Recycling 70157 226079144 2008-07-16T19:03:09Z Jpoelma13 6874850 revert advertizing [[Image:Recycle001.svg|thumb|right|The international [[recycling symbol]].]] '''Recycling''' is the reprocessing of old materials into new products, with the aims of preventing the waste of potentially useful materials, reducing the consumption of fresh raw materials, reducing [[energy]] usage, reducing air (from [[incineration]]) and water (from [[landfilling]]) pollution by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lowering [[greenhouse gas]] emissions as compared to virgin production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letsrecycle.com/legislation/news.jsp?story=6231 PM Advisor hails recycling as climate change action |title=Lets recycle |accessdate=2006-11-08}}</ref><ref name="gar"/> Recycling is a key concept of modern [[waste management]] and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" [[waste hierarchy]], though colloquial usage of "recycling" can also include "reuse". "Recyclable materials" or "recyclables" may originate from home, business or industry. They include [[glass]], [[paper]], [[metal]], [[textile]]s and [[plastic]]s. Though analogous, the composting of [[biodegradable waste]]—such as [[food waste|food]] or [[Green waste|garden waste]]—is not typically considered recycling.<ref name="gar">{{cite book | last = The League of Women Voters | title = The Garbage Primer | publisher = Lyons & Burford | date = 1993 | location = New York | pages = 35-72 | isbn = 1558218507}}</ref> These materials are either brought to a collection centre or picked-up from the curbside; and sorted, cleaned and reprocessed into new products bound for manufacturing. To judge the environmental benefits of recycling, the cost of this entire process must be compared to the cost of virgin extraction. In order for recycling to be economically viable, there usually must be a steady supply of recyclates and constant demand for the reprocessed goods; both of which can be stimulated through government [[legislation]].<ref name="gar"/> Meanwhile, critics claim that government mandated recycling wastes more resources than it saves. These critics claim that free market prices, and not politicians, are the most accurate way to determine whether or not any particular type of garbage should be recycled. According to these critics, whenever recycling truly does save resources, the private sector will voluntarily offer people money for their garbage.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE1DF1339F933A05755C0A960958260 Recycling Is Garbage] The New York Times, June 30, 1996, by John Tierney </ref><ref>[http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=402 Recycling: It's a bad idea in New York] The Heartland Institute, May 1, 2002</ref> {{TOClimit|limit=2}} ==History== ===Early recycling=== Recycling has been a common practice for most of human history, with recorded advocates as far back as [[Plato]] in [[4th century BC|400&nbsp;BC]]. During periods when resources were scarce, archaeological studies of ancient waste dumps show less household waste (such as ash, broken tools and pottery)—implying more waste was being recycled in the absence of new material.<ref name="guide">{{Cite book | last = Black Dog Publishing | publisher = Black Dog Publishing | date = 2006 | location = London, UK | isbn = 1904772366 }}</ref> In [[pre-industrial]] times, there is evidence of scrap bronze and other metals being collected in [[Europe]] and melted down for perpetual reuse,<ref name="economisttruth"/> and in Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was [[downcycling|downcycled]] as a base material in brick making. The main driver for these types of recycling was the economic advantage of obtaining recycled feedstock instead of acquiring virgin material, as well as a lack of public waste removal in ever more densely-populated areas.<ref name="guide"/> [[Image:salvage.jpg|thumb|Publicity photo for US aluminium salvage campaign, 1942]] ===Wartime recycling=== Resource shortages caused by the [[world war]]s, and other such world-changing occurrences greatly encouraged recycling. Massive government promotion campaigns were carried out in [[World War II]] in every country involved in the war, urging citizens to donate metals and conserve fiber, as a matter of significant patriotic importance. Resource conservation programs established during the war were continued in some countries without an abundance of natural resources, such as Japan, after the war ended. ===Post-war recycling=== The next big investment in recycling occurred in the 1970s, due to rising energy costs. Recycling aluminum uses only 5% of the energy required by virgin production; glass, paper and metals have less dramatic but very significant energy savings when recycled feedstock is used.<ref name="economistrecycle"/> [[Woodbury, New Jersey|Woodbury]], [[New Jersey]] was the first city in the entire United States to mandate recycling.<ref>[http://www.njbiz.com/view_release.asp?aID=2706 Rowan & Associates Go Green]: 7/18/2007 Press Release - NJBiz.com. Accessed [[July 22]], [[2007]].</ref> Led by Rose Rowan<ref>Currently the president of the promotional products boutique [http://www.rowanassoc.com/ Rowan & Associates].</ref> in the early 1970s, the idea of towing a “recycling” trailer behind a waste management vehicle to enable the collection of trash and recyclable material at the same time emerged. Other towns and cities soon followed suit, and today many cities in the U.S. make recycling a requirement. In 1987, the [[Mobro 4000]] barge hauled garbage from [[New York]] to [[North Carolina]]; where it was denied. It was then sent to [[Belize]]; where it was denied as well. Finally, the barge returned to New York and the garbage was incinerated. The incident led to heated discussions in the media about waste disposal and recycling. The incident is often referred to as igniting the recycling "hysteria" of the 1990s.<ref name="economisttruth"/> ==Fiscal and environmental economics== There is much debate over whether recycling is [[economics|economically]] feasible. Advocates of recycling argue that judging the process on financial issues alone is not enough. They claim that the [[natural environment| environmental]] benefits, [[energy (society)|energy]] savings, [[waste]] reduction and raw [[material]] conservation must also be considered. In order to make such non-fiscal benefits economically relevant, advocates have pushed for [[law|legislative]] action to increase the [[demand]] for recycled materials.<ref name="gar"/> Opponents counter that recycling is not reasonable if it is more costly than disposal and new virgin production. Any government incentives to support recycling, they claim, would not result in the most efficient use of [[resources]]. John Tierney, writing in 1996 for the ''[[New York Times]]'', claimed that New York's recycling program would cost $3000 per ton of recyclates if the public were paid for their time spent sorting and cleaning.<ref name="Tierney"/> Michael Munger, the Chair of Political Science at [[Duke University]], has argued that the financial costs of recycling some materials outweigh the environmental benefits, and that the benefits do not compensate for the extra effort recycling requires.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://econlib.org/library/Columns/y2007/Mungerrecycling.html | title=Think Globally, Act Irrationally: Recycling}}</ref> For example, though recycling might make economic sense in a densely populated area where virgin materials are scarce and disposal costs high, legislated recycling in other situations would only bring unnecessary economic hardship.<ref name="gar"/> From these debates it has become clear that certain requirements must be met in order for recycling to be economically feasible and environmentally effective. These include an adequate source of recyclates, a system to extract those recyclates from the [[waste stream]], a nearby [[factory]] capable of reprocessing the recyclates, and a potential demand for the recycled products. These last two requirements are often overlooked—without both an industrial [[market]] for production using the collected materials and a consumer market for the manufactured goods, recycling is incomplete and in fact only "collection".<ref name="gar"/> {| class="prettytable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px;" |- bgcolor="#efefef" |+ Environmental effects of recycling<ref>Unless otherwise indicated, this data is taken from {{cite book | last = The League of Women Voters | title = The Garbage Primer | publisher = Lyons & Burford | date = 1993 | location = New York | pages = 35-72 | isbn = 1558218507}}, which attributes, "''Garbage Solutions: A Public Officials Guide to Recycling and Alternative Solid Waste Management Technologies,'' as cited in ''Energy Savings from Recycling,'' January/February&nbsp;1989; and&nbsp;Worldwatch 76 ''Mining Urban Wastes: The Potential for Recycling,'' April 1987."</ref> |- !Material!!Energy Savings!!Air Pollution Savings |- |Aluminium||95%<ref name="gar"/><ref name="economistrecycle"/>||95%<ref name="gar"/><ref name="WasteOnline"/> |- |Cardboard||24%||— |- |Glass||5-30%||20% |- |Paper||40%<ref name="economistrecycle"/>||73% |- |Plastics||70%<ref name="economistrecycle"/>||— |- |Steel||60%<ref name="economisttruth"/>||— |} Determining the [[environmental economics|environmental effect]] of recycling is non-trivial. In order to decide whether the recycling of a certain material has environmental benefit, the environmental impact of recycling must be determined and then compared to the effect of virgin production. First, one must look at the environmental impact of collection itself. If a second [[waste collection vehicle]] must cover an entire city to collect material to be recycled, this will have an environmental effect. Next, the recyclates must be washed and sorted, which requires both [[water resources|water]] for cleaning and energy to drive the sorting apparatus. Then there are the environmental costs of [[transport]]ing the recyclates to the reprocessing plant and the subsequent shipping of the reprocessed materials to new manufacturers. Finally, the reprocessing itself must be considered, as this stage can require large amounts of energy and water, and may result in significant [[air pollution]].<ref name="gar"/> The direct benefits of recycling must also be factored into the environmental calculation. Recycling helps to conserve natural resources, which is especially important with [[non-renewable resources]] such as aluminium and other metals; it diverts waste which would otherwise end up [[incinerated]] or dumped in [[landfills]] and lead to [[greenhouse-gas]] emissions; and it avoids the environmentally damaging process of [[mining]] or [[harvesting]] new virgin materials.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Once the environmental costs of both virgin production plus "conventional" waste disposal, and recycling are known; the two processes can be compared. Even at this stage, it can be difficult to determine which is most beneficial, as there will often be a lot of [[estimation]] involved in the cost calculation. Ultimately, however, the final choice may come down to an apparent [[trade-off]]; for example virgin production may use more energy, while recycling may require a larger supply of water. Despite these complexities, a study conducted by the [[Technical University of Denmark]] found that in 83% of cases, recycling is the most efficient method to dispose of household waste.<ref name="economisttruth">{{cite news | title = The truth about recycling | date = [[2007-06-07]] | url = http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9249262 | publisher = ''The Economist'' | accessdate = 2007-08-18 }}</ref> <ref name="economistrecycle">{{cite news | title = The price of virtue | date = [[2007-06-07]] | url = http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9302727 | publisher = ''The Economist'' | accessdate = 2007-08-05}}</ref> The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has also concluded in favour of recycling, saying that recycling efforts reduced the country's [[carbon emissions]] by a net 49&nbsp;[[metric tonnes]] in 2005.<ref name="economisttruth"/> In the United Kingdom, the [[Waste and Resources Action Programme]] stated that Great Britain's recycling efforts reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by 10-15&nbsp;tonnes a year.<ref name="economisttruth"/> On the other side of the debate, [[economist]] [[Steven Landsburg]] has claimed that recycling is more costly than mining virgin materials, saying that the only savings are in reduced landfill usage. He has also claimed that paper recycling leads to fewer forests, as paper manufacturers then need to maintain less woodland.<ref name="landsburg">{{cite book |last=Landsburg |first=Steven A. |title=The Armchair Economist. |page=81}}</ref> John Tierney's extensive New York Times article, titled "Recycling is Garbage", was also highly critical of recycling, saying "the simplest and cheapest option is usually to bury garbage in an environmentally safe landfill", and claiming that "recycling may be the most wasteful activity in modern America: a waste of time and money, a waste of human and natural resources".<ref name="Tierney"/> Richard A. Denison and John F. Ruston, members of the [[Environmental Defense Fund]], published a rebuttal to Tierney's article, claiming it to be "gravely inaccurate" and that "[Tierney] unquestioningly repeats the claims of a group of think tanks and consultants...that have strong ideological objections to recycling".<ref name="edf">{{cite web |url=http://www.edf.org/documents/611_ACF17F.htm |title=Anti-Recycling Myths |date=1996-07-16 |accessdate=2008-02-29 |author = Richard A. Dension, Ph.D. |coauthor = John F. Ruston |publisher = Environmental Defense Fund }}</ref> ===Import and export of recyclates=== The value of recyclates can be seen by the fact that certain countries have begun to import the unprocessed materials. Some have complained that the ultimate fate of recyclates sold to another country is unknown and they may end up in landfill instead of reprocessed. According to one report, in America, 50-80% of computers destined for recycling are actually not recycled.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2002/02/25/computer-waste.htm Much toxic computer waste lands in Third World<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, Pieter van Beukering, an economist specialising in waste imports of [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[India]], believes that it is unlikely that bought materials would merely be dumped in landfill: he also claims that the import of recyclates allows for large-scale reprocessing, improving both the fiscal and environmental return through [[economies of scale]].<ref name="economisttruth"/> Unfortunately, there are reports of illegal-waste imports to China being dismantled and recycled solely for monetary gain, without consideration for workers' health or environmental damage. Though the Chinese government has banned these practices, it has not been able to eradicate them completely, nor estimate the amount of illegal recycling still occurring.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Certain regions have difficulty using or exporting as much of a material as they recycle. This problem is most prevalent with glass: both Britain and the US import large quantities of wine bottled in green glass. Though much of this glass is sent to be recycled, outside the [[American Midwest]] there is not enough wine production to use all of the reprocessed material. The extra must be downcycled into building materials or re-inserted into the regular waste stream.<ref name="economisttruth"/><ref name="gar"/> Similarly, the [[northwestern United States]] has difficultly finding markets for recycled newspaper, given the large number of [[pulp mill]]s in the region as well as the proximity to [[Asia]]n markets. In other areas of the US, however, demand for used newsprint has seen wide fluctuation.<ref name="gar"/> ==Criticism== {{main|Recycling criticism}} In an article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', John Tierney claimed that government mandated recycling wastes more resources than it saves.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE1DF1339F933A05755C0A960958260 Recycling Is Garbage] The New York Times, June 30, 1996, by John Tierney </ref> Some highlights from the article: * In cases where recycling truly does save resources, such as with large scraps of aluminum, this will be reflected in market prices, and voluntary recycling will take place. Thus, there is no need for the government to mandate it. * Tree farmers plant more trees than they cut down. * Government mandated recycling is more expensive than putting the garbage into landfills, which means that this recycling uses up more resources than it saves. * Some small towns with landfills are happy to import garbage from other cities and states because it provides jobs and tax revenue. * Today's modern landfills are much cleaner and safer, and much less likely to leak and pollute than the landfills of the past. * Modern landfills often collect the methane produced by the decomposition of the biological wastes (which would have otherwise escaped into the atmosphere adding to global warming) and use the gas as fuel to produce electricity for the surrounding communities. * Regarding the claim that the U.S. is running out of landfill space, Tierney wrote, "A. Clark Wiseman, an economist at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Wash., has calculated that if Americans keep generating garbage at current rates for 1,000 years, and if all their garbage is put in a landfill 100 yards deep, by the year 3000 this national garbage heap will fill a square piece of land 35 miles on each side. This doesn't seem a huge imposition in a country the size of America. The garbage would occupy only 5 percent of the area needed for the national array of solar panels proposed by environmentalists. The millennial landfill would fit on one-tenth of 1 percent of the range land now available for grazing in the continental United States. And if it still pains you to think of depriving posterity of that 35-mile square, remember that the loss will be only temporary. Eventually, like previous landfills, the mounds of trash will be covered with grass and become a minuscule addition to the nation's 150,000 square miles of parkland." In a 2002 article for The Heartland Institute, Jerry Taylor, director of natural resource studies at the [[Cato Institute]], wrote, "If it costs X to deliver newly manufactured plastic to the market, for example, but it costs 10X to deliver reused plastic to the market, we can conclude the resources required to recycle plastic are 10 times more scarce than the resources required to make plastic from scratch. And because recycling is supposed to be about the conservation of resources, mandating recycling under those circumstances will do more harm than good." <ref>[http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=402 Recycling: It's a bad idea in New York] The Heartland Institute, May 1, 2002</ref> The city of [[Santa Clarita, California]] was paying $28 per ton to put garbage into a landfill. The city then adopted a diaper recycling program that cost $1,800 per ton.<ref>[http://www.freeliberal.com/archives/000001.html Diaper Recycling in California] The Free Liberal, September 08, 2003</ref> All recycling techniques consume energy for transportation and processing and some also use considerable amounts of water, although recycling processes seldom amount to the level of resource use associated with raw materials processing.<ref>http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/factsheets/aluminum.htm</ref> There may also be drawbacks with the collection methods associated with recycling. Increasing collections of separated wastes adds to vehicle movements and the production of carbon dioxide. This may be negated however by centralized facilities such as some advanced [[Materials recovery facility|material recovery facilities]] and [[mechanical biological treatment]] systems for the separation of [[Municipal solid waste|mixed wastes]]. It has been calculated that collecting waste and disposing it in a landfill is about $60 a ton opposed to separate collecting and taking it to be recycled costs $150 a ton.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/history/admin/oswer/porter.htm J. Winston Porter, EPA assistant administrator, the man that set the national recycling guidelines in 1998] </ref> Recycled materials also sometimes cost more financially than their non-recycled versions. This is not universal to every recycled product, but it does occur.<ref name='Deutsch 2002-03-30'>{{cite news | first=Claudia | last=Deutsch | coauthors= | title=Plastic Recycling is a Work In Progress | date=2006-03-30 | publisher= | url =http://www.evco-research.com/press/NY%20Times%203-30-02%20Plastic%20Recycling%20-Deutsch.pdf | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-21 | language = }}</ref> Negative consequences from mercury recycling have been cited by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''.<ref>([[April 20]], [[2006]]).</ref> The article traces mercury recovered from American recycling programs into sales of mercury for [[Alluvium|alluvial]] mining activities in Brazil. During the autumn of 2006, the [[European Union]] banned the export of liquid mercury, and a life-cycle analysis prior to institution of recycling programs may reduce the risk of unintended environmental consequences. Michael Munger, the Chair of Political Science at [[Duke University]], argued that the financial costs of recycling some materials outweigh the environmental benefits, and that the environmental benefits of recycling do not compensate for the extra effort it may require. In a 2007 article, he wrote, "... if recycling is more expensive than using new materials, it can't possibly be efficient... There is a simple test for determining whether something is a resource... or just garbage... If someone will pay you for the item, it's a resource... But if you have to pay someone to take the item away... then the item is garbage." <ref>http://econlib.org/library/Columns/y2007/Mungerrecycling.html "Think Globally, Act Irrationally: Recycling</ref> In the US, recycling facilities currently generate estimated revenues of $2,981 million a year. Growth has exceeded 7 percent per year for the past five years (from 2003 to 2008) due to rising waste volumes and increasing recyclable commodity prices. New initiatives can change the industry. For example in California, and New York moves to raise the requirements for the set amount of waste to be diverted from the waste stream from 50 percent to 75 percent can produce healthy profits for companies that collect and process recyclables. <ref>[http://www.ibisworld.com/pressrelease/pressrelease.aspx?prid=125: March 2008, Cashing in on Climate Change], ''IBISWorld''</ref> These criticisms suggest that the tenets of "reduce" and "reuse" may be more effective than "recycle." ==Legislation== [[Image:Recycling bin.jpg|left|150px|thumb|A recycling bin at a park in northern [[California]].]] ===Supply=== In order for a recycling program to work, having a large, stable [[supply and demand|supply]] of recyclable material is crucial. Three legislative options have been used to create such a supply: mandatory recycling collection, [[container deposit legislation]], and refuse bans. Mandatory collection laws set recycling targets for cities to aim for, usually in the form that a certain percentage of a material must be diverted from the city's waste stream by a target date. The city is then responsible for working to meet this target.<ref name="gar"/> Container deposit legislation involves offering a refund for the return of certain containers, typically glass, plastic, and metal. When a product in such a container is purchased, a small surcharge is added to the price. This surcharge can be reclaimed by the consumer if the container is returned to a collection point. These programs have been very successful, often resulting in an 80% recycling rate. Despite such good results, the shift in collection costs from local government to industry and consumers has created strong opposition to the creation of such programs in some areas.<ref name="gar"/> A third method of increase supply of recyclates is to [[ban (law)|ban]] the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires and garden waste. One aim of this method is to create a viable economy for proper disposal of banned products. Care must be taken that enough of these recycling [[service (economics)|service]]s exist, or such bans simply lead to increased [[fly-tipping|illegal dumping]].<ref name="gar"/> ===Government mandated "demand"=== Legislation has also been used to increase and maintain a "demand" for recycled materials. Four methods of such legislation exist: minimum recycled content mandates, utilisation rates, [[procurement]] policies, recycled [[Mandatory labelling|product labelling]].<ref name="gar"/> Both minimum recycled content mandates and utilisation rates increase "demand" directly by forcing manufacturers to include recycling in their operations. Content mandates specify that a certain percentage of a new product must consist of recycled material. Utilisation rates are a more flexible option: industries are permitted to meet the recycling targets at any point of their operation or even contract recycling out in exchange for [[trade]]able credits. Opponents to both of these methods point to the large increase in reporting requirements they impose, and claim that they rob industry of necessary flexibility.<ref name="gar"/><ref name="DeLong">{{cite web |url=http://jamesvdelong.com/articles/environmental/wasting-away.html |title=Regulatory Policy Center - PROPERTY MATTERS - James V. DeLong |accessdate=2008-02-28}}</ref> [[Governments]] have used their own [[purchasing power]] to increase recycling demand through what are called "procurement policies". These policies are either "set-asides", which earmark a certain amount of spending solely towards recycled products, or "price preference" programs which provide a larger [[government budget|budget]] when recycled items are purchased. Additional regulations can target specific cases: in the [[US]], for example, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] mandates the purchase of oil, paper, tires and building insulation from recycled or re-refined sources whenever possible.<ref name="gar"/> The final government regulation towards increased demand is recycled product labeling. When producers are required to label their packaging with amount of recycled material in the product (including the packaging), consumers are better able to make educated choices. Consumers with sufficient [[buying power]] can then choose more environmentally conscious options, prompt producers to increase the amount of recycled material in their products, and indirectly increase demand. Standardised recycling labelling can also have a positive affect on supply of recyclates if the labelling includes information on how and where the product can be recycled.<ref name="gar"/> ==Collection== [[Image:DeutscheBahnRecycling20050814 CopyrightKaihsuTai Rotated.jpg|thumb|right|Recycling and rubbish bin in a German railway station.]] A number of different systems have been implemented to collect recyclates from the general waste stream. These systems tend to lie along the spectrum of trade-off between public convenience and government ease and expense. The three main categories of collection are "drop-off centres", "buy-back centres" and "curbside collection".<ref name="gar"/> Drop-off centres require the waste producer carry the recyclates to a central location, either a installed or mobile collection station or the reprocessing plant itself. They are the easiest type of collection to establish, but suffer from low and unpredictable throughput. Buy-back centres differ in that the cleaned recyclates are purchased, thus providing an clear incentive for use and creating a stable supply. The post-processed material can then be sold on, hopefully creating a profit. Unfortunately government subsidies are necessary to make buy-back centres a viable enterprise, as according to the United States Nation Solid Wastes Management Association it costs on average US$50 to process a ton of material, which can only be resold for US$30.<ref name="gar"/> ====Curbside collection==== Curbside collection encompasses many subtly different systems, which differ mostly on where in the process the recyclates are sorted and cleaned. The main categories are "mixed waste collection", "commingled recyclables" and "source separation".<ref name="gar"/> [[Image:ACT_recycling_truck.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A recycling truck collecting the contents of a recycling bin in Canberra, Australia]] At one end of the spectrum is "mixed waste collection", in which all recyclates are collected mixed in with the rest of the waste, and the desired material is then sorted out and cleaned at a central sorting facility. This results in a large amount of recyclable waste, paper especially, being too soiled to reprocess, but has advantages as well: the city need not pay for a separate collection of recyclates and no public education is needed. Any changes to which materials are recyclable is easy to accommodate as all sorting happens in a central location.<ref name="gar"/> In a "Commingled" or "single-stream" system, all recyclables for collection are mixed but kept separate from other waste. This greatly reduces the need for post-collection cleaning but does require [[public education]] on what materials are recyclable.<ref name="gar"/><ref name="economisttruth"/> "Source separation" is the other extreme, where each material is cleaned and sorted prior to collection. This method requires the least post-collection sorting and produces the purest recyclates, but incurs additional [[operating cost]]s for collection of each separate material. An extensive public education program is also required, which must be successful if recyclate contamination is to be avoided.<ref name="gar"/> Source separation used to be the preferred method due to the high sorting costs incurred by commingled collection. Advances in sorting technology (see "[[Recycling#sorting|sorting]]" below), however, have lowered this overhead substantially—many areas which had developed source separation programs have since switched to comingled collection.<ref name="economisttruth"/> ==Sorting== Once commingled recyclates are collected and delivered to a [[Materials recovery facility| central collection facility]], the different types of materials must be sorted. This is done in a series of stages, many of which involve automated processes such that a truck-load of material can be fully sorted in less than an hour.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Initially, the commingled recyclates are removed from the collection vehicle and placed on a conveyor belt spread out in a single layer. Large pieces of [[cardboard]] and [[plastic bag]]s are removed by hand at this stage, as they can cause later machinery to jam.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Next, automated machinery separates the recyclates by weight, splitting lighter paper and plastic from heavier glass and metal. Cardboard is removed from the mixed paper and the most common types of plastic ([[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]] and [[HDPE]]) are collected. This separation is usually done by hand, but has become automated in some sorting centres: a [[Spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] scanner is used to differentiate between different types of paper and plastic based on the absorbed wavelengths, and subsequently divert each material into the proper collection channel.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Strong magnets are used to separate out [[ferrous metal]]s (tin-plated or steel [[Tin can|cans]]), while [[non-ferrous metals]] are ejected by "[[magnetic eddy currents]]". A rotating [[magnetic field]] [[induction|induces]] an electric current around the aluminum cans, which in turn creates a magnetic eddy current inside the cans. This magnetic eddy current is repulsed by the large magnetic field, and the cans are ejected from the rest of the recyclate stream.<ref name="economisttruth"/> Finally, [[glass]] must be sorted by hand based on its color: brown, amber, green or clear.<ref name="economisttruth"/> ==Common recyclables== [[Image:Concreteblocks.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Concrete blocks]] Many different materials can be recycled but each type requires a different technique. ===Aggregates and concrete=== {{main|Concrete recycling}} Concrete [[aggregate (composite)|aggregate]] collected from demolition sites is put through a [[crusher|crushing machine]], often along with asphalt, bricks, dirt, and rocks. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Crushed recycled concrete can also be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants. This reduces the need for other rocks to be dug up, which in turn saves trees and habitats.<ref>{{cite web | title=Concrete Recycling | url=http://acppubs.com/article/CA484296.html | publisher=Associated Construction Publications | accessdate=2008-02-21}}</ref> [[Image:Four AA batteries.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Some batteries contain toxic heavy metals, making recycling or proper disposal a high priority]] ===Batteries===<!-- This section is linked from [[Nickel metal hydride battery]] --> {{Main|Battery recycling}} The large variation in size and type of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] makes their [[Battery recycling|recycling]] extremely difficult: they must first be sorted into similar kinds and each kind requires an individual recycling process. Additionally, older batteries contain mercury and cadmium, harmful materials which must be handled with care. Because of their potential environmental damage, proper disposal of used batteries is required by law in many areas. Unfortunately, this mandate has been difficult to enforce.<ref name="batt">{{cite web | url=http://www.epa.gov/garbage/battery.htm | title=Batteries | Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) | US EPA | accessdate=2008-02-21 | publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref> Lead-acid batteries, like those used in [[automobiles]], are relatively easy to recycle and many regions have legislation requiring vendors to accept used products. In the United States, the recycling rate is 90%, with new batteries containing up to 80% recycled material.<ref name="batt"/> [[Image:compost.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Garden waste for composting]] ===Biodegradable waste=== {{main|Composting}} Kitchen, garden and other [[green waste]] can be recycled into useful material by [[composting]]. This process allows natural [[aerobic bacteria]] to break down the waste into fertile [[topsoil]]. Much composting is done on a household scale, but municipal green-waste collection programs also exist. These programs can supplement their funding by selling the topsoil produced. [[Image:Monitor in gutter.jpg|thumb|right|180px|An abandoned computer]] ===Clothing=== Recycling [[clothes]] via [[consignment]] or [[swapping]] has become increasingly popular. In a [[clothing swap]], a group of people gather at a venue to [[exchange]] clothes amongst each other. In organizations like Clothing Swap, Inc., unclaimed clothing is donated to a local charity. ===Electronics disassembly and reclamation=== {{main|Computer recycling}} The direct disposal of electrical equipment—such as old [[computer]]s and mobile phones—is banned in many areas due to the toxic contents of certain components. The recycling process works by mechanically separating the metals, plastics and [[printed circuit board|circuit board]]s contained in the appliance. When this is done on a large scale at an electronic waste recycling plant, component recovery can be achieved in a cost-effective manner. [[Image:Steel recycling bales.jpg|thumb|180px|Steel crushed and baled for recycling]] ===Ferrous metals=== {{Main|Steel#Recycling|l1=Steel recycling}} Iron and steel are the world's most recycled materials, and among the easiest materials to reprocess, as they can be separated magnetically from the waste stream. Recycling is via a steelworks: scrap is either remelted in an Electric Arc Furnace (90-100%&nbsp;scrap), or used as part of the charge in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (around 25%&nbsp;scrap).<ref> {{cite web | url=http://www.cisc.ca/content/sustainable/default.aspx | title=Sustainable Development and Steel, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction | accessdate=2006-11-16}}</ref> Any grade of steel can be recycled to top quality new metal, with no 'downgrading' from prime to lower quality materials as steel is recycled repeatedly. 42%&nbsp;of crude steel produced is recycled material.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldsteel.org/pictures/storyfiles/SR05%20Final.pdf |title=Steel: The Foundation of a Sustainable Future—Sustainability Report of the World Steel Industry 2005 | accessdate=2006-16-11}}</ref> ===Non-ferrous metals=== {{main|Aluminium recycling}} [[Aluminium]] is shredded and ground into small pieces or crushed into bales. These pieces or bales are melted in an aluminium smelter to produce molten aluminium. By this stage the recycled aluminium is indistinguishable from virgin aluminium and further processing is identical for both. This process does not produce any change in the metal, so aluminium can be recycled indefinitely. Recycling aluminium saves 95%&nbsp;of the energy cost of processing new aluminium.<ref name="economistrecycle"/> This is because the temperature necessary for melting recycled, nearly pure, aluminium is 600&nbsp;°C, while to extract mined aluminium from its ore requires 900&nbsp;°C. To reach this higher temperature, much more energy is needed, leading to the high environmental benefits of aluminium recycling.<ref name='WasteOnline'>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Recycling metals - aluminium and steel | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.wasteonline.org.uk/resources/InformationSheets/metals.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-11-01 }}</ref> [[Image:Glass-recycling.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Public glass [[waste collection]] point for separating clear, green and amber glass]] ===Glass=== {{main|Glass recycling}} Glass bottles and jars are gathered via curbside collection schemes and bottle banks, where the glass may be sorted into color categories. The collected glass ''cullet'' is taken to a glass recycling plant where it is monitored for purity and contaminants are removed. The cullet is crushed and added to a raw material mix in a melting furnace. It is then mechanically blown or molded into new jars or bottles. Glass cullet is also used in the construction industry for aggregate and glassphalt. [[Glassphalt]] is a road-laying material which comprises around 30% recycled glass. Glass can be recycled indefinitely as its structure does not deteriorate when reprocessed. ===Paper=== {{main|Paper recycling}} Paper can be recycled by reducing it to [[pulp]] and combing it with pulp from newly harvested wood. As the recycling process causes the paper fibres to breakdown, each time paper is recycled its quality decreases. This means that either a higher percentage of new fibres must be added, or the paper downcycled into lower quality products. Any writing or colouration of the paper must first be removed by [[deink]]ing, which also removes fillers, clays, and fiber fragments.<ref name="paper">{{cite web |url=http://www.tappi.org/paperu/all_about_paper/earth_answers/Recycle1.htm |title=EarthAnswers - How is Paper Recycled? |accessdate=2008-02-23}}</ref> Almost all paper can be recycled today, but some types are harder to recycle than others. Papers coated with plastic or aluminium foil, and papers that are waxed, pasted, or gummed are usually not recycled because the process is too expensive. Gift wrap paper also cannot be recycled due to its already poor quality.<ref name="paper"/> Sometimes recyclers ask for the removal of the glossy inserts from newspapers because they are a different type of paper. Glossy inserts have a heavy clay coating that some paper mills cannot accept. Most of the clay is removed from the recycled pulp as sludge which must be disposed of. If the coated paper is 20% by weight clay, then each ton of glossy paper produces more than 200&nbsp;kg of sludge and less than 800&nbsp;kg of fiber.<ref name="paper"/> [[Image:- Plastic boxes -.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Plastic shipping crates]] ===Plastic=== {{main|Plastic recycling}} Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and reprocessing the material into useful products. Compared to glass or metallic materials, plastic poses unique challenges. Because of the massive number of types of plastic, they each carry a [[resin identification code]], and must be sorted before they can be recycled. This can be costly; while metals can be sorted using electromagnets, no such 'easy sorting' capability exists for plastics. In addition to this, while labels do not need to be removed from bottles for recycling, lids are often made from a different kind of non-recyclable plastic. [[Image:Singlejersey.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A brown cloth]] ===Textiles=== {{main|Textile recycling}} When considering textile recycling one must understand what the material consists of. Most textiles are composites of cotton (biodegradable material) and synthetic plastics. The textile's composition will affect its durability and method of recycling. [[Waste picker|Workers]] sort and separate collected textiles into good quality clothing and shoes which can be reused or worn. There is a trend of moving these facilities from developed countries to developing countries either for charity or sold at a cheaper price.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.letsrecycle.com/materials/textiles/news.jsp?story=6232 UK in 'frightening' reliance on foreign textile sorting | title=www.letsrecycle.com | accessdate=2006-11-08}}</ref> Many international organisations collect used textiles from developed countries as a donation to those third world countries. This recycling practise is encouraged because it helps to reduce unwanted waste while providing clothings to the needies. <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.salvationarmy.org/ihq/www_sa.nsf/vw-dynamic-index/2F2892552ED40F1585256E3D006A9BC7?openDocument Salvation Army | title=Salvation Army | accessdate=2008-02-29}}</ref> Damaged textiles are further sorted into grades to make industrial wiping cloths and for use in paper manufacture or material suitable for fibre reclamation and filling products. If textile reprocessors receive wet or soiled clothes however, these may still be disposed of in a landfill, as the washing and drying facilities are not present at sorting units.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.letsrecycle.com/materials/textiles/news.jsp?story=6294 Councils "need to understand" importance of textile quality | title=www.letsrecycle.com | accessdate=2006-11-24}}</ref> Fibre reclamation mills sort textiles according to fibre type and colour. Colour sorting eliminates the need to re-dye the recycled textiles. The textiles are shredded into "shoddy" fibres and blended with other selected fibres, depending on the intended end use of the recycled yarn. The blended mixture is carded to clean and mix the fibres and spun ready for weaving or knitting. The fibres can also be compressed for mattress production. Textiles sent to the flocking industry are shredded to make filling material for car insulation, roofing felts, loudspeaker cones, panel linings and furniture padding. [[Image:Tidy Stacks of Pallets.jpg|thumb|180px|A stack of wooden pallets awaits reuse or recycling.]] ===Timber=== {{Main|Timber recycling}} Recycling timber has become popular due to its image as an environmentally friendly product, with consumers commonly believing that by purchasing recycled wood the demand for ''green timber'' will fall and ultimately benefit the environment. Greenpeace also view recycled timber as an environmentally friendly product, citing it as the most preferable timber source on their website. The arrival of recycled timber as a construction product has been important in both raising industry and consumer awareness towards deforestation and promoting timber mills to adopt more environmentally friendly practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/good_wood/recyc_t.htm |title=RECYCLED TIMBER - the Number One Choice |accessdate=2008-02-23}}</ref> Wood recycling is a subject which has in recent years taken an ever greater role in our lives. The problem, however, is that although many local authorities like the idea of recycling, they do not fully support it. One of the countless examples, which has been in the news is the concept of actually recycling wood which is growing in the cities. Namely, recycling timber, trees and other sources.<ref>[http://www.citywood.co.uk], [[www.citywood.co.uk]], Retrieved 24.11.06</ref> ===Other Techniques=== Several other materials are also commonly recycled, frequently at an industrial level. [[Ship breaking]] is one example that has associated environmental, health, and safety risks for the area where the operation takes place; balancing all these considerations is an [[environmental justice]] problem. [[Tire recycling]] is also common. Used tires can be added to [[asphalt]] for producing road surfaces or to make [[rubber mulch]] used on playgrounds for safety. They are also often used as the insulation and heat absorbing/releasing material in specially constructed homes known as [[earthships]]. ==Sustainable design== {{main|Sustainable design}} Much of the difficulty inherent in recycling comes from the fact that most products are not designed with recycling in mind. The concept of [[sustainable design]] aims to solve this problem, and was first laid out in the book "''[[Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things]]''" by [[architect]] William McDonough and [[chemist]] Michael Braungart. They suggest that every product (and all packaging they require) should have a complete "closed-loop" cycle mapped out for each component—a way in which every component will either return to the natural ecosystem through [[biodegradation]] or be recycled indefinitely.<ref name="economisttruth"/> As with environmental economics, care must be taken to ensure a complete view of the costs and benefits involved. For example, cardboard packaging for food products is more easily recycled than plastic, but is heavier to ship and may result more waste from spoilage.<ref name="Tierney">{{cite news | first = John | last = Tierney | title = Recycling Is Garbage | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE1DF1339F933A05755C0A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 | publisher = New York Times | location = New York | page = 3 | date = June 30, 1996 | accessdate = 2008-02-28 | language = English }}</ref> ==See also== {{Portalpar|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}} {{Wiktionary}} * [[Blue bag]] * [[Design for Environment]] * [[Electronic Waste Recycling Fee]] * [[I-recycle]] * [[Recycle It, Don't Trash It!]] * [[Recycling criticism]] * [[Recycling in schools]] ;Types of recycling * [[Full Depth Recycling]] * [[Ship-Submarine recycling program]] * [[Thermal depolymerization]] * Chemical reclamation, for example [[hydrochloric acid regeneration]] ; General topics * [[Environmentalism]] * [[Waste hierarchy]] ** [[Energy conservation]] ** [[Waste minimisation]] ** [[Pollution Prevention]] ** [[Reuse]] *** [[Regiving]] *** [[Cheapcycle]] ** [[Waste management]] *** [[Extended producer responsibility]] *** [[PAYT|Pay As You Throw]] ;Trade associations *[[International Solid Waste Association]] *[[Solid Waste Association of North America]] *[[Chartered Institute of Wastes Management]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{RecyclingByRegion}} {{RecyclingByMaterial}} {{waste management}} {{Sustainable technology}} [[Category:Recycling]] [[Category:Environmental issues]] [[Category:Sustainable technologies]] [[Category:Waste management]] [[Category:Waste management concepts]] [[Category:Waste treatment technology]] [[Category:Recyclable materials| ]] [[Category:Maintenance]] [[Category:Design for X]] [[ar:استرجاع النفايات]] [[br:Adaoz]] [[ca:Reciclatge]] [[cs:Recyklace]] [[da:Genbrug]] [[de:Recycling]] [[el:Ανακύκλωση]] [[es:Reciclaje]] [[eo:Recikligo]] [[fa:بازیافت]] [[fr:Recyclage]] [[hr:Recikliranje]] [[id:Daur ulang]] [[is:Endurvinnsla]] [[it:Riciclaggio dei rifiuti]] [[he:מיחזור]] [[la:Anacyclismus]] [[hu:Újrahasznosítás]] [[nl:Hergebruik]] [[ja:リサイクル]] [[no:Resirkulering]] [[nn:Resirkulering]] [[nrm:Èrcycliéthie]] [[oc:Reciclatge]] [[pl:Recykling]] [[pt:Reciclagem]] [[ru:Переработка отходов]] [[simple:Recycling]] [[sk:Recyklácia]] [[sl:Recikliranje]] [[sr:Recikliranje]] [[sh:Recikliranje]] [[fi:Kierrätys]] [[sv:Återvinning]] [[th:รีไซเคิล]] [[tr:Geri dönüşüm]] [[zh:資源回收再利用]]