Rationalism
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{{Otheruses4|the philosophical method, position, theory, or view|other uses|Rationalism (disambiguation)}}
In [[epistemology]] and in its broadest sense, '''rationalism''' is "any view appealing to [[reason]] as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286). In more technical terms it is a method or a [[theory]] "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and [[deductive]]" (Bourke 263). Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the radical position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge" (Audi 771).
==Background==
The [[Western philosophical tradition]] "begins with the [[Eleatics]], [[Pythagoreans]], and [[Plato]], whose theory of the self-sufficiency of reason became the ''[[leitmotif]]'' of [[Neoplatonism]] and [[idealism]]" (Runes 263). Since [[the Enlightenment]], rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy, as in [[Descartes]], [[Leibniz]], and [[Spinoza]] (Bourke 263). This is commonly called '''continental rationalism''', because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain [[empiricism]] dominated.
Rationalism is often contrasted with [[empiricism]]. Taken very broadly these views are not mutually exclusive, since a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist (Lacey 286–287). Taken to extremes the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us through experience, either through the five external senses or through such inner sensations as pain and pleasure, and thus that knowledge is essentially based on or derived from experience. At issue is the fundamental source of human knowledge, and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know (see [[Epistemology]]).
Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the AXIOMS of [[geometry]], one could [[deductive reasoning|deductively]] derive the rest of all possible knowledge. The philosophers who held this view most clearly were [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz]], whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, ''in principle'', all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of reason alone, though they both observed that this was not possible ''in practice'' for human beings except in specific areas such as [[mathematics]]. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted that "we are all mere [[Empirics]] in three fourths of our actions" (''[[Monadology]]'' § 28, cited in Audi 772).
==Philosophical usage==
The distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period, and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction was not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, the three main rationalists were all committed to the importance of empirical science, and in many respects the empiricists were closer to Descartes in their methods and metaphysical theories than were Spinoza and Leibniz.
==History of rationalism==
===Classical Greek rationalists===
;Socrates (ca 470–399B.C.)
{{main|Socrates}}
Socrates firmly believed that, before anyone can understand the world, they first need to understand themselves; the only way to accomplish that is with rational thought. In order to understand what this means, one needs first to appreciate the Greek understanding of the world. Man is composed of two parts, a body and a soul. The soul itself has two principal parts, an Irrational part, which is the emotions and desires, and a Rational part, which is our true self. In our everyday experience, the irrational soul is drawn down into the physical body by its desires and merged with it, so that our perception of the world is limited to that delivered by the physical senses. The rational soul is beyond our conscious knowledge, but sometimes communicates via images, dreams, and other means. The task of the philosopher is to refine and eventually extract the irrational soul from its bondage, hence the need for moral development, and then to connect with the rational soul, and so become a complete person, manifesting the higher spiritual essence of the person whilst in the physical. True rationalism is therefore not simply an intellectual process, but a shift in perception and a shift in the qualitative nature of the person. The rational soul perceives the world in a spiritual manner - it sees the Platonic Forms - the essence of what things are. To know the world in this way requires that one first know oneself as a soul, hence the requirement to 'know thyself', i.e. to know who you truly are.
Socrates did not publish or write any of his thoughts, but he was constantly in discussion with others. He would usually start by asking a rhetorical (seemingly answerable) question, to which the other would give an answer. Socrates would then continue to ask questions until all conflicts were resolved, or until the other could do nothing else but admit to not knowing the answer (which was what most of his discussions ended with). Socrates did not claim to know the answers, but that did not take away the ability to critically and rationally approach problems. His goal was to show that ultimately our intellectual approach to the world is flawed, and we need to transcend this in order to obtain a true knowledge of what things are.
===Neoplatonism===
{{main|Neoplatonism}}
Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, founded by the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] philosopher [[Plotinus]] and based on the teachings of [[Plato]] and earlier [[Platonic realism|Platonists]]. Neoplatonists considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantively different from what Plato wrote and believed.
Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the philosopher [[Plotinus]], who claimed to have received his teachings from [[Ammonius Saccas]], a dock worker and philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius. Plotinus's student [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] assembled his teachings into the six [[Enneads]].
Subsequent Neoplatonic philosophers included [[Hypatia of Alexandria]], [[Iamblichus]], [[Proclus]], [[Hierocles of Alexandria]], [[Simplicius of Cilicia]], and [[Damascius]], who wrote ''On First Principles''. Born in Damascus, he was the last teacher of Neoplatonism at Athens. Neoplatonism strongly influenced Christian thinkers (such as [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Boethius]], [[Pseudo-Dionysius]], [[John Scotus Eriugena]], and [[Bonaventura]]). Neoplatonism was also present in medieval Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as [[al-Farabi]] and [[Maimonides]], and experienced a revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition and translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonic texts.
===René Descartes (1596–1650)===
{{main|René Descartes}}
Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths{{ndash}} including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences{{ndash}} could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the world, aided by the [[scientific method]]. He also argued that although [[Dream|dreams]] appear as real as sense experience, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as ''[[Discourse on Method]]'', ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'', and ''[[Principles of Philosophy]]''. Descartes developed a method to attain truths according to which nothing which cannot be recognised by the intellect (or [[reason]]) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience", according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are to be broken down into elements which intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality.
Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum, ''[[cogito ergo sum]]'', is a conclusion reached [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] and not through an inference from experience. This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical [[Cartesian dualism|dualism]], distinguishing between the substances of the human body ("''res extensa''") and the [[mind]] or soul ("''res cogitans''") . This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the [[mind-body problem]], since the two substances in the Cartesian system are independent of each other and irreducible.
===Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)===
{{main|Gottfried Leibniz}}
Leibniz was the last of the great Rationalists, who contributed heavily to other fields such as [[mathematics]]. His system however was not developed independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism, and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called "[[Monadology|monads]]" (possibly taking the term from the work of [[Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway|Anne Conway]]).
Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and [[Spinoza]]. In rejecting this response he was forced to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate things. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called "[[well-founded phenomenon|well-founded phenomena]]"). Leibniz therefore introduced his principle of [[pre-established harmony]], in order to account for apparent causality in the world.
===Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)===
{{main|Immanuel Kant}}
Immanuel Kant started as a traditional rationalist, having studied the rationalists Leibniz and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Wolff]], but after studying [[David Hume|David Hume's]] works, which "awoke [him] from [his] dogmatic slumbers", he developed a distinctive and very influential rationalism of his own which attempted to synthesise the traditional rationalist and empiricist traditions.
==References==
====Primary sources====
* [[René Descartes|Descartes, René]] (1637), ''[[Discourse on Method]]''.
* [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza, Baruch]] (1677), ''[[Ethics (book)|Ethics]]''.
* [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz, Gottfried]] (1714), ''[[Monadology]].
* [[Immanuel Kant|Kant, Immanuel]], (1781/1787), ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]].
====Secondary sources====
* [[Robert Audi|Audi, Robert]] (ed., 1999), ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999.
* [[Simon Blackburn|Blackburn, Simon]] (1996), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996.
* [[Vernon J. Bourke|Bourke, Vernon J.]] (1962), "Rationalism", p. 263 in Runes (1962).
* [[A.R. Lacey|Lacey, A.R.]] (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy'', 1st edition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. 2nd edition, 1986. 3rd edition, Routledge, London, UK, 1996.
* [[Dagobert D. Runes|Runes, Dagobert D.]] (ed., 1962), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[17th Century Philosophy]]
* [[Cartesian linguistics]]
* [[Cynicism]]
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Higher criticism]]
* [[Idealism]]
* [[Infidel]]
* [[Innatism]]
* [[Intellectualism]]
* [[Irrationalist]]
* [[Irreligion]]
* [[John Ruskin]]
* [[Natural philosophy]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Nature versus nurture]]
* [[Nominalism]]
* [[Panrationalism]]
* [[Philosophical realism]]
* [[Poverty of the stimulus]]
* [[Platonic realism]]
* [[Psychological nativism]]
* [[Rationalist International]]
* [[Rationalist movement]]
* [[Rational mysticism]]
* [[Secularism]]
* [[Self-efficacy]]
* [[Skepticism]]
* [[Tabula rasa]]
{{col-end}}
==External links==
* Markie, Peter (2004), "[http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2004/entries/rationalism-empiricism Rationalism vs. Empiricism]", ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
* John F. Hurst (1867), ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19397 History of Rationalism Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology]''
*{{sep entry|continental-rationalism|Continental Rationalism|Thomas M. Lennon and Shannon Dea}}
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