac Christianity|Christians]], often face backlash in the US for their [[Middle East]]ern background.<ref>{{cite news |first = |last = |authorlink = |author = |coauthors = |title = Arab American Institute Still Deliberately Claiming Assyrians Are Arabs |url = http://www.aina.org/releases/20070416140021.htm |format = |work = |publisher = [[Assyrian International News Agency]] |location = |id = |pages = |page = |date = |accessdate = 2008-02-09 |language = English |quote = |archiveurl = |archivedate = }}</ref>]] Racism against [[Arab Americans]]<ref name=Leonard>Leonard, Karen. University of California, Irvine. Western Knight Center. "American Muslims:South Asian Contributions to the Mix." 2005. [[July 28]] [[2007]]. [http://www.wkconline.org/resources/pdf/2005muslim_SAsian_Muslims.pdf]</ref> may rise concomittantly with tensions between the American government and the Arab world. Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] in the United States, discrimination and racialized violence has markedly increased against Arab Americans and many other religious and cultural groups.<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102.htm United States<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Public opinion polls and think tank observers also note a "backlash" against Muslims and Arabs since 2001, with 34% of Americans reporting recently hearing prejudiced remarks about Islam and 25% assessing themselves as prejudiced against Arabs.<ref name=Poll2006> Claudia Deane and Darryl Fears, "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/08/AR2006030802221.html Negative Perception Of Islam Increasing]," ''Washington Post'', [[March 9]] [[2006]]. Note that the Arab prejudice statistic is in the accompanying poll data.</ref> Iraqis in particular were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]].<ref>[http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814 The Free Press - Independent News Media - War in Iraq<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp Demonization of Muslims Caused the Iraq Abuse<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>In addition, non-Arabs who are mistaken for Arabs because of perceived "similarities in appearance" have been collateral victims of anti-Arabism. [[Persian people]] (who constitute a completely different set of ethnic groups than Arabs), as well as [[South Asians]] of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as "Arabs". The case of [[Balbir Singh Sodhi]], a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a [[white supremacist]] for "looking like an Arab terrorist" (because of the turban that is a requirement of [[Sikhism]]), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for "being Muslims" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/11/25/national/main530749.shtml Hindu Beaten Because He's Muslim, Mistaken Anti-Islam Thugs Pummel, Hogtie And Stab Deliveryman - CBS News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://www.adl.org/presrele/hatcr_51/4277_51.asp</ref> Parts of [[Hollywood]] are regarded as using a disproportionate number of Arabs as villains and of depicting Arabs negatively and stereotypically. According to Godfrey Cheshire, a critic on the New York Press, "the only vicious racial stereotype that's not only still permitted but actively endorsed by Hollywood" is that of Arabs as crazed terrorists.<ref name="Whitaker">{{cite news |first=Brian |last=Whitaker |authorlink=Brian Whitaker |title=The 'towel-heads' take on Hollywood |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,355880,00.html |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |date=[[2000-08-11]]}}</ref> [[Hussein Ibish]], former Communications Director of the [[American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee]], writes that all Hollywood portrayals of Arabs fall under one of "the three B's": bombers, belly dancers, or billionaires. In Hollywood, Arabs have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>[http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357 American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee: New Book: Civil Rights in Peril-The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Some western movies portray Arab Muslims similar to how Nazi-inspired movies portrayed Jews. Like the image of Jews in fascist Germany, the image of Arabs is that of "money-grubbing caricatures that sought world domination, worshipped a different God, killed innocents, and lusted after blond virgins." <ref name="Hollywood1">{{cite journal |last=Shaheen |first=Jack G. |authorlink=Jack Shaheen |year=2000 |title=Hollywood's Muslim Arabs |journal=The Muslim World |volume=90 |issue=1–2 |pages=22–42 |issn=0027-4909 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2000.tb03680.x}}</ref> The 2000 film [[Rules of Engagement (film)|Rules of Engagement]] drew criticism from Arab groups, described as "probably the most racist film ever made against Arabs by Hollywood" by the ADC.<ref name="Whitaker"/> Paul Clinton of the [[Boston Globe]] wrote "at its worst, it's blatantly racist, using Arabs as cartoon-cutout bad guys".<ref name="Whitaker"/> [[Jack Shaheen]], in his book [[Reel Bad Arabs]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Shaheen |first=Jack G. |authorlink=Jack Shaheen |title=[[Reel Bad Arabs]] |year=2001 |publisher=Interlink Publishing Group |isbn=1-56656-388-7}}</ref> surveyed more than 900 film appearances of Arab characters. Of those, only a dozen were positive and 50 were balanced. Shaheen writes that "[Arab] stereotypes are deeply ingrained in American cinema. From 1896 until today, filmmakers have collectively indicted all Arabs as Public Enemy #1 – brutal, heartless, uncivilized religious fanatics and money-mad cultural "others" bent on terrorizing civilized Westerners, especially [Christians] and [Jews]. Much has happened since 1896… Throughout it all, Hollywood's caricature of the [Arab] has prowled the silver screen. He is there to this day – repulsive and unrepresentative as ever."<ref>{{cite news |first=John |last=Levesque |title=Arabs suffer in the hands of Hollywood |url=http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/tv/63118_tv21.shtml |publisher=[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]] |date=[[2002-03-21]]}}</ref>. Some feel the obese oil sheik has become the new fat, grotesque Jewish banker or merchant as a negative stereotype in Western media<ref>{{cite news |first=James J. |last=Zogby |title=The Other Anti-Semitism |url=http://www.sojo.net/index.cfm?action=magazine.article&issue=soj9811&article=981112 |publisher=[[Sojourners Magazine]] |issn=|0364-2097 |date=November–December 1998}}</ref> According to Newsweek columnist Meg Greenfield, anti-Arab sentiment presently cause misconceptions about Arabs, and hinder genuine peace in the Middle East.<ref name="Hollywood1"/> During the [[Gulf War|1991 Gulf war]], anti-Arab sentiments increased in the United States.<ref name="Oswald">{{cite journal |last=Oswald |first=Debra L. |year=2005 |month=September |title=Understanding Anti-Arab Reactions Post-9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=1775–1799 |doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02195.x}}</ref> Arab Americans have experienced backlash as result of many terrorist attacks, including events where Arabs were not involved, like the [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Iranian hostage crisis]], and the explosion of [[TWA Flight 800]].<ref name="aaiusa">{{cite web |url=http://www.humanitykingdom.com/library/general/arab-american.pdf |title=Arab American Institute 2001 report submitted to the United States Commission on Civil Rights |format=PDF |publisher=[[Arab American Institute]]}}<!--http://www.aaiusa.org/PDF/JZ%20October%20Testimony.pdf--></ref> According to a report prepared by the [[Arab American Institute]], three days after the Oklahoma City bombing "more than 200 serious hate crimes were committed against Arab Americans and American Muslims. The same was true in the days following September 11."<ref name="aaiusa"/> According to a 2001 poll of Arab Americans conducted by the [[Arab American Institute]], "32% of Arab Americans reported having been subjected to some form of ethnic-based discrimination during their lifetimes, 20% reported having experienced an instance of ethnic-based discrimination since September 11. Of special concern, for example, is the fact that 45% of students and 37% of Arab Americans of the Muslim faith report being targeted by discrimination since September 11.<ref name="aaiusa"/> According to the FBI and Arab groups, the number of attacks against Arabs, Muslims, and others mistaken as such rose considerably after the 9/11 attacks.<ref>[http://cfrterrorism.org/policy/hatecrimes.html Terrorism - Council on Foreign Relations<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Hate crimes]] against people of Middle Eastern origin or descent increased from 354 attacks in 2000, to 1,501 attacks in 2001.<ref name="Oswald"/> Among the victims of the backlash was a Middle Eastern man in Houston, Texas who was shot and wounded after an assailant accused him of "blowing up the country"<ref name="aaiusa"/> and four immigrants shot and killed by a man named [[Larme Price]] who confessed to killing them as a "revenge" for the 9/11 attacks.<ref>http://www.aaiusa.org/news/must_read03_31_03ny.htm</ref> Although Price described his victims as Arabs, only one was from an Arab country. [[Eric Boehlert]] has accused the US media, in particular [[Fox News]], of "pandering to anti-Arab hysteria" by "fudging the facts and ignoring the most rudimentary tenets of journalism in their haste to better tell a sinister story about lurking Middle Eastern dangers".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dir.salon.com/story/tech/feature/2002/01/19/bubba/index1.html |title=The prime-time smearing of Sami Al-Arian |last=Boehlert |first=Eric |authorlink=Eric Boehlert |date=[[2002-01-19]] |publisher=[[Salon.com]]}}</ref> [[John F. Sugg]] has accused prominent media terrorism expert [[Steve Emerson]] of persistent anti-Arab prejudice and of rushing to accuse Arab-Americans after the [[Oklahoma City bombing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1443 |title=Steven Emerson's Crusade |last=Sugg |first=John F. |year=1999 |month=January/February |publisher=[[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting|FAIR]]}}</ref> Prominent conservative commentators in the United States have voiced hostility towards Arabs. [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] has described Iraqis as a "[[pre-history|pre-historic]]" and "primitive" group.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200406180005 |title=O'Reilly: Iraqi people are "primitive," "prehistoric group" |date=[[2004-06-18]] |publisher=[[Media Matters for America]]}}</ref> [[Michael Savage (commentator)|Michael Savage]] described Arabs as "non-humans" and "racist, fascist [[bigotry|bigots]]" and advocated a nuclear attack on a "major Arab capital".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200405140003 |title=Savage: Arabs are "non-humans" and "racist, fascist bigots" |date=[[2004-05-14]] |publisher=[[Media Matters for America]]}}</ref> <!--Conservative pundit and author [[Michelle Malkin]] has accused the [[American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee]] of exaggeration and questioned the existence of a post-[[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]] anti-Arab hate crime epidemic. She says that the "hype artists" and "book-cookers" of ADC reported that "a Muslim student was pelted with eggs at Arizona State University", but that of two such incidents logged at the university, one was a "complete hoax", and the other was not considered a hate crime by police. <ref name="MalkinEpidemicMyth">[[WorldNetDaily]]: [http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=32788 Myth of the Muslim hate-crime epidemic] by [[Michelle Malkin]], May 28, 2003.</ref> There's a difference between anti-Muslim and anti-Arab hatred. --> [[Earl Krugel]] and [[Irv Rubin]], two members of the [[Jewish Defense League]], classified by the [[Department of Homeland Security]] as a terrorist organization,<ref>[http://www.tolerance.org/maps/hate/state.jsp?S=NY&m=3 SPLCenter.org: Hate Groups Map<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> planned to bomb Arab-American Congressman [[Darrell Issa]]'s office and the King Fahd Mosque in [[Culver City, California]]. The two were arrested as part of a sting operation when they received a shipment of explosives at Krugel's home in L.A. and both met their end in prison.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jewish extremist killed in jail |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4411408.stm |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=[[2005-11-06]]}}</ref> The group was also suspected in the 1985 bombing of ADC leader [[Alex Odeh]], though no arrests were made.<ref>{{cite news |title=JDL chairman Rubin dies |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/West/11/14/obit.irv.rubin.ap/ |publisher=[[Associated Press]] via [[CNN]] |date=[[2002-11-14]]}}</ref> [[Stephen E. Herbits]], the Secretary-General of the New York-based [[World Jewish Congress]] made several [[racism|racist]] remarks and ethnic slurs in an internal memo against the president of the [[European Jewish Congress]] [[Pierre Besnainou]]: "He is French. Don’t discount this. He cannot be trusted, ... He is Tunisian. Do not discount this either. He works like an Arab." <ref>Ratner, Lizzy and Anna Schneider-Mayerson. Memo from Old Rumsfeld Aide May Sink Bronfman Heir. Matthew Bronfman's bid to lead the World Jewish Congress is turning into a big mess. [[New York Observer]], May 7, 2007, Available: http://www.observer.com/2007/memo-old-rumsfeld-aide-may-sink-bronfman-heir</ref> The World Jewish Congress in Israel has condemned the statements as both hateful and racist. "It appears that the struggle in the World Jewish Congress has now turned racist, said MK [[Shai Hermesh]] (Kadima), who heads the Israeli board of the WJC. Instead of creating unity among the Jewish people, this organization is just creating division and hatred."<ref>Lefkovits, Etgar. Top WJC official makes Arab jibe at EJC chief. [[Jerusalem Post]]. May 4, 2007, Available: http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1178198609617</ref> [[UNHCR]] estimates that over 4.2 million [[Refugees of Iraq|Iraqis]] have been displaced since the US-led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]] in 2003,<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/article2640418.ece UN warns of five million Iraqi refugees]</ref><ref>[http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/07/125F9BB7-46A1-4C2C-904A-F250A09C3393.html Iraq: Refugee Crisis Could Become Regional Security Threat]</ref> with nearly 100,000 fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2006/11/03/un_nearly_100000_flee_iraq_monthly/ U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly]. Alexander G. Higgins, ''[[Boston Globe]],'' [[November 3]], [[2006]]</ref> A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted [[Immigration to the United States#Asylum for refugees|refugee status]] in the [[United States]].<ref>Ann McFeatters: [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/317322_mcfeatters27.html Iraq refugees find no refuge in America]. ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]'' May 25, 2007</ref> ====Racism against Iranians==== {{main|Anti-Iranian sentiment}} [[Image:Man holding sign during Iranian hostage crisis protest, 1979.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A man holding a sign that reads "deport all [[Iran]]ians" and "get the hell out of my country" during a protest of the [[Iran hostage crisis]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1979.]] The November 1979 [[Iranian hostage crisis]] of the U.S. embassy in [[Tehran]] precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the [[Iranian Revolution|new Islamic regime]] and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up. In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mehdi|last=Bozorgmehr|title=No solidarity: Iranians in the U.S.|url=http://www.Iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html#3a|work=The Iranian|date=[[2001-05-02]]|accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref> [[Ann Coulter]] called Iranians "ragheads."<ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/news/viewstory.asp?Page=%5CCulture%5Carchive%5C200602%5CCUL20060213b.html Ann Coulter 'Raghead' Comments Spark Blogger Blacklash - 02/13/2006<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Brent Scowcroft]] called the Iranian people "rug merchants."{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has gradually shown signs of vilifying Iranians.<ref>See detailed analysis in: ''The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception''. Praeger, 1997; Greenwood, 1995.</ref> Hollywood network productions such as ''[[24 (TV series)|24]]'' <ref>[http://mediamatters.org/items/200702020015 Media Matters - Conservatives continue to use Fox's 24 to support hawkish policies<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, ''[[John Doe (TV series)|John Doe]]'', ''[[On Wings of Eagles]]'' (1986)<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE2DC163CF93BA25756C0A960948260 Tv View; 'On Wings Of Eagles' Plods To Superficial Heights - New York Times<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, ''[[Escape From Iran: The Canadian Caper]]'' (1981)<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082339/ Escape from Iran: The Canadian Caper (1981) (TV)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, and ''[[JAG]]'' almost regularly host Persian speaking villains in their storylines. On [[May 9]], [[1997]], [[CBS]] aired an episode of [[JAG]] in which several [[Hamas]] terrorists take a Washington hospital under siege. According to the film, they spoke in fluent "Persian", not "Arabic".{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Some of Hollywood's "stereotypical"<ref>[http://www.Iranian.com/Opinion/Aug98/Media/index.html Iranian.com | Archive Pages<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and anti-Iranian movies include: ''[[The Peacemaker (1997 film)|The Peacemaker]]'' (in which a character, apparently without any context, says "fuck Iran"), ''[[The Hitman (film)|The Hitman]]'' (in which several mobs join together to demolish an Iranian mob operating in Canada), ''[[Madhouse (1990 film)|MadHouse]]'' (partially centering upon a wealthy Iranian who is in the process of divorcing his American wife. In one scene, the wife, speaking to her Iranian husband utters "you goddamn towel heads, sand rats"), ''[[The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad!|The Naked Gun]]'', ''[[Under Siege]]'', ''[[The Delta Force (film)|The Delta Force]]'', ''[[Into the Night (film)|Into the Night]]'', ''[[Down and Out in Beverly Hills]]'', ''[[Threads]]'', ''[[Who Dares Wins (film)|The Final Options]]'', and ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076715/ Silver Bears]''. ==Racism as a motivator in U.S. foreign policy== [[United States foreign policy]] making was influenced from its early decades by racial concerns. While pursuing a series of expansionist wars (see "Racism against Native Americans" above), American leaders embraced and ideology of [[white supremacy|white racial supremacy]]. [[George Washington]] predicted at the end of the [[U.S. Revolutionary War]], “The gradual extension of our settlements will as certainly cause the savage, as the wolf, to retire; both being beasts of prey, tho' they differ in shape."<ref>Quoted in Noam Chomsky, ''Year 501: The Conquest Continues'', (Boston: South End Press, 1993), 22.</ref> The successful slave revolution in [[Haiti]] alarmed the United States leadership, and the country refused diplomatic recognition for decades. The United States conquest of [[Florida]] and the [[Seminole Wars]] were fought in part to confront the danger of "mingled hordes of lawless Indians and negroes," in the words of President John Quincy Adams.<ref name=Year501p24>Quoted in Noam Chomsky, ''Year 501: The Conquest Continues'', (Boston: South End Press, 1993), 24.</ref> Armed conflict against predominatly [[Barbary States|Muslim]] areas was launched by the administrations of [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]]. In 1801, Jefferson sent a group of frigates to defend American interests in the Mediterranean. On [[March 3]], [[1815]], the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] authorized deployment of naval power against [[Algiers]], and a force of ten ships was dispatched under the command of Commodores [[Stephen Decatur, Jr.]] and [[William Bainbridge]]. Early 20th-century President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] declared, "The most ultimately righteous of all wars is a war with savages" and openly spoke of cementing the rule of "dominant world races."<ref name=Year501p24 /> In line with the concepts of the "[[Manifest Destiny]]" of white Anglo-Americans to conquer lands inhabited by "inferior" races of Native Americans and Mexicans and the "White Man's Burden" of Europeans' obligation to introduce civilization to the "primitive" people of Africa, Asia and the Pacific, American foreign policy in the early 20th century had racial overtones of a "superior" race destined to rule the world. Critics such as [[Gore Vidal]] and [[Noam Chomsky]] have suggested that racism has played a significant role in U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East and its treatment of the Arabs. Various critics have suggested that racism along with strategic and financial interests motivated the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush Administration]] to attack Iraq even though the [[Baath]]ist regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] did not possess weapons of mass destruction nor had any ties to [[Al Qaida]].<ref>[http://www.merip.org/mero/interventions/lockman_interv.html MERIP Interventions: Behind the Battles Over US Middle East Studies, by Zachary Lockman<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.mediamonitors.net/kristenschurr1.html Racism in Reporting, Jingoism as Foreign Policy (by Kristen Schurr) - Media Monitors Network<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B06E6DA153BF93BA35750C0A964948260]</ref> On the other hand, some scholars believe that the United States has softened racial restrictions based on foreign policy concerns. For example, Congress eliminated racial bars on Asian immigration during [[World War II]] and the [[Vietnam War]] to recognize American allies.<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1121504 Gabriel J. Chin, The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, 75 North Carolina Law Review 273 (1996)]</ref> When the [[Supreme Court]] decided [[Brown v. Board of Education]], the government argued that the Supreme Court should rule against racial segregation to counter Communist propaganda and improve America's image overseas.<ref> Mary L. Dudziak, "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative," 41 Stanford Law Review 61 (1988)</ref> ==Conflicts between racial and ethnic minorities== ===Argument against minority-minority racism=== Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of [[power (sociology)|power]] in society. Some theories of racism insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power to impose it upon others.<ref>For example, Catherine A. Hansman, Leon Spencer, Dale Grant, Mary Jackson, "Beyond Diversity: Dismantling Barriers in Education," ''Journal of Instructional Psychology'', March 1999</ref> "''Activists like Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson intone that racism equals “prejudice plus power,” and that since blacks in America lack power, they are simply not capable of practicing racism against anyone. John Hope Franklin, chair of President Clinton’s race panel, angrily insists that racism is something suffered, not dished out, by blacks. Many black professors, writers, polemicists, and politicians repeat the same mantra.''"<ref name=MA>Ma, Ya. The Newsletter of United for a Multicultural Japan. Black Racism. 2001. [http://www.tabunka.org/newsletter/black_racism.html ]</ref> ===African and Asian Americans=== Racist thinking, or [[prejudice]], among and between minority groups does occur, for example conflicts between blacks and Koreans (notably in the [[1992 Los Angeles Riots]]) or between blacks and Jews (such as the [[Crown Heights Riot|riots in Crown Heights]] in 1991<ref>[http://www.recomnetwork.org/articles/01/08/16/0254240.shtml]</ref>) in various urban environments, new immigrant groups (such as Latinos<ref>[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?pid=902 SPLCenter.org: The Rift<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>) or towards whites.<ref>http://www.michnews.com/artman/publish/article_12516.shtml</ref> "''In poor neighborhoods across this country Asians endure daily racial hatred just as I did.<ref name=Ma /> Because of their language deficiencies [Ya Ma was an immigrant from China], their small size, their fear of violent confrontations, they endure in silence.<ref name=Ma/> Unlike me, many of them will never depart for a new life in a beautiful place far, far away [Ya Ma moved out of the ghetto]. So each day they grow more bitter against a group that much of America refuses to acknowledge to be capable of racism: African Americans.''"<ref name=Ma/> "''[E]veryday Asians rarely defend themselves against ghetto [African American] racism because “Asian culture is just not that confrontational.. Asians are unlike blacks who got to where they are in politics by being militant.''"<ref name=Ma /> ====Cause of strife==== "''Asian activists consistently mention that racial problems occur when Asian merchants move into predominantly black neighborhoods and flourish.''"<ref name=Ma /> "''Joe Hicks, executive director of the Los Angeles City Human Relations Commissions... believes that “much of the hostilities are due to blacks’ jealousy of Asian economic success, a sense of alienation, and the self-perpetuating belief that blacks will always lose out in the racial equation in America.”''"<ref name=Ma /> ====Lack of awareness==== ["''A] fundamental disconnection exists between the national Asian spokesmen and the new majority of Asians who are recent immigrants.<ref name=Ma /> The prominent Asian civil rights leaders, he notes, tend to be American born, to speak little of their ethnic languages, and to be unable to read the local ethnic newspapers.<ref name=Ma /> Many of them do not know or understand the problems in low income areas, because they live comfortable middle-class lives.<ref name=Ma /> And so “it is not surprising that they are silent about black-on-Asian discrimination,” Lee summarizes.''"<ref name=Ma /> "''When asked why prominent Asians have said little about racial harassment by African Americans, Bill Tam of San Francisco’s Chinese Family Alliance flatly stated, “I think they are afraid to say anything.” To him, it appears that Asian leaders are often fearful of the national black leadership.<ref name=Ma /> National Asian organizations generally follow the lead of black civil rights groups like the naacp so slavishly, another Bay Area activist told me, that even when the latter’s stances (for instance, on quotas and preferences) are opposed to the interests and beliefs of many Asian citizens, the Asian activists don’t challenge their allies.''"<ref name=Ma /> "''Most Asian leaders do not wish to acknowledge that there exists a problem because they do not want the minorities to fight amongst themselves.''"<ref name=Ma /> ===African and Mexican Americans=== There has been a long running racial tension between [[African Americans]] and [[Mexican Americans]].<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9587776 Race relations | Where black and brown collide | Economist.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/14/national/main2089618.shtml Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School]</ref><ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5192595&ft=1&f=1001 California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence : NPR<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2036580,00.html A bloody conflict between Hispanic and black gangs is spreading across Los Angeles]</ref><ref>[http://www.blackamericaweb.com/site.aspx/bawnews/stateof/hutchinson105 The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter]</ref><ref>[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=9600 FrontPage Magazine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the [[Mexican Mafia]] and the Black Guerilla family, a rival [[African American]] [[prison gang]], has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders, or shot callers, that they have issued a "green light" on all blacks. A sort of gang-life fatwah, this amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia.[http://www.blackamericaweb.com/site.aspx/bawnews/stateof/hutchinson105] There have been several significant riots in [[California]] prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/race-riot-put-down-at-california-state.php JURIST - Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison]</ref><ref>[http://newsmine.org/archive/security/incarceration/racial-segregation-continues-in-california-prisons.txt Racial segregation continues in California prisons]</ref> ===Hispanic white and non-Hispanic white=== Recently there has also been an increase in racial violence between [[European American|whites]] and Hispanic immigrants<ref>[http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/content/news/stories/2007/07/25/7_25_07_ethnic_intimidation.html Late-night snack soured by racially motivated violence]</ref> ===New Immigrant African Americans and African Americans=== [[Africans in the United States|African]] immigrants and American blacks.<ref>[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06044/654613.stm African immigrants face bias from blacks]</ref><ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Story?id=5237459&page=1 Racism not always black and white]</ref> ==Stereotypes and prejudice== {{Expand|date=October 2007}} [[Image:1900sc Mammy Card Interracial.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This racist [[postcard]] from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of black women. It states "I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench"]] ===Stereotypical images in the entertainment media=== Popular culture (songs, theater) for European-American audiences in the nineteenth century created and perpetuated negative stereotypes of African-Americans. One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of [[blackface]]. Directly related to this was the institution of [[minstrelsy]]. ===Contemporary images and protests=== Increasing numbers of African-American activists have asserted that [[rap music]] videos utilize African-American performers commonly enacting [[trope]]s of scantilly clothed women and men as thugs or pimps. Church organized groups have protested outside the residence of Phillipe Dauman (Upper East Side (New York, NY)) (president and chief executive officer of [[Viacom]]) and the residence of Debra L. Lee (Northwest Washington DC) (chairman and chief executive of [[Black Entertainment Television]], a unit of Viacom). Rev. Donald Coates, leader of a protest organization formed around the issue of the videos, "Enough is Enough!" said, “In the wake of the [[Don Imus|Imus]] affair, I began to think that the African-American community must be consistent in its outrage.” The Clifton, Maryland ministered has also said, “Why are these corporations making these images normative and mainstream?” . . . . “I can talk about this in the church until I am blue in the face, but we need to take it outside.” The [[NAACP]] and the National Congress of Black Women also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. [[Julian Bond]] said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.<ref>Felicia R. Lee, "Protesting Demeaning Images in Media" "New York Times" November 5, 2007 http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html</ref><ref>Marissa Newhall, "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/15/AR2007091501441.html Channeling Their Discontent, 500 Gather at Executive's D.C. Home to Protest Stereotypes]," ''[[Washington Post]]'', September 16, 2007 </ref><ref>Enough is Enough! website: http://www.enoughisenoughcampaign.com/</ref><ref>[http://whataboutourdaughters.blogspot.com/ What About Our Daughters?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In a similar vein, activists protested against the BET show, ''Hot Ghetto Mess,'' which satirizes the culture of [[working-class]] [[African-Americans]]. The protests resulted in the change of the television show name to ''[[We Got to Do Better]].''<ref>Felicia R. Lee, "Protesting Demeaning Images in Media" "New York Times" November 5, 2007 http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html</ref> ===Congressional hearing=== In September, 2007 Rep. [[Bobby Rush]] (Democrat-Illinois) initiated a Congressional hearing on African-American images in the media, “From Imus to Industry: The Business of Stereotypes and Degrading Images.” <ref>Felicia R. Lee, "Protesting Demeaning Images in Media" "New York Times" November 5, 2007 http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/05/arts/05enou.html</ref> ==Segregation and integration== {{main|Racial segregation in the United States}} ===History=== The [[Jim Crow Laws]] were state and local laws enacted in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] and [[Border states (Civil War)|border states]] of the [[United States]] and enforced between 1876 and 1965. They mandated "[[separate but equal]]" status for black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those provided to [[white American]]s. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. (These Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 [[Black Codes in the USA|Black Codes]], which had restricted the [[civil rights]] and civil liberties of African Americans.) State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in 1954 in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Voting Rights Act]]; none were in effect at the end of the 1960s. Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration from suggest that in the mid-twentieth century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.<ref name="vigdor">''The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto'' David M. Cutler, Edward L. Glaeser, Jacob L. Vigdor ''The Journal of Political Economy'', Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun., 1999), pp. 455-506</ref> Segregation also took the form of [[redlining]], the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as [[banking]], [[insurance]], access to jobs,<ref>[http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities]</ref> access to health care,<ref>See: [[Race and health]]</ref> or even [[supermarkets]]<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/ptc5hvexthe7wrye/ In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition], Elizabeth Eisenhauer, [[GeoJournal]] Volume 53, Number 2 / February, 2001</ref> to residents in certain, often racially determined,<ref name="eastny">[http://books.google.com/books?id=TWo8OFJpFtAC How East New York Became a Ghetto] by Walter Thabit. ISBN 0814782671. Page 42.</ref> areas. Although in the [[United States]] informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, the practice called "redlining" began with the [[National Housing Act of 1934]], which established the [[Federal Housing Administration]] (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the [[Fair Housing Act of 1968]] (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the [[Community Reinvestment Act]] of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0813339529 Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival] By Paul S. Grogan, Tony Proscio. ISBN 0813339529. Published 2002. Page 114.<blockquote>The goal was not to relax lending restrictions but rather to get banks to apply the same criteria in the inner-city as in the [[suburbs]].</blockquote></ref> Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms. ===Contemporary issues=== Black-White segregation is declining fairly consistently for most metropolitan areas and cities. Despite these pervasive patterns, many changes for individual areas are small.<ref>''Inequality and Segregation'' R Sethi, R Somanathan - Journal of Political Economy, 2004</ref> Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which Blacks and Whites inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.<ref>''SEGREGATION AND STRATIFICATION: A Biosocial Perspective'' Douglas S. Massey Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race (2004), 1: 7-25 Cambridge University Press</ref><ref>''Inequality and Segregation'' Rajiv Sethi and Rohini Somanathan ''Journal of Political Economy'', volume 112 (2004), pages 1296–1321 </ref> Some researchers suggest that racial segregation may lead to disparities in health and mortality. Thomas LaVeis (1989; 1993) tested the hypothesis that [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]] would aid in explaining race differences in infant mortality rates across cities. Analyzing 176 large and midsized cities, LaVeist found support for the hypothesis. Since LaVeist's studies, segregation has received increased attention as a determinant of race disparities in mortality.<ref name="lavest">..</ref> Studies have shown that mortality rates for male and female African Americans are lower in areas with lower levels of residential segregation. Mortality for male and female Whites was not associated in either direction with residential segregation.<ref>''Metropolitan governance, residential segregation, and mortality among African Americans.'' K D Hart, S J Kunitz, R R Sell, and D B Mukamel. Am J Public Health. 1998 March; 88(3): 434–438.</ref> Researchers Sharon A. Jackson, Roger T. Anderson, Norman J. Johnson and Paul D. Sorlie found that, after adjustment for family income, [[Mortality rate|mortality]] risk increased with increasing minority residential segregation among Blacks aged 25 to 44 years and non-Blacks aged 45 to 64 years. In most age/race/gender groups, the highest and lowest mortality risks occurred in the highest and lowest categories of residential segregation, respectively. These results suggest that minority residential segregation may influence mortality risk and underscore the traditional emphasis on the social underpinnings of disease and death.<ref>''The relation of residential segregation to all-cause mortality: a study in black and white.'' Jackson SA, Anderson RT, Johnson NJ, Sorlie PD.</ref> Rates of heart disease among African Americans are associated with the segregation patterns in the neighborhoods where they live (Fang ''et al.'' 1998). Stephanie A. Bond Huie writes that neighborhoods affect health and mortality outcomes primarily in an indirect fashion through environmental factors such as smoking, diet, exercise, stress, and access to health insurance and medical providers.<ref>''[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(4mofmj45dowzx445b21cbw55)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,15;journal,30,40;linkingpublicationresults,1:102491,1 THE CONCEPT OF NEIGHBORHOOD IN HEALTH AND MORTALITY RESEARCH]''</ref> Moreover, segregation strongly influences premature mortality in the US.<ref>''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1497360 Relationship between premature mortality and socioeconomic factors in black and white populations of US metropolitan areas.]''</ref> ===Laws regarding race=== {{main|Race legislation in the United States}} {{Expand|date=October 2007}} ===Court cases regarding race=== ==Institutional racism== [[Institutional racism]] is the theory that aspects of the structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions of society disadvantage some racial groups, although not by an overtly discriminatory mechanism.<ref>[http://www.eraseracismny.org/html/whatis/whatis.php What is Institutional and Structural Racism?] ERASE RACISM</ref> There are several factors that play into institutional racism, including but not limited to: accumulated wealth/benefits from racial groups that have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages faced by non-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images that still remain in the society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).<ref>Bullock III, C. S. & Rodgers Jr., H. R. (1976) "Institutional Racism: Prerequisites, Freezing, and Mapping". ''Phylon'' 37 (3), 212-223.</ref> ===Immigration=== Access to United States [[citizenship]] was restricted by race, beginning with the [[Naturalization Act of 1790]] which refused naturalization to "non-whites." Many in the modern United States forget the institutionalized prejudice against white followers of [[Roman Catholicism]] who immigrated from [[Ireland]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[France]].<ref>[http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/nromcath.htm Roman Catholics and Immigration in Nineteenth-Century America] by Julie Byrne, Dept. of Religion, Duke University, National Humanities Center</ref> Other efforts include the 1882 [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] and the 1924 [[National Origins Act]].<ref>[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=47 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)</ref><ref>[http://www.historicaldocuments.com/ImmigrationActof1924.htm Immigration Act of 1924] HistoricalDocuments.com</ref> The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at further restricting the [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]]ans who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s. While officially prohibited, U.S. officials continue to differentially apply laws on illegal immigration depending on national origin (essentially declining to enforce immigration laws against citizens of rich countries who overstay their visas) and personal economy (differentially awarding visas to foreign nationals based on bank accounts, properties and so on). ===Wealth creation=== Massive racial differentials in account of wealth remain in the United States: betweens whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of ten.<ref>Thomas M. Shapiro, ''The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality'', 2004.</ref> An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at Brandeis University argues, “The wealth gap is not just a story of merit and achievement, it’s also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United Sates.”<ref>Quoted in AP, "[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15704759/ Census report: Broad racial disparities persist]," Nov 14, 2006.</ref> Some of the institutions of wealth creation amongst American citizens were open exclusively to whites, notably land distributed under the [[Homestead Act]] and other settlement efforts in the West. Similar differentials applied to the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security Act]] (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector that then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after [[World War II]]. Pre-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.<ref>George Lipsitz, "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0678%28199509%2947%3A3%3C369%3ATPIIWR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the "White" Problem in American Studies]," ''American Quarterly'', Vol. 47, No. 3. (Sep., 1995), pp. 369-387.</ref> ===Impact on health=== {{seealso|Race and health}} In the US racial differences in health and quality of life often persist even at equivalent socioeconomics levels. Individual and institutional discrimination, along with the stigma of inferiority, can adversely affect health. Residence in poor neighborhoods, racial bias in medical care, the stress of experiences of discrimination and the acceptance of the societal stigma of inferiority can have deleterious consequences for health.<ref name"raceSES">''[http://www.annalsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/896/1/173 Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination]''</ref> Using [[Psychometrics of racism|The Schedule of Racist Events]] (SRE), an 18-item self-report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination. Hope Landrine and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.<ref>''The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences'' Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 144-168 (1996)</ref> A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime history of both physical disease and frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as income and education were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African American's well being.<ref>''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12856911&dopt=Citation Experiences of racist events are associated with negative health consequences for African American women.]'' Kwate NO, Valdimarsdottir HB, Guevarra JS, Bovbjerg DH.</ref> The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by [[Claude Steele]], Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term "[[stereotype threat]]."<ref>African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat. Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D and Steele C. Department of Psychology, [[University of California]], Santa Barbara 93106, USA.</ref> Kennedy et al found that both measures of collective disrespect were strongly correlated with black mortality (r = 0.53 to 0.56), as well as with white mortality (r = 0.48 to 0.54). These data suggest that racism, measured as an ecologic characteristic, is associated with higher mortality in both blacks and whites.<ref>Kennedy B, Kawachi I, Lochner K, Jones C, Prothrow-Stith D. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=9467703&dopt=Abstract (Dis)respect and black mortality]. Ethn Dis 1997; 7: 207-214[Medline].</ref> ===Health care inequality=== {{seealso|Race and health}} They are major racial differences in access to [[health care]] and in the quality of health care provided. A study published in the American Journal of Public Health estimated that: "over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented from 1991 to 2000 if African Americans had received the same care as whites." The key differences they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate [[health insurance|insurance]], poor service, and reluctance to seek care.<ref>Woolf, S. H., Johnson, R. E., Fryer Jr, G. E., Rust, G., & [[David Satcher|Satcher, D.]] (2004). "[http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/94/12/2078 The Health Impact of Resolving Racial Disparities: An Analysis of US Mortality Data]". ''American Journal of Public Health'', 94 (12), 2078-2081.</ref> A history of government-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study]] has left of legacy of African American distrust of the medical system.<ref>"The History of Black 'Paranoia',” ch. 3 of Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair, ''Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs, and the Press'', London: Verso, 1998.</ref> Inequalities in health care may also reflect a [[systemic bias]] in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups. Raj Bhopal writes that the history of [[Scientific racism|racism in science]] and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times and warns of dangers to avoid in the future.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1113412#B32 Spectre of racism in health and health care: lessons from history and the United States]</ref> Nancy Krieger contended that much modern research supported the assumptions needed to justify racism. Racism she writes underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatment for heart disease,<ref>Oberman A, Cutter G. Issues in the natural history and treatment of coronary heart disease in black populations: surgical treatment. Am Heart J. 1984;108:688–694.</ref> renal failure,<ref>Kjellstrand C. Age, sex , and race inequality in renal transplantation. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:1305–1309.</ref> bladder cancer,<ref>Mayer W, McWhorter WP. Black/white differences in non-treatment of bladder cancer patients and implications for survival. Am J Public Health. 1989;79:772–774. </ref> and pneumonia.<ref>Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, Diehr P. Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services. Med Care. 1987;25:592–603.</ref> Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies. The consistent and repeated findings that black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/redirect3.cgi?&&reftype=pubmed&artid=1113412&iid=118196&jid=3&FROM=Article|CitationRef&TO=Entrez|PubMed|Record&article-id=1113412&journal-id=3&rendering-type=normal&&http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=2182918 Council on ethical and judicial affairs. Black-white disparities in health care.] JAMA. 1990;263:2344–2346.</ref> ==Affirmative action== {{main|Affirmative action in the United States}} [[Affirmative action]] is a policy or program intended to promote access to education or employment for minority groups and women. Motivation for affirmative action policies is to redress the effects of past discrimination and to encourage public institutions such as universities, hospitals, and police forces to be more representative of the population. Affirmative action programs may include targeted recruitment efforts, preferential treatment given to applicants from historically disadvantaged groups, and in some cases the use of quotas. Most American universities and some employers practice affirmative action.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Some opponents of affirmative action view the greater access by women and minority groups to be at the expense of groups considered dominant (typically white men). In their view, these policies demonstrate an overt preference for applicants from particular backgrounds over equally-qualified (or better-qualified) candidates from other backgrounds. Some opponents of affirmative action believe the only consideration in choosing between applicants should be merit. Some also criticize affirmative action because they believe it perpetuates racial division instead of minimizing the importance of race in American society.<ref>''Cultural whiplash: the unforeseen consequences of America's crusade against racial discrimmination'' / Patrick Garry (2006) ISBN 1581825692</ref> Supporters of affirmative action believe that the perceived injustice to the dominant group is not supported by facts. They point to statistics that suggest that affirmative action has not resulted in fewer opportunities for white people. For example, white enrollment in universities has increased along with minority enrollment. In 1973, 30% of white high school graduates attended universities; in 1993, after wide-spread implementation of affirmative action policies, that number had risen to 42%.<ref name=Myths>[http://www.iupui.edu/~aao/myths.html Myths and Fact about Affirmative Action<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Some supporters of affirmative action point out that, even in the absence of affirmative action, college admissions rarely are purely merit-based: athletes, musicians, and [[Legacy preferences|legacy students]] (children of [[Alumnus|alumni]]) have always been given preferential treatment. For example, [[Harvard University]] admits 35-40% of legacy applicants,<ref name=Myths/> and a rejected white applicant is more likely to have been displaced by a legacy student than by one who benefited from affirmative action.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} ==Current hate groups== {{main|Hate groups}} [[Supremacism|Supremacist]], separatist, racist, and hate groups still operate in the United States. The [[Ku Klux Klan]], the [[National Alliance (United States)|National Alliance]], [[National Socialist Movement (United States)]], [[Aryan Nations]], [[Westboro Baptist Church]], [[Nation of Islam]], [[New Black Panther Party]], [[Nation of Aztlán]], [[Nation of Yahweh]], [[Jewish Task Force]], the [[Jewish Defense League]], and the [[White Order of Thule]] are among the institutions most commonly identified in this way. The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]]'s Intelligence Project counted 844 active hate groups in the United States in 2006.<ref name="splc">[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/map/hate.jsp Active U.S. Hate Groups in 2006] Southern Poverty Law Center. SPLCenter.org</ref> ==Anti-racism== {{main|Anti-racism}} ===Counter-racist organizations=== {{see|NAACP|Congress of Racial Equality|Anti-Racist Action}} ==See also== * [[Affirmative Action]] * [[American Civil Rights Movement Timeline]] * [[Anti-Irish racism]] * [[Bigotry]] * [[Civil rights]] * [[Eugenics]] * [[Italian American internment]] * [[Japanese American internment]] * [[Jena Six]] * [[Kill Haole Day]] * [[List of race riots]] * [[List of racism-related topics]] * [[Race and crime#Judicial racism|Judicial racism]] * [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919#Japanese approach|Racial equality proposal]] * [[Mass racial violence in the United States]] * [[Manifest Destiny]] * [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]] * [[White privilege]] * [[Racism by country]] ==External links== * [http://www.blackagendareport.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=382&Itemid=33 From Imus to Industry: The Business of Stereotypes and Degrading Images -Reprint of Lisa Fager testimony on stereotyping in media] ==References== {{refstyle}}<!--we need title, name of publication, etc., for each ref--> {{reflist|2}} {{Life in the United States}} {{Demographics of the United States}} {{United States topics}} {{Racism topics|state=collapsed}} [[Category:American culture]] [[Category:Discrimination]] [[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]] [[Category:History of racism in the United States]] [[Category:History of the United States by ethnic group]] [[Category:Racism by country or region]] [[es:Racismo en Estados Unidos]] [[ja:アメリカ合衆国の人種差別]]