Red rain in Kerala 4290903 226090392 2008-07-16T19:56:36Z Rjwilmsi 203434 gen fixes + link/fix date fields in cite templates (explanation [[User:Rjwilmsi#My_correction_of_citation_templates|here]]) using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] [[Image:Red rain Kerala.jpg|thumb|Red rain collected in buckets]][[Image:WaterSample.jpg|thumb|Rain water sample (left) and after the particles settled (right). Dried sediment (center).]] From [[25 July]] to [[23 September]] [[2001]], red rain sporadically fell on the southern [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]]. Heavy downpours occurred in which the [[rain]] was coloured red, staining clothes with an appearance similar to that of blood.<ref name="gentleman">{{cite web | last = Gentleman | first = Amelia | coauthors = Robin McKie | year = 2006 | url = http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,1723913,00.html | title = Red rain could prove that aliens have landed | publisher = Guardian Unlimited | accessdate = March 12 | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> Yellow, green, and black rain was also reported.<ref name=hinduonet>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2001/07/29/stories/0229000p.htm JULY 28, 2001, The Hindu: Multicolour rain]</ref><ref name="L&K 2006"/><ref name=BBC/> Coloured rain had been reported in Kerala in as early as 1896 and several times since then.<ref name=CESS/> It was initially announced that the rains were coloured by fallout from a hypothetical meteor burst, but a study commissioned by the [[Government of India]] found that the rains had been coloured by airborne spores from a locally prolific terrestrial [[algae|alga]]. Other explanations were proposed but not until early 2006 did the coloured rains of Kerala gain widespread attention in the popular media. A controversial conjecture that the coloured particles were [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] cells was proposed by [[Godfrey Louis]] and Santhosh Kumar of the [[Mahatma Gandhi University]] in [[Kottayam]].<ref name="L&K 2006"/> No information to support the extraterrestrial hypothesis has been published since 2006. ==The rain== ===Occurrence=== [[Image:Location of Kottayam Kerala.png|thumb|left|120px|[[Kottayam district]] in Kerala, which experienced the most intense red rainfall]] The coloured rain of Kerala began falling on [[25 July]] [[2001]], in the districts of Kottayam and [[Idukki]] in the southern part of the state. Yellow, green, and black rain was also reported.<ref name=hinduonet/><ref name="L&K 2006"/><ref name=BBC>{{cite web | last = Ramakrishnan | first = Venkitesh | year = 2001 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1465036.stm | title = Coloured rain falls on Kerala | publisher = BBC | accessdate = March 6 | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> Many more occurrences of the red rain were reported over the following ten days, and then with diminishing frequency until late September.<ref name="L&K 2006"/> According to locals, the first coloured rain was preceded by a loud [[thunder]]clap and flash of light, and followed by groves of trees shedding shrivelled grey "burnt" leaves. Shrivelled leaves and the disappearance and sudden formation of [[water well|well]]s were also reported around the same time in the area.<ref name="indiatoday">{{cite web | last = Radhakrishnan | first = M. G. | year = 2001 | url = http://www.indiatoday.com/webexclusive/dispatch/20010905/stephen.html | title = Scarlets Of Fire | publisher = India Today | accessdate = March 6 | accessyear = 2006 }}</ref><ref name="timesofindia 20010806">[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/html/uncomp/articleshow?xml=0&art_id=1008083877 Mystery of the scarlet rains and other tales] — [[Times of India]], 6 August 2001</ref><ref name="timesofindia 20010805">[http://web.archive.org/web/20021130222422/timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/html/uncomp/articleshow?art_id=1263018103 Now wells form spontaneously in Kerala] — [[Times of India]], 5 August 2001 (from the [[Internet Archive]])</ref> It typically fell over small areas, no more than a few [[square kilometre]]s in size, and was sometimes so localised that normal rain could be falling just a few metres away from the red rain. Red rainfalls typically lasted less than 20 minutes.<ref name="L&K 2006">{{ cite journal | last = Louis| first =G. | authorlink = | coauthors =Kumar A.S. | year =2006 | month = | title =The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin | journal =Astrophysics and Space Science | volume = | issue = | pages = | id = | url =http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601022v1 | quote =([full paper]) ([http://springerlink.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&doi=10.1007/s10509-005-9025-4 at journal website])| accessdate = 2008-06-06 }}</ref> Each [[millilitre]] of rain water contained about 9 million [[red]] particles, and each [[litre]] of rainwater was contained approximately 100 [[milligram]]s of solids. [[Extrapolating]] these figures to the total amount of red rain estimated to have fallen, it was estimated 50,000 kilograms of red particles had fallen on Kerala.<ref name="L&K 2006"/> ===Description of the particles=== [[Image:Red rain Kerala optical microscope.jpg|thumb|left|Photomicrograph of particles from red rain sample]][[Image:Red rain Kerala SEM.png|right|thumb|Grains under a [[scanning electron microscope]]]] [[Image:Red rain Kerala TEM.png|thumb|right|A single grain viewed with a [[transmission electron microscope]], purportedly showing a detached inner capsule. Source: CCAB, Cardiff University]] The brownish-red solid separated from the red rain consisted of about 90% round red particles and the balance consisted of [[protozoans]] and debris.<ref name=CESS/> The particles in [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]] in the rain water were responsible for the colour of the rain, which at times was as strongly coloured as [[blood]]. A small percentage of particles were white or had light yellow, bluish gray and green tints.<ref name="L&K 2006"/> The particles were typically 4 to 10 [[micrometre|µm]] across and spherical or oval. Louis's images with a scanning electron microscope showed the particles as having a depressed centre, suggestive of biological cell, especially red blood cells. At still higher magnification some particles showed internal structures. ===Chemical composition=== Several groups of researchers analyzed the chemical elements in the solid particles and different techniques gave similar results. The particles were mostly [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] with lesser amounts of [[hydrogen]], [[nitrogen]], [[silicon]], [[chlorine]] and [[metals]]. Sediment (red particles plus debris) from the red rain was collected and analyzed by the [[Centre for Earth Science Studies]] (CESS) using a combination of ion-coupled plasma [[Mass Spectrometer|mass spectrometry]], atomic absorption spectrometry and wet chemical methods. The major elements found are listed below.<ref name=CESS>{{cite journal | last = Sampath | first = S. | authorlink = | coauthors = Abraham, T. K., Sasi Kumar, V., & Mohanan, C.N. | title = Coloured Rain: A Report on the Phenomenon. | journal = CESS-PR-114-2001 | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = Center for Earth Science Studies and Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute | location = | date = 2001 | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20060613135746/http://www.geocities.com/iamgoddard/Sampath2001.pdf | doi = | id = | accessdate =2008-05-27|format=PDF}}</ref> The CESS analysis also showed significant amounts of [[heavy metals]] in the red raindust, including [[nickel]] (43), [[manganese]] (59), [[titanium]] (321), [[chromium]] (67) and [[copper]] (55) (amounts in ppm). :{| class="wikitable" style="float:center" |+'''CESS analysis: Major elements present in the dried sediment''' |- ! Element | {{aluminium}}||{{potassium}}||{{magnesium}}||{{calcium}}||{{sodium}}||{{iron}}||{{silicon}}||{{carbon}}||{{phosphorus}} |- ! Weight % | 1.00 || 0.26 || 1.48 || 2.52 || 0.49 || 0.61 || 7.50 || 51.00 || 0.08 |} Louis and Kumar used [[energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy]] analysis of the red solid and showed that the particles were composed of mostly carbon and oxygen, with trace amounts of silicon and iron<ref name="L&K 2006" /> (see table). :{| class="wikitable" |+'''Elemental composition of red cells by [[EDAX]] analysis''' |- ! Element !! Weight % !! Atomic % !! Standards |- |{{carbon}}||49.53||57.83||[[CaCO3|CaCO<sub>3</sub>]] |- |{{oxygen}}||45.42||39.82||[[Quartz]] |- |{{sodium}}||0.69||0.42||[[Albite]] |- |{{aluminium}}||0.41||0.21||[[Al2O3|Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]] |- |{{silicon}}||2.85||1.42||Quartz |- |{{chlorine}}||0.12||0.05||[[Potassium chloride|KCl]] |- |{{iron}}||0.97||0.24||Fe |- |} A [[CHN analyzer]] showed 43.03% carbon, 4.43% hydrogen, and 1.84% nitrogen. J. Thomas Brenna in the Division of Nutritional Sciences at [[Cornell University]] conducted carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses using a scanning electron microscope with X-ray microanalysis, an elemental analyzer, and an isotope ratio (IR) mass spectrometer. The red particles collapsed when dried, which suggested that they were filled with fluid. The [[amino acids]] in the particles were analyzed and seven were identified (in order of concentration): [[phenylalanine]], [[glutamic acid]]/[[glutamine]], [[serine]], [[aspartic acid]], [[threonine]], and [[arginine]]. He concluded that the results were consistent with a marine origin or a terrestrial plant that uses a [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] photosynthetic pathway.<ref name="isotope">{{cite journal |last=DiGregorio |first=Barry E. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |month= |title=What made the rain red in India? Isotopic analysis points to a terrestrial origin for the unusual organic particles that colored the rain like blood. |journal=Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) |volume=79 |issue=9 |pages=3238 |id= |url=http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/ancham/79/i09/pdf/0507detective.pdf?sessid=6006l3|accessdate= 2007-09-10 |quote=My chemical tests are consistent with a terrestrial origin for this material. This doesn't mean it is not extraterrestrial, but it certainly does not support it}}</ref> ==Possible causes for the red rain== ===Conventional hypotheses=== History records many instances of unusual objects falling with the rain — in 2000, in an example of [[raining animals]], a small [[waterspout]] in the [[North Sea]] sucked up a school of [[fish]] a mile off shore, depositing them shortly afterwards on [[Great Yarmouth]] in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Lane | first = Megan | date = [[2000-08-07]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/869482.stm | title = It's raining fish! | publisher = BBC | accessdate = 2006-03-06}}</ref> Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the airborne transport of [[dust]] from [[desert]] or other dry regions which is washed down by rain. One such case occurred in [[England]] in 1903, when dust was carried from the [[Sahara]] and fell with rain in February of that year.<ref name="english_rain">Mill H. R., R. K. G. Lempfert, 1904, ''The great dust fall of February 1903 and its origin.'' Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 30:57.</ref> At first, the red rain in Kerala was attributed to the same effect, with dust from the deserts of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] initially the suspect.<ref name="indiatoday"/> [[LIDAR]] observations had detected a cloud of dust in the atmosphere near Kerala in the days preceding the outbreak of the red rain.<ref name="Satyanarayana">{{ cite journal | last =Satyanarayana | first =M. | authorlink = | coauthors =Veerabuthiran S., Ramakrishna Rao D. Presennakumar B.| year =2004 | month = | title =Colored Rain on the West Coastal Region of India: Was it Due to a Dust Storm| journal =Aerosol Science and Technology | volume =28 | issue = | pages =24–26 | id = | url = | accessdate = 2008-05-30 | quote = }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | last = Veerabuthiran | first =S. | authorlink = | coauthors =Satyanarayana, M. | year =2003 | month =June | title =Lidar observations on atmospheric dust transported from south-west Asia to Indian west coast region: A case study of colour rain event occurred during July 2001| journal =Indian Journal of Radio & Space Physics | volume =32| issue = | pages =158-165 | id = | url =http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/ResearchJournals/rejour/ijrsp/ijrsp2k3/ijrsp_jun03.htm#p6 | accessdate = 2008-05-30 | quote = }}</ref> K.K. Sasidharan Pillai, a senior scientific assistant in the Indian Meteorological Department, proposed dust and acidic material from an eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]] in the [[Philippines]] as an explanation for the coloured rain and the "burnt" leaves.<ref>{{cite news | last = Varma | first = M. Dinesh | title = Theory links 'scarlet rain' to Mayon volcano| work = | publisher = The Hindu | date = [[September 1]], [[2001]] | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/01/stories/0401211v.htm | accessdate = 2008-05-26}}</ref> The volcano was erupting in June and July 2001<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/5ef2040d3ff5114cc1256a76005478c6|title=Mayon eruption status update June 2001|accessdate=2008-05-26}}</ref> and Pillai calculated that the Eastern or Equatorial [[jet stream]] could have transported volcanic material to Kerala in 25-36 hours. The Equatorial jet stream is unusual in that it flows from east to west at about 10° N,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/jetstreams_world.shtml}|title=Jet Streams around the World|publisher=BBC Weather Centre|accessdate=2008-05-26}}</ref> approximately the same latitude as Kerala (8° N) and Mayon Volcano (13° N). ===Official report=== Initially the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) had said that the cause of the red rain was an exploding meteor, which had dispersed about 1,000 kg (around one ton) of material. A few days later, when the red rain continued to fall, CESS retracted this. (Debris from a meteor would not have continued to fall in the same area; it would have been dispersed by winds.) CESS and the [[Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute]] (TBGRI) jointly issued a statement that the particles colouring the rainwater were some type of [[spore]].<ref name=notfungus>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Red rain was fungus, not meteor|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie20010806/nat10.html |work= |publisher=Indian Express |date= [[August 6]], [[2001]] |accessdate=2008-05-31 }}</ref> Then in November of 2001, commissioned by the [[Government of India]]'s Department of Science & Technology, the CESS and TBGRI released a report<ref name=CESS/> which concluded that: <blockquote> The colour was found to be due to the presence of a large amount of spores of a [[lichen]]-forming [[algae|alga]] belonging to the genus [[Trentepohlia]]. Field verification showed that the region had plenty of lichens. Samples of lichen taken from Changanacherry, when cultured in an algal medium, also showed the presence of the same species of algae. Both samples (from rainwater and from trees) produced the same kind of algae, indicating that the spores seen in the rainwater could most probably have come from local sources. </blockquote> Although red or orange, ''Trentepohlia'' is a [[Chlorophyta|Chlorophyte]] green alga which can grow abundantly on tree bark or damp soil and rocks, but is also the photosynthetic [[symbiosis|symbiont]] or photobiont of many lichens, including some of those abundant on the trees in [[Changanacherry]] area.<ref name=CESS/> The report also stated that there was no dust of meteoric, volcanic, or desert origin present in the rainwater, and that the colour of the rainwater was not due to any dissolved gases or pollutants. The report concluded that heavy rains in Kerala in the weeks preceding the red rains could have caused the widespread growth of lichens, which had given rise to a large quantity of spores in the atmosphere. However, it could find no satisfactory explanation for the apparently extraordinary dispersal, nor for the uptake of the spores into clouds. It noted, for example, that prior to the first red rainfall there had been almost continuous rain for a period of eight hours. CESS responded ‘‘While the cause of the colour in the rainfall has been identified, finding the answers to these questions is a challenge.’’<ref name=notfungus/> Parts of the CESS/TBGRI report were supported by Milton Wainwright at [[Sheffield University]], who, together with [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]], has studied [[stratosphere|stratospheric]] [[spore]]s.<ref name="gentleman"/><ref name="tmcnet 2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/2006/03/03/1427866.htm| title= It's raining aliens] |quote= transcript of a [[New Scientist]] [[podcast]] http://www.newscientist.com/podcast.ns|accessdate=2008-06-03}} </ref> In March 2006 he said the particles were similar in appearance to spores of a [[rust (fungus)|rust fungus]],<ref name="yorkshire">{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Benfield |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Is mysterious ‘red rain’ first evidence of life in space?|url=http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&ArticleID=1375334 |work= |publisher=Yorkshire Today |date= [[3 June]] [[2008]]|accessdate=2008-06-03 }}</ref> later saying that he had confirmed their similarity to spores or algae, and found no evidence to suggest that the rain contained dust, sand, fat globules, or blood.<ref name=newsci/> ===Extraterrestrial hypothesis=== {{see|Panspermia}} In 2003 Louis and Kumar, physicists at [[Mahatma Gandhi University]] in [[Kottayam]], Kerala, posted an article entitled “Cometary panspermia explains the red rain of Kerala”<ref name=L&K2003a>{{cite web |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310120 |title= Cometary panspermia explains the red rain of Kerala |accessdate=2008-06-01 |last= Louis |first=Godfrey |coauthors= Kumar, A. Santhosh |date=[[5 October]] [[2003]] |work= |publisher=arXiv}}</ref> in the on-line, non-[[peer review]]ed [[arXiv]] web site. While the CESS report said there was no apparent relationship between the loud sound (possibly a [[sonic boom]]) and flash of light which preceded the red rain, to Louis and Kumar it was a key piece of evidence. They proposed that a meteor (from a comet containing the red particles) caused the sound and flash and when it disintegrated over Kerala it released the red particles which slowly fell to the ground. Their work indicated that the particles were of biological origin (consistent with the CESS report), not inorganic material and they invoked the [[panspermia]] [[hypothesis]] to explain the presence of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s in a supposed fall of meteoric material. Additionally, using [[ethidium bromide]] they were unable to detect [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] in the particles. Two months later they posted another paper on the same site entitled “New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia”<ref name=L&K2003b/> in which they reported that<blockquote> The microorganism isolated from the red rain of Kerala shows very extraordinary characteristics like ability to grow optimally at 300°C (572°F) and the capacity to metabolize a wide range of organic and inorganic materials. </blockquote> These claims and data have yet to be reported in any peer reviewed publication. In 2006 they published a paper in ''[[Astrophysics and Space Science]]'' entitled "The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin"<ref name="L&K 2006"/> which reiterated their hypothesis that the red rain was biological matter from an extraterrestrial source but made no mention of their claims to having induced the cells to grow. One of their conclusions was:<blockquote> If the red rain particles are biological cells and are of cometary origin, then this phenomena can be a case of cometary panspermia.<ref name="L&K 2006"/> </blockquote> [[Panspermia]] is the hypothesis that life on Earth was carried here from elsewhere in the [[universe]]. [[Fred Hoyle]] and [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]] have been among the proponents of the theory, but it has not been accepted by most mainstream scientists. The paper in ''Astrophysics and Space Science'' prompted numerous articles in the popular media.<ref name="gentleman"/><ref name="tmcnet 2006"/><ref name="yorkshire"/><ref name=muir>{{cite news |first=Hazel|last= Muir |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=When aliens rained over India |url=http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution/mg18925411.100 |work= |publisher=New Scientist |date=[[2 March]] [[2006]] |accessdate=2008-06-03 }}</ref> ====Controversy==== A quotation attributed to [[Carl Sagan]] that "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" is often used regarding the claims of alien life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whyfiles.org/shorties/207red_rain/ |title= Red rain controversy: Aliens or hype?|publisher= The Why Files |accessdate=2008-06-04}}</ref><ref name=world>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/060104_specksfrm1.htm |title=Skepticism greets claim of possible alien microbes |accessdate=2008-06-03 |publisher=World Science |date=[[November 9]], [[2006]]}}</ref> Samples of the red particles were also sent for analysis to [[Milton Wainwright]] at [[Sheffield University]] and [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]] at [[Cardiff University]]. Wickramasinghe reported in December, 2006 that “work in progress has yielded positive for DNA”,<ref name=astro>{{cite web|url=http://www.astrobiology.cf.ac.uk/redrain.htm|title=Cardiff Centre of Astrobiology: Analysis of Red Rain of Kerala|publisher=University of Cardiff|accessdate=2008-06-24}}</ref> but the results have not yet been confirmed. The absence of DNA is key to Louis and Kumar's hypothesis that the cells were of extraterrestrial origins.<ref name=L&K2003a/> Wainwright is quoted as saying:<ref name=newsci>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025455.400.html 1 April 2006, New Scientist: Red rain fantasies]</ref><blockquote> “There appears to be an increasing tendency among scientists to come up with wild explanations when asked by the press to comment on unusual, novel phenomena. A good example is provided by comments about the recent Indian red rain phenomenon." </blockquote> A correction was printed in ''The Observer''<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1729000,00.html For the record], ''[[The Observer]]'', [[March 12]], [[2006]]</ref> regarding Dr. Wainwright's comment that the red rain lacked DNA. Dr. Wainwright asked in the correction to make clear that he currently had no view on whether the samples contained genetic material or not, and that it was physicist Godfrey Louis who held that view. The controversial research of Louis et al. is the only evidence suggesting that these organisms are of extraterrestrial origin.<ref name=L&K2003b>{{cite web |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0312639|title= New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia |accessdate=2008-06-01 |last= Louis |first=Godfrey |coauthors= Kumar, A. Santhosh |date=[[29 December]] [[2003]]|work= |publisher=[[arXiv]]}}</ref> Sainudeen [[Pattazh]] came to the conclusion that, "Regarding red rain, there was an argument that it was alien presence. But that’s just like science fiction. During 2001-02, [a] peculiar geological situation was prevailing in Kerala like caving in of wells and landslides.” <ref>[http://theviewspaper.net/science/2008/05/3137 The Viewspaper - 5178 Pattazhy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> A study has been published showing a correlation between historic reports of colored rains and of meteors.<ref name=mmcaf>{{ cite journal | last =McCafferty | first =Partick | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2008 | month = | title =Bloody rain again! Red rain and meteors in history and myth | journal =International Journal of Astrobiology | volume = | issue = | pages = | id = | url =http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?aid=1661980 | accessdate = 2008-05-31 | quote = }}</ref> In an interview<ref>{{Citation | title = Claim of alien cells in rain may fit historical accounts: study | journal = World Science | date = January 22 | year = 2008 | url = http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/080122_red-rain.htm | accessdate = 2008-01-25}}</ref> The author of the paper, Patrick McCafferty, said: <blockquote> Six­ty of these events (coloured rain), or 36 per­cent, “were linked to me­te­oritic or com­et­ary ac­ti­vity,” he went on. But not al­ways strongly. Some­times, “the fall of red rain seems to have oc­curred af­ter an air­burst,” as from a me­te­or ex­plod­ing in air; oth­er times the odd rain­fall “is merely recorded in the same year as a stone-fall or the ap­pear­ance of a comet.” </blockquote> ==Further occurrences== Reports indicated that on [[August 21]], [[2007]] red coloured rainfall occurred in a few places in the northern part of [[Kozhikode district]]. Places around [[Vadakara]], a [[municipality]] in Kozhikode district, which is 50 kilometres (31 miles) northward of Kozhikode town witnessed this phenomenon. [[Centre for Water Resources Development and Management]] (CWRDM) an agency of government of India, was reported to be awaiting samples for examination.<ref>http://www.newkerala.com/july.php?action=fullnews&id=55259</ref> On [[September 6]], [[2007]] the river Periyar turned red in the region of the [[Eloor]] industrial estate.<ref>http://www.indiatogether.org/2006/sep/env-periyar.htm</ref> A possibly related incident occurred in February 2008 when small fish rained down on Kerala.<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title = ‘Fish rain’ takes Kerala villagers by surprise | work = | pages = | language = | publisher = The Financial Express | date = , February 12, 2008 | url = http://www.financialexpress.com/news/Fish-rain-takes-Kerala-villagers-by-surprise/272219/ | accessdate = 2008-05-27}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==See also== *[[Yellow rain]] ==External links== *[http://web.archive.org/web/20060613135746/http://www.geocities.com/iamgoddard/Sampath2001.pdf Sampath, S., Abraham, T. K., Sasi Kumar, V., & Mohanan, C.N. (2001). Coloured Rain: A Report on the Phenomenon. CESS-PR-114-2001, Center for Earth Science Studies and Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute.] *[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution/mg18925411.100 “When aliens rained over India” by Hazel Muir in ''New Scientist''] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6146292.stm “Searching for 'our alien origins'” by Andrew Thompson in ''BBC News''] [[Category:2001 meteorology]] [[Category:Anomalous weather]] [[Category:Astrobiology]] [[Category:Earth mysteries]] [[Category:Kerala]] [[da:Red rain in Kerala]] [[fr:Pluie rouge de Kerala]] [[it:Pioggia rossa in Kerala]] [[ru:Красный дождь]] [[fi:Punainen sade]] [[zh:喀拉拉紅雨]]