Reduplication
171408
225011380
2008-07-11T13:19:54Z
Ling.Nut
1929579
Not English! rmv ", of course, the Hawaiian term, wiki-wiki meaning fast"
'''Reduplication''', in [[linguistics]], is a [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] [[process]] by which the [[root (linguistics)|root]] or [[Stem (linguistics)|stem]] of a [[word]], or part of it, is repeated.
Reduplication is used in [[inflection]]s to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in [[lexical]] [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivation]] to create new [[word]]s. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, [[Iconicity|iconic]] in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic [[productivity (linguistics)|productivity]] varies.
''Reduplication'' is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include ''cloning'', ''doubling'', ''duplication'', and ''repetition''.
==Typological description==
{{IPA notice}}
===Form===
Reduplication is often described [[Phonology|phonologically]] in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated ''segments'' (sequences of [[consonants]]/[[vowels]]) or (2) as reduplicated ''[[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] units'' ([[syllable]]s or [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]s). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] as a reduplication of linguistic [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] (i.e. [[Word (linguistics)|words]], [[Stem (linguistics)|stems]], [[Root (linguistics)|roots]]). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.
The ''base'' is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the ''reduplicant'', often abbreviated as ''<small>RED</small>'' or sometimes just ''R''.
In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a ''duple'' as in most reduplication. ''Triplication'' is the term for this phenomenon of copying three times. [[Pingelapese]] has both reduplication and triplication.
{| class="wikitable"
! Basic Verb
! Reduplication
! Triplication
|-
| {{IPA|''kɔul''}} 'to sing'
| {{IPA|''kɔukɔul''}} 'singing'
| {{IPA|''kɔukɔukɔul''}} 'still singing'
|-
| {{IPA|''mejr''}} 'to sleep'
| {{IPA|''mejmejr''}} 'sleeping'
| {{IPA|''mejmejmejr''}} 'still sleeping'
|} <small><cite>(Rehg 1981)</cite></small>
Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Shipibo language|Shipibo]], [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Mokilese language|Mokilese]], [[Min Nan]].
Sometimes [[gemination]] (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term ''dupleme'' has been used (after ''morpheme'') to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.
====Full and partial reduplication====
''Full reduplication'' involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, [[Kham]] derives reciprocal forms from [[Reflexive pronoun|reflexive]] forms by total reduplication:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[gin]}}
| 'ourselves'
| →
| {{IPA|[gingin]}}
| 'we (to) us'
| {{IPA|(gin-gin)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[jaː]}}
| 'themselves'
| →
| {{IPA|[jaːjaː]}}
| 'they (to) them'
| {{IPA|(jaː-jaː)}}
| <small><cite>(Watters 2002)</cite></small>
|}
Another example is from Musqueam [[Halkomelem]] "dispositional" [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] formation:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[k’ʷə́ɬ]}}
| 'to capsize'
| →
| {{IPA|[k’ʷə́ɬk’ʷəɬ]}}
| 'likely to capsize'
| {{IPA|(k’ʷə́ɬ-k’ʷəɬ)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[qʷél]}}
| 'to speak'
| →
| {{IPA|[qʷélqʷel]}}
| 'talkative'
| {{IPA|(qʷél-qʷel)}}
| <small><cite>(Shaw 2004)</cite></small>
|}
''Partial reduplication'' involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, [[Marshallese language|Marshallese]] forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last ''consonant-vowel-consonant'' (''CVC'') sequence of a base, i.e. ''base''+''CVC'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| ''kagir''
| 'belt'
| →
| ''kagirgir''
| 'to wear a belt'
| (kagir-gir)
|-
|
|
| ''takin''
| 'sock'
| →
| ''takinkin''
| 'to wear socks'
| (takin-kin)
| <small><cite>(Moravsik 1978)</cite></small>
|}
Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the [[Motu language|Motu]] example below:
{| class="wikitable"
! Base Verb
! Full reduplication
! Partial reduplication
|-
| ''mahuta'' 'to sleep'
| ''mahutamahuta'' 'to sleep constantly'
| ''mamahuta'' 'to sleep (plural)'
|-
|
| (''mahuta-mahuta'')
| (''ma-mahuta'')
|}
====Reduplicant position====
Reduplication may be ''initial'' (i.e. [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]]al), ''final'' (i.e. [[suffix]]al), or ''internal'' (i.e. [[infix]]al), e.g.
'''Initial''' reduplication in [[Agta]] ''(CV- prefix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[ɸuɾab]}}
| 'afternoon'
| →
| {{IPA|[ɸuɸuɾab]}}
| 'late afternoon'
| {{IPA|(''ɸu''-ɸuɾab)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[ŋaŋaj]}}
| 'a long time'
| →
| {{IPA|[ŋaŋaŋaj]}}
| 'a long time (in years)'
| (''ŋa''-ŋaŋaj)
| <small><cite>(Healey 1960)</cite></small>
|}
'''Final''' reduplication in [[Lakota language|Dakota]] ''(-CCV suffix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[hãska]}}
| 'tall (singular)'
| →
| {{IPA|[hãskaska]}}
| 'tall (plural)'
| (hãska-''ska'')
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[waʃte]}}
| 'good (singular)'
| →
| {{IPA|[waʃteʃte]}}
| 'good (plural)'
| {{IPA|(waʃte-''ʃte'')}}
| <small><cite>(Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)</cite></small>
|}
'''Internal''' reduplication in [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''(-CV- infix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| ''savali''
| 'they walk'
| →
| ''savavali''
| 'he walks'
| (sa-''va''-vali)
|-
|
|
| ''alofa''
| 'they love'
| →
| ''alolofa''
| 'he loves'
| (a-''lo''-lofa)
| <small><cite>(Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)</cite></small>
|}
Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.
====Copying direction====
A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (''left-to-right'' copying) or from the right edge (''right-to-left'' copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:
Initial '''L → R''' copying in Oykangand [[Kunjen]] (a [[Pama-Nyungan languages|Pama-Nyungan]] language of [[Australia]]):
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[eder]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[ededer]}}
| 'rain'
| (''ed''-<u>ed</u>er)
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[algal]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[algalgal]}}
| 'straight'
| (''alg''-<u>alg</u>al)
|}
Final '''R → L''' copying in [[Sirionó]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| ''achisia''
| →
| ''achisiasia''
| 'I cut'
| (achi<u>sia</u>-''sia'')
|-
|
|
| ''ñimbuchao''
| →
| ''ñimbuchaochao''
| 'to come apart'
| (ñimbu<u>chao</u>-''chao'')
| <small><cite>(McCarthy and Prince 1996)</cite></small>
|}
Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:
Initial '''R → L''' copying in [[Tillamook language|Tillamook]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[gaɬ]}}
| 'eye'
| →
| {{IPA|[ɬgaɬ]}}
| 'eyes'
| {{IPA|(''ɬ''-ga<u>ɬ</u>)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[təq]}}
| 'break'
| →
| {{IPA|[qtəq]}}
| 'they break'
| {{IPA|(''q''-tə<u>q</u>)}}
| <small><cite>(Reichard 1959)</cite></small>
|}
Final '''L → R''' copying in [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| ''nute-''
| 'ground'
| →
| ''nutenut''
| 'ground (abs. sg.)'
| (<u>nut</u>e-''nut'')
|-
|
|
| ''{{IPA|jilʔe-}}''
| 'gopher'
| →
| ''{{IPA|jilʔejil}}''
| 'gopher (abs. sg.)'
| {{IPA|(<u>jil</u>ʔe-''jil'')}}
| <small><cite>(Marantz 1982)</cite></small>
|}
Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.
Internal '''L → R''' copying in [[Quileute]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[tsiko]}}
| 'he put it on'
| →
| {{IPA|[tsitsko]}}
| 'he put it on (frequentative)'
| (<u>ts</u>i-''ts''-ko)
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[tukoːjoʔ]}}
| 'snow'
| →
| {{IPA|[tutkoːjoʔ]}}
| 'snow here and there'
| (<u>t</u>u-''t''-koːjoʔ)
| <small><cite>(Broselow and McCarthy 1984)</cite></small>
|}
In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.
Internal '''R → L''' copying in [[Temiar]] (an [[Austro-Asiatic]] language of [[Malaysia]]):
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[sluh]}}
| 'to shoot (perfective)'
| →
| {{IPA|[shluh]}}
| 'to shoot (continuative)'
| {{IPA|(s-''h''-lu<u>h</u>)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[slɔg]}}
| 'to marry (perfective)'
| →
| {{IPA|[sglɔg]}}
| 'to marry (continuative)'
| {{IPA|(s-''g''-lɔ<u>g</u>)}}
| <small><cite>(Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000)</cite></small>
|}
A rare type of reduplication is found in [[Semai]] (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[kʉːʔ]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[kʔkʉːʔ]}}
| 'to vomit'
| {{IPA|(''kʔ''-<u>k</u>ʉː<u>ʔ</u>)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[dŋɔh]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[dhdŋɔh]}}
| 'appearance of nodding constantly'
| {{IPA|(''dh''-<u>d</u>ŋɔ<u>h</u>)}}
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[cruhaːw]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[cwcruhaːw]}}
| 'monsoon rain'
| {{IPA|(''cw''-<u>c</u>ruhaː<u>w</u>)}}
| <small><cite>(Diffloth 1973, in Albright 2002)</cite></small>
|}
In some [[Salish]] languages, reduplication is used to mark both diminution and plurality, one process applying to each end of the word, as in the following example from [[Shuswap]]. Note that the data was transcribed in a way that is not comparable to the [[IPA]], but the reduplication of both initial and final portions of the root is clear: ''ṣōk!Emē'’n'' 'knife' reduplicated as ''ṣuk!ṣuk!Emen'’me’n'' (Haeberlin 1918:159).
====Reduplication and other processes====<!-- This section is linked from [[Affix]] -->
All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as [[elision|deletion]], [[affixation]] of non-reduplicating material, etc.
For instance, in [[Tz'utujil]] a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment {{IPA|[oχ]}}. This can be written succinctly as {{IPA|''-Coχ''}}. Below are some examples:
:* {{IPA|[kaq]}} 'red' → {{IPA|[kaqkoχ]}} 'reddish' {{IPA|(kaq-''k''-oχ)}}
:* {{IPA|[q’an]}} 'yellow' → {{IPA|[q’anq’oχ]}} 'yellowish' {{IPA|(q’an-''q’''-oχ)}}
:* {{IPA|[jaʔ]}} 'water' → {{IPA|[jaʔjoχ]}} 'watery' {{IPA|(jaʔ-''j''-oχ)}} <small><cite>(Dayley 1985)</cite></small>
[[Somali language|Somali]] has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: ''-aC'' (where ''C'' is the last consonant of the base):
:* {{IPA|[tog]}} 'ditch' → {{IPA|[togag]}} 'ditches' {{IPA|(tog-a-''g'')}}
:* {{IPA|[ʕad]}} 'lump of meat' → {{IPA|[ʕadad]}} 'lumps of meat' {{IPA|(ʕad-a-''d'')}}
:* {{IPA|[wɪːl]}} 'boy' → {{IPA|[wɪːlal]}} 'boys' {{IPA|(wɪːl-a-''l'')}} <small><cite>(Abraham 1964)</cite></small>
(One linguist has used the word ''duplifix'' to refer to this combination of reduplication and affixation.)
In [[Tohono O'odham]] initial reduplication also involves [[gemination]] of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:
:* {{IPA|[nowiu]}} 'ox' → {{IPA|[nonnowiu]}} 'ox (distributive)' (''no''-n-nowiu)
:* {{IPA|[hódai]}} 'rock' → {{IPA|[hohhodai]}} 'rock (distributive)' (''ho''-h-hodai)
:* {{IPA|[kow]}} 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → {{IPA|[kokkow]}} 'dig out of ground (repetitive)' (''ko''-k-kow)
:* {{IPA|[gɨw]}} 'hit (unitative)' → {{IPA|[gɨggɨw]}} 'hit (repetitive)' {{IPA|(''gɨ''-g-gɨw)}} <small><cite>(Haugen forthcoming)</cite></small>
Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.
{{Sectstub|date=May 2008}}
===Function and meaning===
In the [[Malayo-Polynesian]] family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):
:*[[Malay language|Malay]] ''rumah'' "house", ''rumah-rumah'' "houses".
In pre-1972 [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malay language|Malay]] orthography, ''2'' was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: ''orang'' "person", ''orang-orang'' or ''orang2'' "people"<ref>[http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j11/malay.php The Malay Spelling Reform], Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp.9-13 later designated J11)</ref>.
The [[Nama language]] uses reduplication to increase the force of a [[verb]]: ''go'', "look;", ''go-go'' "examine with attention".
[[Chinese language|Chinese]] also uses reduplication: 人 ''rén'' for "person", 人人 ''rénrén'' for "everybody". [[Japanese language|Japanese]] does it too: 時 ''toki'' "time", ''tokidoki'' 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written [[iteration mark]] 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in [[calligraphy]].
[[Indo-European languages]] formerly used reduplication to form a number of [[verb]] forms, especially in the [[preterite]] or [[Perfect aspect|perfect]] tenses. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:
:*''spondeo'', ''spopondi'' ([[Latin]], "I vow, I vowed")
:* {{polytonic|λείπω, λέλοιπα}} ([[Greek language|Greek]], "I leave, I left")
:* {{polytonic|δέρκομαι, δέδορκα}} (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit [[ablaut]] as well as reduplication)
:*''háitan'', ''haíháit'' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]], "to name, I named")
None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent [[Germanic languages]]. A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the [[present tense|present]] stem rather than the perfect stem: Latin ''gigno, genui'' ("I beget, I begat") is a surviving example. Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process; compare Latin ''sto'' ("I stand") and ''sisto'' ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.
Recent [[Finnish language|Finnish slang]] uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, ''Söin viisi jäätelöä, pullapitkon ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa.'' "I ate five choc-ices, a long loaf of coffee bread and candy, and of course food-food". Here, the "food-food" is contrasted to the "junk-food" -- the principal role of food is nutrition, and "junkfood" isn't nutritious, so "food-food" is nutritious food, exclusively.
:* ''ruoka'' "food", ''ruokaruoka'' "proper food", as opposed to snacks
:* ''peli'' "game", ''pelipeli'' "complete game",as opposed to a [[Mod (computer gaming)|mod]]
:* ''puhelin'' "phone", ''puhelinpuhelin'' "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
:* ''kauas'' "far away", ''kauaskauas'' "unquestionably far away"
:* ''koti'' "home", ''kotikoti'' "home of your parents"
These sorts of reduplicative forms, such as "food-food," are not merely literal translations of the Finnish but in fact have some frequency in contemporary English for emphasising, as in Finnish, an "authentic" form of a certain thing. "Food-food" is one of the most common, along with such a possibilities for "car-car" to describe a vehicle which is actually a car (small [[automobile]]) and not something else such as a [[truck]], or "house-house," for a stand-alone [[house]] structure as opposed to an [[apartment]], for instance.
Reduplication comes after inflection in Finnish. Young adults may ask one another ''Menetkö kotiin vai kotiinkotiin?'' "Are you going home or home-home?" The reduplicated home refers to the old home that used to be their home before they moved out to their new home.
In [[Swiss German]], the verbs ''gah'' or ''goh'' "go", ''cho'' "come", ''la'' or ''lo'' "let" and ''aafa'' or ''aafo'' "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs.
{|
!example:
|Si
|chunt
|üse
|Chrischtboum
|cho
|schmücke.
|-
!literal translation:
|she
|comes
|our
|Christmas tree
|''come''
|adorn
|-
!translation
| colspan=6 | She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.
|}
{|
!example:
|Si
|lat
|ne
|nid
|la
|schlafe.
|-
!literal translation:
|she
|lets
|him
|not
|''let''
|sleep
|-
!translation:
| colspan=6 | She doesn't let him sleep.
|}
==Examples==
===Indo-European===
====Common Indo-European====
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] used partial reduplication in perfect tense forms of verb roots. This is also present in [[Ancient Greek#Reduplication|Ancient Greek]], e.g. λύω (I free) => λέλυκα (I have freed).
The Proto-Indo-European word ''q<sup>w</sup>q<sup>w</sup>lós'' = "[[wheel]]" (cfr. Greek Κύκλος, ''kyklos'' = "[[circle]]") has reduplication, likely for [[onomatopoeia]].
====English reduplication====
English uses some kinds of reduplication, mostly for informal expressive vocabulary. There are three types:
* '''Rhyming reduplications''': argy-bargy, arty-farty, boogie-woogie, bow-wow, chock-a-block, claptrap, easy-peasy, eency-weency, fuddy-duddy, fuzzy-wuzzy, gang-bang, hanky-panky, harum-scarum, heebie-jeebies, helter-skelter, herky-jerky, higgledy-piggledy, hobnob, Hobson-Jobson, hocus-pocus, hodge-podge, hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, honey-bunny, hot-pot, hotch-potch, hubble-bubble, hugger-mugger, hulking-bulking, Humpty-Dumpty, hurdy-gurdy, hurly-burly, hurry-scurry, itsy-bitsy, itty-bitty, loosey-goosey, lovey-dovey, mumbo-jumbo, namby-pamby, nimbly-bimbly, nitty-gritty, nitwit, okey-dokey, pall-mall, palsy-walsy, pee-wee, pell-mell, picnic, razzle-dazzle, righty-tighty, roly-poly, rumpy-pumpy, super-duper, teenie-weenie, teeny-weeny, tidbit, tighty-whitey, willy-nilly, wingding
Although at first glance "[[Abracadabra]]" appears to be an English rhyming reduplication it in fact is not; instead, it is derived from the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] formula "Abəra kaDavəra" meaning "I would create as I spoke")
* '''Exact reduplications''' (baby-talk-like): bonbon, bye-bye, choo-choo, chop-chop, chow-chow, dum-dum, fifty-fifty, gee-gee, go-go, goody-goody, knock-knock, night-night, no-no, pee-pee, poo-poo, pooh-pooh, rah-rah, so-so, tsk-tsk, tuk-tuk, tut-tut, wakey wakey, wee-wee and so on.
''Couscous is not an English example for reduplication, since it is taken from a French word which has a [[Maghrebi]] origin.''
* '''[[Ablaut]] reduplications''': bric-a-brac, chit-chat, criss-cross, dilly-dally, ding-dong, fiddle-faddle, flimflam, flip-flop, hippety-hoppety, kitcat, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mish-mash, ping-pong, pitter-patter, riff-raff, rickrack, riprap, see-saw, shilly-shally, sing-song, snicker-snack, splish-splash, teeny-tiny, teeter-totter, tic-tac-toe, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, tittle-tattle, wish-wash, wishy-washy, zig-zag
In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a [[high vowel]] and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a [[low vowel]]. There is also a tendency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back.
None of the above types are particularly [[productive]], meaning that the sets are fairly fixed and new forms are not easily accepted, but there is another form of reduplication that is used as a deprecative called [[shm-reduplication]] (or schm-reduplication) that can be used with most any word; e.g. ''baby-shmaby'' or ''car-shmar''. This process is a feature of [[American English]] from [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], starting among the [[American Jews]] of [[New York City]], then the [[New York dialect]] and then the whole country.
Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]]) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of [[Platonic idealism|Platonic ideal]] of the noun.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jila Ghomeshi, Ray Jackendoff, Nicole Rosen, and Kevin Russell |year=2004 |title=Contrastive focus reduplication in English (the Salad-Salad paper) |journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory |volume=22 |pages=307–357 |doi=10.1023/B:NALA.0000015789.98638.f9 }}</ref> This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. An extensive list of such examples is found in [http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/russell/redup-corpus.html].
More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003).
====Afrikaans reduplication====
[[Afrikaans]] regularly utilizes reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated. For example, ''krap'' means "to scratch one's self," while ''krap-krap-krap'' means "to scratch one's self vigorously." [http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/mll/linguistics/exercises/morpho.html]
Reduplication is not present in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], the parent language of Afrikaans, except in cases of interjections. {{Fact|date=March 2007}}
====[[Romance languages|Romance]]====
=====Italian=====
In [[Italian language|Italian]] reduplication was used both to create new words or words associations (tran-tran, via via, leccalecca) and to intensify the meaning (corri!, corri! = run!, run!).
=====Lingua Franca=====
Common in [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca|Lingua Franca]], particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:
"Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.")<ref>[http://www.uwm.edu/~corre/franca/go.html ''A Glossary of Lingua Franca''], 5th ed.</ref>
=====French=====
A common use for reduplication in French is the creation of [[hypocoristic]]s for [[French names|names]], thus ''Louise'' becomes ''[[Loulou]]'', and [[Zinedine Zidane]] becomes ''Zizou''.
=====Romanian=====
In Romanian, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from [[onomatopoeia]]), for example, ''mormăi, ţurţur, dârdâi'', and for expressions, like ''talmeş-balmeş, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ţac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc'', or in more recent slang, ''trendy-flendy''.
====Slavic languages====
=====Russian language=====
{{main|Reduplication in the Russian language}}
The reduplication in [[Russian language]] serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a [[hyphenated]] or repeated [[word]] (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to [[shm-reduplication]].
====[[Persian language|Persian]]====
Reduplication is a very common practice in Persian, to the extent that there are jokes about it. Reduplication is particularly common in the city of [[Shiraz]] in southwestern [[Iran]]. One can further categorize the reduplicative words into "True" and "Quasi" ones. In true reduplicative words, both words are actually real words and have meaning in the language in which it is used. In quasi-reduplicative words, at least one of the words does not have a meaning. Some examples of true reduplicative words in Persian are: "Xert-o-Pert" (Odds and ends); "Čert-o-Pert" (Nonsense); "Čarand-o-Parand" (animals and birds); "Āb-o-Tāb" (much detail). Among the quasi-reduplicative words are "Zan-o-man" (wife); "Davā-Mavā" (Argument); "Talā-malā" (jewelry); and "Dari-Vari" (none-sense talk).
===Turkish===
In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being ''m'', and possibly missing) with ''m''. The effect is that the meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, ''tabak'' means "plate(s)", and ''tabak mabak'' then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied not only to nouns but to all kinds of words, as in ''yeşil meşil'' meaning "green, greenish, whatever".
===Reduplication in Bantu Languages===
Reduplication is a common phenomenon in [[Bantu languages]] and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis.[http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa02004.pdf],[http://www.spectrum.uni-bielefeld.de/TAPS/Downing.pdf]
* [[Swahili]] ''piga'' 'to strike'; ''pigapiga'' 'to strike repeatedly'
* [[Luganda]] ''okukuba'' (''oku-kuba'') 'to strike'; ''okukubaakuba'' (''oku-kuba-kuba'') 'to strike repeatedly, to batter'
* [[Chichewa language|Chichewa]] ''tambalalá'' 'to stretch one's legs'; ''tambalalá-tambalalá'' to stretch one's legs repeatedly'
Popular names that have reduplication include
* [[Bafana Bafana]]
* [[Chipolopolo]]
* [[Eric Djemba-Djemba]]
* [[Lomana LuaLua|Lualua]]
* [[Ngorongoro]]
===Chinese===
Adjective reduplication is common in [[Standard Mandarin]], typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: ''xiaoxiao de'' 小小的 (small), ''chouchou de'' 臭臭的 (smelly). In case of adjectives composed of two characters (morphemes), each character is reduplicated separately: ''piaoliang'' 漂亮 (beautiful) reduplicates as ''piaopiaoliangliang'' 漂漂亮亮.
Verb reduplication is also common in Standard Mandarin, conveying the meaning of informal and temporary character of the action. It is often used in imperative expressions, in which it lessens the degree of imperativity: ''zuozuo'' 坐坐 (sit (for a while)), ''dengdeng'' 等等 (wait (for a while)). Compound verbs are reduplicated as a whole word: ''xiuxixiuxi'' 休息休息 (rest (for a while)).
Noun reduplication is found in the southwestern dialect of [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], which is nearly absent in [[standard Mandarin]] (Guoyu). For instance, in [[Sichuan]], ''baobao'' 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing and Guoyu use ''bao'r'' 包儿. However, there are few nouns that can be reduplicated in Standard Mandarin, and reduplication denotes generalisation and uniformity: ''ren'' 人 (human being) and ''renren'' 人人 (everybody (in general, in common)), ''jiajiahuhu'' 家家户户 (every household (uniformly)) - in the latter ''jia'' and ''hu'' additionally duplicate the meaning of ''household'', which is a common way of creating compound words in Chinese.
===Japanese===
A small number of native [[Japanese language|Japanese]] nouns have [[collective number|collective]] forms produced by reduplication (possibly with [[rendaku]]). This formation is not [[productivity (linguistics)|productive]] and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Mandarin, the meaning is not that of a true [[plural]], but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object.
Japanese also contains a large number of [[Japanese sound symbolism|mimetic words]] formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only [[onomatopoeia]], but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states.
===Vietnamese===
Words called '''''từ láy''''' are found abundantly in Vietnamese. They are formed by repeating a part of a word to form new words, altering the meaning of the original word. Its effect is to sometimes either increase or decrease the intensity of the adjective, and is often used as a literary device (like alliteration) in poetry and other compositions, as well as in everyday speech.
Examples of reduplication increasing intensity:
*''đau'' → ''đau điếng'': hurt → hurt horribly
*''mạnh'' → ''mạnh mẽ'': strong → very strong
*''rực'' → ''rực rỡ'': flaring → blazing
Examples of reduplication decreasing intensity:
*''nhẹ'' → ''nhè nhẹ'': soft → soft (less)
*''xinh'' → ''xinh xinh'': pretty → cute
*''đỏ'' → ''đo đỏ'': red → somewhat red
*''xanh'' → ''xanh xanh'': blue/green → somewhat blue/green
Examples of blunt sounds or physical conditions:
*''loảng xoảng'' — sound of glass breaking to pieces or metallic objects falling to the ground
*''hớt hơ hớt hải''- (also hớt ha hớt hải) — hard gasps -> in extreme hurry, in panic, panic-stricken
*''lục đục'' — the sound of hard, blunt (and likely wooden) objects hitting against each other -> disagreements and conflicts inside a group or an organisation
===Nepalese===
A number of [[Nepali language|Nepalese]] nouns are formed by reduplication. As in other languages, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a set of the same or related objects, often in a particular situation.
For example, "rangi changi"* describes an object that is extremely or vividly colorful, like a crazy mix of colors and/or patterns, perhaps dizzying to the eye. The phrase "hina mina" means "scattered," like a large collection of objects spilled (or scampering, as in small animals) in all different directions. The basic Nepalese word for food, "khana" becomes "khana sana" to refer to the broad generality of anything served at a meal. Likewise, "chiya" or tea (conventionally made with milk and sugar) becomes "chiya siya": tea and snacks (such as biscuits or cookies). *Please note, these examples of Nepalese words are spelled with a simplified Latin transliteration only, not as exact spellings.
===Malay and Indonesian===
In [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], reduplication of a noun indicates the [[plural]]. For example, ''buku'', meaning "book", when reduplicated as ''buku-buku'' (also written as ''buku²'') means "books". Another example is ''anak'' for child and 'anak-anak' for children.
Reduplication of an adjective is also used to indicate plurality of the corresponding noun. For example: "Rumah di sini besar" means "The house here is big", while "Rumah di sini besar-besar" means "The houses here are big".
Sometimes, reduplication of nouns becomes adjectives in Indonesian. For examples,"om" 'uncle' as in "Gaya Ardi seperti om-om" means 'the Ardi's attitute is like an uncle', "orang-orang" 'people' means 'something like person behaviour'.
===Khmer===
[[Khmer language|Khmer]] uses reduplication for several purposes, including emphasis and pluralization. Khmer also uses a form of reduplication known as "synonym compounding", in which two phonologically distinct words with similar or identical meanings are combined, either to form the same term or to form a new term altogther.
===Reduplicated babbling===
During the period 25-50 weeks after birth, all typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical [[babbling]] (Stark 198, Oller, [[1980]]). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant vowel combinations, such as 'nanana' or 'didididi'. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand banging and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less of a structure.
==See also==
*[[Ideophone]]
*[[Augment (linguistics)|Augment]]
*[[Amredita]]
*[[Language acquisition]]
*[[Syntactic doubling]]
*For an example of a language with many types of reduplication see: [[St'at'imcets language#Reduplication]].
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/reduplication.htm No Hocus-Pocus Here!: Repeating a word or a syllable]
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Reduplication Reduplication] (Lexicon of Linguistics)
*[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsReduplication.htm What is reduplication?] (SIL)
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/plc/echo/ Echo-Word Reduplication Lexicon]
*[http://www.trussel.com/flipflop.htm Exhaustive list of reduplications in English]
*[http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/russell/redup-corpus.html List of contrastive focus reduplications in English]
==Bibliography==
{{reflist}}
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[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Reduplication| ]]
[[Category:Lists of words]]
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