Religion and homosexuality
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[[Image:2006 protesters at union square.jpg|thumb|left|Christian conservative protesters at a 2006 gay pride event. San Francisco, United States]]Though the relationship between '''homosexuality and religion''' can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different [[religion]]s and [[sect]]s, and regarding different forms of [[homosexuality]] and [[bisexuality]], current authoritative bodies and doctrines of the world's largest religions generally view homosexuality negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality. Some teach that homosexual [[sexual orientation|orientation]] itself is sinful<ref name=OPCtrial>{{cite web
|url = http://www.upper-register.com/irons_trial/charges.pdf
|title = Charge #1 and specifications preferred by the Presbytery of Southern California against The Rev. C. Lee Irons
|accessdate = 2008-06-27
|publisher = Presbytery of Southern California of the [[Orthodox Presbyterian Church]]
|quote = claiming that homosexuality is an unchosen "condition," rather than a sin of the heart, [...] contradicts the teaching of Scripture that both the desire and the act are sin.
}}</ref>, while others assert that only the sexual act is a sin. Some claim that homosexuality can be overcome through religious faith and practice. On the other hand, voices exist within many of these religions that view homosexuality more positively, and liberal [[religious denomination]]s may bless [[same-sex marriage]]s. Some view same-sex love and sexuality as sacred, and a [[mythology of same-sex love]] can be found around the world.
Regardless of their position on homosexuality, many people of faith look to both [[sacred text]]s and [[tradition]] for guidance on this issue. However, the authority of various traditions or scriptural passages and the correctness of [[translation]]s and interpretations may be hotly disputed.
==Views of specific religious groups==
===Abrahamic religions===
[[Abrahamic religion]]s such as [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], traditionally forbid in history sexual relations between men and teach that such behaviour is [[sin]]ful. Passages providing scriptural justification for these beliefs are found in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0318.htm Leviticus 18:22], [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0320.htm 20:13]), the [[New Testament]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%201:26-27;&version=16; Romans 1:26-27], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=I%20Timothy%201:9-10;&version=16; I Timothy 1:9-10], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%206:9-11;&version=31; 1 Corinthians 6:9-11]) and the [[Qur'an]] ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.080 7:80-81], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/026.qmt.html#026.165 26:165]). The first recorded law against homosexuality is found in the [[holiness code]] of [[Leviticus]]. Within this code of laws, sexual intercourse between men is a [[capital offense]]. There are fewer references that refer to sexual acts between women{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.
Today some major denominations within these religions, such as [[Reform Judaism]] and the [[United Church of Christ]], accept homosexuality. They believe that injunctions against the sexual acts were originally intended as a means of distinguishing religious worship between Abrahamic and [[Paganism|pagan]] faiths, specifically Greek ([[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]]) and [[Egypt]]ian rituals that made homosexuality a religious practice and not merely [[human sexuality]]. Thus, the prohibitions are thus no longer relevant. Some Christian denominations, such as the [[Presbyterian]] and [[Anglican]] churches, now welcome members regardless of same-sex sexual practices, and perform [[same-sex marriages]], as do Reform and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]].
====Judaism====
{{main|Homosexuality and Judaism}}
{{rquote|right| ...If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They must be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads....|[[Leviticus]] 20:12-14|[[New International Version|NIV]]}}
The [[Torah]] (first five books of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]]) is the primary source for Jewish views on homosexuality. It states that: "[A man] shall not lie with another man as [he would] with a woman, it is a ''toeva'' ("abomination")" ([[Leviticus]] 18:22). (Like many similar commandments, the stated punishment for willful violation is the [[death penalty]], although in practice [[rabbi]]nic Judaism rid itself of the death penalty for all practical purposes 2,000 years ago.)
Rabbinic Jewish tradition understands this verse to specifically prohibit a man from having [[anal sex]] with another man. Rabbinic works ban [[lesbian]] sex as well. What people today describe as [[psychology|psychological]] or [[biology|biological]] homosexual inclination is not discussed among classical rabbis. The sources only discuss specific same-sex acts and not the modern concepts of homosexual [[sexual identity|identities]]/relationships.
[[Orthodox Judaism]] views homosexuality as sinful. Many Orthodox Jews view homosexuality as a choice; some sources claim it to be a deliberate deviance. The majority view is to consider all homosexual activity as an abomination (as per [[Leviticus]] 20:12-14). A trend of studying the issue of homosexuality has recently begun to occur, with a view towards understanding and reaching out to religious homosexual Jews. It is common practise amongst Orthodox Jews to encourage young Jews known to be gay to marry (someone of the opposite sex) in the hope that this will "cure" them. Many Rabbis and community leaders have condemned this as potentially cruel to both spouses.
[[Conservative Judaism]] has engaged in an in-depth study of homosexuality since the 1990s with various rabbis presenting a wide array of [[responsa]] (papers with legal arguments) for communal consideration. The official position of the movement is to welcome homosexual Jews into their [[synagogue]]s, and also campaign against any discrimination in [[civil law]] and public society, but also to uphold a ban on homosexual sex as a religious requirement. However, a recent split decision of the movement's [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]], in January 2007, has significantly reinterpreted the issue, and now allows gay men and lesbians to become rabbis or [[cantor]]s. Some form of commitment ceremony is now also viewed as legitimate. Conservative rabbis who voted on this change used the issue of [[Kavod HaBriyot]], honoring a person's dignity, as honor for someone's rights may override rabbinic restrictions. See [[Conservative Halakha]] for a full discussion.
[[Progressive Judaism|Progressive forms of Judaism]], including [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] in [[North America]] and [[Liberal Judaism]] in the [[United Kingdom]], view homosexuality to be acceptable on the same basis as [[heterosexuality]]. Progressive Jewish authorities believe either that traditional laws against homosexuality are no longer binding or that they are subject to changes that reflect a new understanding of human sexuality. Some of these authorities rely on modern biblical scholarship suggesting that the prohibition in the Torah was intended to ban coercive or ritualized homosexual sex, such as those practices ascribed to [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Canaan]]ite [[fertility cult]]s and temple [[prostitution]].
====Christianity====
{{main|Homosexuality and Christianity|List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality|The Bible and homosexuality}}
{{rquote|right| ...God gave them up unto vile passions: for their women changed the natural use into that which is against nature: and likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another...|[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 1:26-27|[[American Standard Version|ASV]]}}
The [[Catholic Church]] and, later, [[Protestant]] authorities have traditionally condemnned same-sex sexual relations, namely, "man lying with man as one lies with a woman" and men "burning with lust toward one another." Where the Catholic view is founded on a [[natural law]] argument informed by scripture, the Protestant view is based more directly upon scripture. Certain scriptures within the Bible, as in Leviticus, declare same-sex sexual relations between men as sinful and, in the eyes of God, an "[[abomination (Bible)|abomination]]". In the [[Epistle to the Romans]], [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] describes “men, leaving the natural use of the woman, [burning] in their lust one toward another” as a consequence or punishment for the sin of [[idolatry]].
Conservative Christians also see homosexual relationships as an impediment to heterosexual relationships. They interpret some Biblical passages to be commandments to be heterosexually married such as "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh"({{lds|Gen|gen|2|24}}) and "Nevertheless neither is the man without the woman, neither the woman without the man, in the Lord"({{lds|1 Corn|1_cor|11|11}}).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=f318118dd536c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=dc6f8d00422fe010VgnVCM100000176f620a____ It Is Not Good for Man or Woman to Be Alone]</ref> A number of gay Christians have reported satisfaction in their heterosexual marriages.<ref name=Moore07>{{cite news
|url=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,660207378,00.html
|title=Gay LDS men detail challenges
|publisher=[[Deseret Morning News]]
|last=Moore
|first=Carrie A.
|date=March 30, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|date=March 11, 2002
|title=No Easy Victory
|publisher=Christianity Today
|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/march11/2.50.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url = http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0704/05/acd.01.html
|title = Sex and Salvation
|author = [[Anderson Cooper|Cooper, Anderson]]
|date = [[2007-04-05]]
|publisher = [[Anderson Cooper 360°]]
}}</ref>
Denunciation of homosexuality is also seen in surviving early Christian writings; such as in the [[Didache]] and the writings of [[Justin Martyr]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Tertullian]], St. [[Cyprian]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], St. [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil the Great]], St. [[John Chrysostom]], St. [[Augustine of Hippo]], and in doctrinal sources such as the [[Apostolic Constitution]]s — for example, [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]'s statement which condemns "the union of women with women and men with men.” Many prominent Christian theologians have been critical of homosexuality throughout the religion's history. [[Thomas Aquinas]] denounced [[sodomy]] as second only to [[bestiality]] as the worst of all sexual sins, and [[Hildegard of Bingen]]'s book ''[[Scivias]]'', which was officially approved by [[Pope Eugene III]], condemned sexual relations between women as "perverted forms."
In the 20th and 21st century, a few historians and theologians have challenged the traditional understanding and argue that passages have been mistranslated or that they do not refer to what we understand as “homosexuality.”<ref>See generally http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_bibl.htm and subpages therein.</ref>
The [[Roman Catholic Church]], on the other hand, affirms early Christian teachings on homosexuality: "Basing itself on Sacred Scripture, which presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity, tradition has always declared that 'homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered.' They are contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity. Under no circumstances can they be approved." <ref>See 2nd Edition, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Ss. 2357-2359, posted online at http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a6.htm#2357.</ref>
The Catholic Church requires people struggling with homosexuality to practice [[chastity]], which is also required of every heterosexual man and woman. It insists that the only appropriate expression of sexuality is within the context of marriage, which by definition is permanent, [[procreation|procreative]], heterosexual, and [[monogamy|monogamous]]. The Church acknowledges that homosexuality can be "a trial" and stresses that people with such tendencies "must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity."<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm "Catechism of the Catholic Church"], see the "Chastity and homosexuality" section.</ref> In reference to the possible ordination of homosexuals to the [[priesthood]], distinguishing between "deep-seated homosexual tendencies" and those that are "only the expression of a transitory problem", the Vatican requires that any homosexual tendencies "must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate."<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20051104_istruzione_en.html Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders], Congregation for Catholic Education, [[November 04]], [[2005]]</ref>
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] makes clear that [[same-gender attraction]] is not sinful and no one should be blamed for it, but that a few people have been able to overcome it.<ref name=GodLoveth>[http://lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b7723f4adab435807398f2f6e44916a0/?vgnextoid=7b2a5f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=bb05c8322e1b3110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ God Loveth His Children] 2007</ref> However, it considers [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]] thoughts, feelings and behaviors to be a problem that everyone can and should overcome.<ref>LDS Church (1992)[http://www.qrd.org/qrd/religion/judeochristian/protestantism/mormon/mormon-homosexuality Understanding and Helping Those Who Have Homosexual Problems: Suggestions for Ecclesiastical Leaders] Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church</ref> Homosexual activity is considered a serious sin on par or greater than other sexual activity outside of a legal, heterosexual marriage and those involved may be [[excommunication|excommunicated]].<ref name=GodLoveth />
While same-sex sexual behavior is rejected to the present day by many Christian denominations, contemporary Catholic guides to pastoral care reflect an [[ethos]] informed by compassion and respect of the sanctity of other.<ref>Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith [http://www.dignityusa.org/1986doctrine/ratzinger.html Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons] 1 October 1986, Rome</ref>
A few [[Homosexuality and Christianity|Christian denominations]] do not condemn homosexual acts as bad or [[evil]]. Many [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] Christians are open and affirming to active homosexuals. Indeed, there is a denomination of 40,000 members, the [[Metropolitan Community Church]], devoted to being open and affirming to active homosexuals. The [[United Church of Christ]] also condones [[gay marriage]] and some parts of the [[Anglican]] and [[Lutheran]] churches allow for the blessing of gay unions. The [[United Church of Canada]] also allows same-sex marriage, and views [[sexual orientation]] as a gift from God.
====Islam====
{{main|Homosexuality and Islam|Pederasty in the Middle East}}
{{rquote|right|What! Of all creatures do ye come unto the males, and leave the wives your Lord created for you? Nay, but ye are froward folk.|[[Quran]] |26th [[sura]], trans. Pickthal}}
All major [[Islam]]ic sects disapprove of homosexuality,<ref>See, for example, [http://thetruereligion.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=45 this website]</ref> Islam views same-sex desires as an unnatural temptation; but, sexual relations are seen as a transgression of the natural role and aim of sexual activity.<ref>[http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm "Homosexuality in the Light of Islam"], [[September 20]], [[2003]]</ref> Same-sex intercourse is an offence punishable by [[execution]] in six Muslim nations: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]] and [[Yemen]].<ref>[http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/Summary%20information/death_penalty_for_homosexual_act.htm ILGA world survey]</ref> It also carried the death penalty in [[Afghanistan]] under the [[Taliban]]. In other Muslim nations, such as [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Algeria]], [[Pakistan]] the [[Maldives]], and [[Malaysia]], homosexuality is punished with [[prison]], [[fine]]s, or [[corporal punishment]].
Islamic teachings (in the ''[[hadith]]'' tradition) presume same-sex attraction, extol abstention and (in the [[Qur'an]]) condemn consummation. In concordance with those creeds, in Islamic countries, [[Pederasty#Central Asia|male desire for attractive male youths]] is widely expected and condoned as a human characteristic similar as the admiration or attraction for an older or wiser sibling. Homosexual intercourse itself has been interpreted to be a form of lust and a violation of the Qur'an.
The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. Relations between women, if they are regarded as problems, are treated akin to [[adultery]], and [[al-Tabari]] records an execution of a [[Harem (household)|harem]] couple under [[Caliph]] [[al-Hadi]].
[[Image:Youth and his father.jpg|thumb|'''Youth seeking his father's advice on choosing a lover'''<br>From the ''Haft Awrang'' of [[Jami]], in the story ''A Father Advises his Son About Love;'' ''See [[Homosexuality and Islam]];'' [[Smithsonian Institution|The Smithsonian]], Washington, DC.]]
Islam allows and promotes filial love between siblings of the same [[gender]]. Sexual activities between them, however, are totally prohibited. [[Ibn Hazm]], [[Ibn Daud]], [[Al-Mutamid]], [[Abu Nuwas]] and many others used this edict to write extensively and openly of brotherly love between men while proclaiming to be [[chastity|chaste]].
The teachings of Islam have themselves been used to justify love and sexual expression between males. As for bearing witness, it takes emotional considerations into the subject. See Qur'an, iv. 38; Qur'an, ii. 282; Qur'an, iv. 175), and thus, by a process of [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]], they must be worthier objects of desire as well.{{Clarifyme|date=August 2007}}[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Debate/Article2/Debate.htm Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage]
===Zoroastrianism===
The [[Vendidad]], one of the later [[Zoroastrian]] texts composed in the Artificial Young [[Avestan language]], has not been dated precisely but likely evolved sometime around the 8th century BC, perhaps contemporaneously with the Jewish [[Torah]]. It is thought that some concepts of law, uncleanliness, [[dualism]], and [[salvation]] were shared between the religions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cais-soas*com/CAIS/Religions/non-iranian/judaism/persian_judaism/book2/pt4.htm|title=How Persia created Judaism:Zoroastrian Influences on Judaism and Christianity (Part II) - Zoroastrianism: Theology}}</ref>, and subsequent interactions between the religions are documented by events such as the release of the Jews from the [[Babylonian captivity]] by Zoroastrian [[Cyrus the Great]] in 537 BC, and the Biblical account of the [[Magi]] visiting the infant [[Jesus]]. The Vendidad generally promotes procreation: "the man who has a wife is far above him who lives in continence; he who keeps a house is far above him who has none; he who has children is far above the childless man; he who has riches is far above him who has none." It details the penance for a worshipper who submits to sodomy under force as "Eight hundred stripes with the Aspahe-astra, eight hundred stripes with the Sraosho-charana." (equal to the penalty for breaking a contract with the value of an ox<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd4sbe.htm|title=AVESTA: VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 4. Contracts and offenses}}</ref>), and declares that for those participating voluntarily "For that deed there is nothing that can pay, nothing that can atone, nothing that can cleanse from it; it is a trespass for which there is no atonement, for ever and ever". However, those not practicing the Religion of Mazda were pardoned for past actions upon conversion. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd8sbe.htm|title=AVESTA: Vendidad: FARGARD 8. Funerals and purification, unlawful sex}}</ref>
===Dharmic religions===
Among the [[Dharma|dharmic]] religions that originated in [[India]], including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]], teachings regarding homosexuality are less clear than among the Abrahamic traditions. Unlike in western religions, homosexuality is rarely discussed. However, most contemporary religious authorities in the various dharmic traditions view homosexuality negatively, and when it is discussed, it is discouraged or actively forbidden.<ref>See [[Homosexuality and Buddhism]] for pronouncements from Thai, Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist leaders.<br>The supreme body of Sikhism condemned homosexuality in 2005: [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/03/28/sikhguy-050328.html World Sikh group against gay marriage bill], [[CBC Newsworld|CBC News]], Tuesday, 29 March, 2005.<br>Hinduism is diverse, with no supreme governing body, but the majority of [[swami]]s opposed same-sex relationships in a 2004 survey, and a minority supported them. See: [http://www.faithandthecity.org/issues/social/articles/Discussions_on_Dharma%20.shtml Discussions on Dharma], by Rajiv Malik, in Hinduism Today. October/November/December 2004.</ref> Ancient religious texts such as the [[Vedas]] often refer to people of a [[third gender]], who are neither female nor male. Some see this third gender as an ancient parallel to modern western lesbian, gay, [[transgender]] and/or [[intersex]] identities. However, this third sex is usually negatively valued as a [[pariah]] class in ancient texts.<ref>Gyatso, Janet (2003). ''One Plus One Makes Three: Buddhist Gender Conceptions and the Law of the Non-Excluded Middle'', History of Religions. 2003, no. 2. University of Chicago press.</ref> Ancient Hindu law books, from the first century onward, categorize non-vaginal sex (''ayoni'') as impure.<ref>[http://www.hrc.org/Template.cfm?Section=Home&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=28081 HRC | Page Not Found<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
====Hinduism====
[[Image:Kajuraho homoerotic sculpture - India - Danielou - auparashtika.jpg|thumb|Monk performing auparashtika on a visiting prince. [[Khajuraho]], [[Madhya Pradesh]].]]
{{main|Homosexuality and Hinduism}}
[[Hinduism]] has taken various positions, ranging from positive to neutral or antagonistic. Sexuality is rarely discussed openly in Hindu society today, and homosexuality is largely a [[taboo]] subject — especially among the strongly religious. In a 2004 survey, most [[swami]]s said they opposed the concept of a Hindu-sanctified gay marriage.<ref>[http://www.faithandthecity.org/issues/social/articles/Discussions_on_Dharma%20.shtml Discussions on Dharma], by Rajiv Malik, in Hinduism Today. October/November/December 2004.</ref> Some of the law codes, such as that of [[Manu Smriti]] refer to both female and male homosexuality as a punishable crime.<ref>For example, [[Manu Smriti]] chapter 8, verse 369, 370. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu08.htm text online].</ref> Punishments include ritual baths, fines, public humiliation and having fingers cut off. However, the bulk of sexual matters dealt with by the law books are heterosexual in nature.
A "[[third gender]]" has been acknowledged within Hinduism since [[Vedic period|Vedic times]]. Several Hindu texts, such as [[Manu Smriti]]<ref>Manu Smriti, 3.49</ref> and [[Sushruta Samhita]], assert that some people are born with either mixed male and female natures, or sexually [[neuter]], as a matter of natural biology. They worked as [[hairdressing|hairdressers]], flower-sellers, servants, [[massage|masseurs]] and [[prostitution|prostitutes]]. Today, many people of a "third gender" ([[Hijra (India)|hijras]]) live throughout India, mostly on the margins of society, and many still work in prostitution, or make a livelihood as beggars.
The Indian [[Kama Sutra]], written in the 4th century AD, contains passages describing [[eunuch]]s or "third-sex" males performing [[oral sex]] on men.<ref>[[Kama Sutra]], Chapter 9, "Of the Auparishtaka or Mouth Congress". [http://www.kamashastra.com/kama209.htm Text online].</ref> However, the author was "not a fan of homosexual activities" and treated such individuals with disdain, according to historian [[Devdutt Pattanaik]].<ref>Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). ''Homosexuality in Ancient India'', [[Debonair (magazine)|Debonair]] 2000 or 2001. Essay available [http://www.gaybombay.org/reading/art0001.html online] from GayBombay.org.</ref> Similarly, some medieval Hindu temples and artifacts openly depict both male homosexuality and lesbianism within their carvings, such as the temple walls at [[Khajuraho]]. Some infer from these images that Hindu society and religion were previously more open to variations in human sexuality than they are at present.
In Hinduism many divinities are [[androgynous]]. There are Hindu deities who are [[intersex]] (both male and female); who manifest in all three genders; who switch from male to female or from female to male; male deities with female moods and female deities with male moods; deities born from two males or from two females; deities born from a single male or single female; deities who avoid the opposite sex; deities with principal companions of the same sex, and so on. One of the most important aspects of Hinduism is the belief that both God and nature are unlimitedly diverse.
====Buddhism====
{{main|Homosexuality and Buddhism}}
[[Eastern_philosophy#Buddhist_philosophy|Asian societies shaped by Buddhist traditions]] takes a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behavior in particular. However, unlike most other world religions, most variations of Buddhism do not go into details what is right and what is wrong in what it regards as [[wiktionary:mundane|mundane]] activities of life. Details of accepted or unaccepted human sexual conduct is not specifically mentioned in any of the [[Pali Canon|religious scriptures in Pali language]]. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the [[The Five Precepts|Five Precepts]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path|Eightfold Path]], one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third of the Five Precepts is "To refrain from committing sexual misconduct.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Higgins
| first =Winton
| title =Buddhist Sexual Ethics
| work =
| publisher =BuddhaNet Magazine
| date =
| url =http://www.buddhanet.net/winton_s.htm
| accessdate = 2007-01-15 }}
</ref>. However, the "sexual misconduct" is such a broad term, and is subjected to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers. In fact, Buddhism in its fundamental form, does not define what is right and what is wrong in absolute terms for [[Laity|lay followers]]. Therefore the interpretation of whether homosexuality is acceptable for a [[layperson]] or not, is not a religious matter as far as fundamental Buddhism is concerned.
Buddhism is often characterised as distrustful of sensual enjoyment and sexuality in general.<ref name="Jackson 1995">{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Peter Anthony |year=1995 |title=Thai Buddhist accounts of male homosexuality and AIDS in the 1980s |journal=The Australian Journal of Anthropology |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=pp. 140–153 |month=December |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-EPT/anth.htm}}</ref> In particular, homosexual conduct and [[gender variance]] are seen as obstacles to spiritual progress in most schools of Buddhism. Traditionally, [[monk]]s are expected to refrain from all sexual activity, and the [[Vinaya]] (the first book of the [[Tripitaka]]) specifically prohibits homosexuality and gender variance for monks.<ref>See, for example, the Pandakavatthu section of the Mahavagga. 1:61, 68, 69; Vinaya: Mahavagga, 1:71, 76. Additionally, "The Story of the Prohibition of the Ordination of Pandaka" justifies the ban by giving an example of a monk with an insatiable desire to be sexually penetrated by men, thus bringing shame upon the Buddhist community. Vinaya, Vol. 4, pp. 141–142.</ref> A notable exception in the history of Buddhism occurred in Japan during the [[Edo period]], in which male homosexuality, or more specifically, pederasty between young novices and older monks, was celebrated.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gary P. |last=Leupp |year=1995 |title=Male Colors, the Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan |location=Berkeley |publisher=The University of California Press |isbn=0-585-10603-7}}</ref>
References to ''pandaka'', a deviant sex/gender category that is usually interpreted to include homosexual males, can be found throughout the [[Pali canon]] as well as other [[Sanskrit]] scriptures.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zwilling |first=Leonard |year=1992 |chapter=Homosexuality As Seen In Indian Buddhist Texts |editor=Cabezon, Jose Ignacio (ed.) |title=Buddhism, Sexuality & Gender |publisher=State University of New York |pages=pp. 203–214}}</ref> Leonard Zwilling refers extensively to [[Buddhaghosa]]'s [[Samantapasadika]], where ''pandaka'' are described as being filled with defiled passions and insatiable lusts, and are dominated by their [[libido]]. The [[Abhidharma]] states that a ''pandaka'' cannot achieve enlightenment in their own life time, but must wait for rebirth as a normal man or woman. According to one scriptural story, [[Ananda]]—Buddha's cousin and disciple—was a ''pandaka'' in one of his many previous lives.
The third of the [[Buddhism#The Five Precepts|Five Precepts]] of Buddhism states that one is to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]]; this precept has sometimes been interpreted to include homosexuality. The [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] of Tibetan Buddhism interprets sexual misconduct to include lesbian and gay sex, and indeed any sex other than penis-vagina intercourse, including oral sex, anal sex, and masturbation or other sexual activity with the hand.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dalai Lama Speaks on Gay Sex - He says it's wrong for Buddhists but not for society |first=Don |last=Lattin |date=[[1997-06-11]] |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle <!--|url=http://www.tibet.ca/en/wtnarchive/1997/6/12_2.html (Dead link)-->}} – {{cite news |title=Dalai Lama urges 'respect, compassion, and full human rights for all,' including gays |first=Dennis |last=Conkin |date=[[1997-06-19]] |url=http://quietmountain.org/links/teachings/gayrites.htm}} – {{cite news |title=Dalai Lama says 'oral and anal sex' not acceptable |first=Jack |last=Nichols |date=[[1997-05-13]] |url=http://badpuppy.com/gaytoday/garchive/events/051397ev.htm}}</ref> However, the Dalai Lama supports human rights for all, "regardless of sexual orientation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_budd.htm |title=The Buddhist religion and homosexuality |publisher=[[Religioustolerance.org]]}}</ref>
In [[Thailand]], traditional accounts propose that "homosexuality arises as a [[Karma|kammic]] consequence of violating Buddhist proscriptions against heterosexual misconduct. These kammic accounts describe homosexuality as a congenital condition which cannot be altered, at least in a homosexual person's current lifetime, and have been linked with calls for compassion and understanding from the non-homosexual populace."<ref name="Jackson 1995"/> However, Buddhist leaders in Thailand have also condemned homosexuality,<ref>[[Ibid]].</ref> ousted monks accused of homosexual acts, and banned [[kathoey]] from ordination.
Within [[Japan]]ese traditions, there is a widespread story that homosexuality was "invented" by the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Manjusri]] of wisdom and the sage [[Kūkai]], the founder of Buddhism in Japan.<ref>{{cite book |pages=p. 68 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AwD3FNUJjXwC&pg=PA68&ots=ULBPqTZ51h&dq=Kukai+homosexuality&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=ijzwQcS4evsCnp2Z04IGHyTXG18 |quote=According to one legend, homosexuality was introduced into Japan in the ninth century by Shingon Buddhist monk, Kukai |title=Sociolegal Control of Homosexuality: Multi-nation Comparison |first=Donald James |last=West |coauthors=Green, Richard |year=1997 |publisher=Springer |isbn=0306455323}}</ref> Japanese Buddhist scholar and author of ''[[Wild Azaleas]]'' [[Kitamura Kigin]] said that heterosexuality was to be avoided for priests and homosexuality encouraged.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumagusu |first=Miinakata |coauthors=Ihara Saikaku |editor=Stephen D. Miller |others=trans. Paul Gordon Schalow |title=Partings at Dawn: An Anthology of Japanese Gay Literature |origyear=1996 |origmonth=July |edition=2nd ed. |date=[[1996-12-30]] |publisher=Gay Sunshine Press |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-940567-18-0 |pages=p. 103 |quote=The Buddha preached that Mount Imose (a metaphor for the love of women) was a place to be avoided, and thus priests of the dharma first entered this way as an outlet for their feelings, since their hearts were, after all, made of neither stone nor wood.}}</ref>
====Sikhism====
{{main|Homosexuality and Sikhism}}
[[Sikhism]] has no written view on the matter, but in 2005, the world's highest Sikh religious authority described homosexuality as "against the Sikh religion and the Sikh code of conduct and totally against the laws of nature," and called on Sikhs to support laws against gay marriage.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/03/28/sikhguy-050328.html World Sikh group against gay marriage bill], [[CBC Newsworld|CBC News]], Tuesday, 29 March, 2005.</ref>
====Jainism====
Chastity is one of the five virtues in the fundamental ethical code of [[Jainism]]. For [[laity|laypersons]], the only appropriate avenue for sexuality is within marriage, and homosexuality is believed to lead to negative [[karma]].<ref>Website: [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/80/story_8048_1.html What Jains believe].</ref> Jain author [[Duli Chandra Jain]] wrote in 2004 that homosexuality and [[transvestism]] "stain one's thoughts and feelings" because they involve sexual passion.<ref>Duli Chandra Jain, ''Answers To Some Frequently Asked Questions'', in 'Religious Ethics: A Sourcebook’, edited by Dr. Arthur B. Dobrin, published by Hindi Granth Karyalaya, Mumbai, 2004. {{PDF|[http://www.jainstudy.org/QAns.pdf. Text online]}} link).</ref>
===Taoic religions===
Among the [[Taoic religions]] of [[East Asia]], such as [[Taoism]], passionate homosexual expression is usually discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human fulfillment.<ref>Wawrytko, Sandra (1993). ''Homosexuality and Chinese and Japanese Religions'' in "Homosexuality and World Religions", edited by Arlene Swidler. Trinity Press International, 1993.</ref>
====Confucianism====
{{main|Homosexuality and Confucianism}}
[[Confucianism]] has allowed homosexual sex with the precondition of procreation.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} In China where Buddhists often belong to [[Confucianism]] as well, traditionally exclusive homosexuality was discouraged because it would prevent a son from carrying out his Confucian religious duty to reproduce,{{Fact|date=December 2007}} whereas non-exclusive homosexuality was permissible and widely practiced.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Monogamy was an unusual and foreign idea to many Asians until contact with the West.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Chinese traditions attribute homosexuality to [[Huang Di]] ("[[Yellow Emperor]]"), the father of Chinese civilization.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
====Taoism====
{{main|Homosexuality and Taoism}}
It is difficult to determine a single position on homosexuality in [[Taoism]], as the term Taoism is used to describe a number of disparate religious traditions, from organised religious movements such as [[Quanzhen]] to [[Chinese folk religion]] and even a school of [[philosophy]]. The vast majority of adherents live in China and among [[Chinese Diaspora]] communities elsewhere, and so attitudes to homosexuality within Taoism often reflect the values and [[sexual norm]]s of broader Chinese society (see [[Homosexuality in China]]).
Taoism stresses the relationship between [[yin and yang]]: two opposing forces which maintain harmony through balance. The Taoist tradition holds that males need the energies of females, and vice versa, in order to bring about balance, completion and transformation. [[Heterosexuality]] is seen as the physical and emotional embodiment of the harmonious balance between yin and yang. Homosexuality on the other hand is often seen as the union of two yins or two yangs, and therefore unbalanced. People in same-sex relationships or people who engage in same-sex sexual behaviour are thought to be susceptible to illness.<ref>[http://www.compassionatedragon.com/taoist_sex_more.html Taoist Sexual Magic 5 — Ancient Views of Modern Issues]. Taoist website.</ref>
Homosexuality has found a place within the history of Taoism, at certain times and places. For example, Taoist nuns exchanged love poems during the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/china,5.html Homosexuality in China] on [[glbtq.com]].</ref>
===Paganism===
{{Citations missing|date=September 2007}}
{{main|Pederasty|Mythology of same-sex love}}
In [[Classical antiquity]], religious views on same-sex romance cannot be separated from the general societal view of the subject. Attitudes toward same-sex intercourse differed somewhat between the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[ancient Rome|Romans]]. In ancient Greece same-sex love was integrated in sacred texts and rituals, reflecting the fact that in antiquity it was considered normal to be open to romantic engagements with either sex. Certain surviving [[Greek Mythology|myths]] depict [[pederasty|homosexual bonds]] (see [[#History|History]]), sanctified by divinities modeling such relationships (e.g. [[Ganymede (mythology)|Zeus and Ganymede]]). The Romans viewed sexuality somewhat differently. It was considered appropriate for someone of higher social standing to sexually penetrate someone of lower social standing. Thus, an upper-class male could engage in sexual relations with either a [[slave]] or a woman (both below him in standing). It would be inappropriate and indeed condemned for a free Roman man to be penetrated by another man.
The [[Mesopotamian mythology|Sumerian]] religion also held homosexuality sacred. It also was incorporated into various [[New World]] religions, such as the [[Aztec]]. It is thought to have been common in [[shamanic]] practice. In part due to the spread of medieval Christianity there is no clear record of homosexuality in ancient [[Germanic Paganism]]. On one hand effeminate and homosexual men were deemed capable of performing a powerful type of female sorcery, called [[seid]]; however the trickster and occasional transsexual God [[Loki]] accused Norse Paganism's grand patriarch [[Odin]] of engaging in the same kind of sorcery.
===Neopagan religion===
[[Neopagan]] religions are almost unanimous in their acceptance of same-sex relationships as equal to heterosexual ones. Most Neo-Pagan religions have the theme of fertility (both physical and creative/spiritual) as central to their practices, and as such encourage a healthy sex life, which is seen as consensual sex between adults, regardless of gender or age. Another New Age perspective, however, is that of [[Eckhart Tolle]], author of ''The Power of Now''. Starting with the idea that "the realization that you are 'different' from others may force you to dissidentify from socially conditioned patterns of thought and behavior," he claims that being gay can help in the "quest for enlightenment", but only so long as one does not "develop a sense of identity based on... gayness".
[[Wicca]], like other religions, has adherents with a spectrum of views ranging from [[conservative]] to liberal. It is a largely undogmatic religion, and nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits sexual intercourse outside of marriage or relationships between members of the same sex. On the contrary, the [[Wiccan Rede]] "An it harm none, do as thou wilt" is interpreted by many as allowing and endorsing responsible sexual relationships of all varieties.
The Wiccan ''[[Charge of the Goddess]]'', one of the most famous texts in [[Neopaganism]], states in the words of the Goddess, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals"<ref>{{cite web | title =Alternative Sexuality | publisher =Tangled Moon Coven | date= 2006-08-08 | url =http://www.tangledmoon.org/sexuality.htm | accessdate = 2006-12-30 }}</ref>. In traditional forms of Wicca, such as [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] and [[Alexandrian Wicca]], magic is often performed between a man and a woman, and the "[[Great Rite]]" is a sex ritual performed between a Priest and Priestess representing the God and Goddess;<ref>{{cite journal | title =Sex, Wicca and the Great Rite | journal =The Blade & Chalice | volume = Spring 1993 | issue = 3 }}</ref> however, this is not generally seen as excluding homosexuals or magic between same-sex couples. Most groups still insist, however, that initiations be conferred from man to woman or woman to man. Any ritual sexual acts, whether actual or symbolic, take place between two consenting adults, normally a couple who are already lovers. See also [[LGBT issues and Wicca]].
Other religions collectively termed "Pagan," including [[Druids|Druidism]] are also accepting in general.
==Religious groups and civil rights political activity==
Religious opponents of [[LGBT rights]] believe that supporting reform of anti-gay laws would promote wilful acts of homosexuality, which is incompatible with their faith. Opposition to [[equal rights]] protections, [[same-sex marriage]], and anti-[[hate crime]] legislation is often associated with conservative religious views.
On the other hand, the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] supports the freedom to marry <ref>http://www.uua.org/news/freedomtomarry/index.html</ref>and compares resistance to it to the resistance to abolition of [[slavery]], women's [[suffrage]], and the end of anti-[[miscegenation]] laws. <ref>[http://www.uusm.org/services/021305.php UUSM - Services & Sermons<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Some religious groups have even promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community. In early 2005, the [[American Family Association]] threatened a boycott of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage"."<ref>http://find.galegroup.com/ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A133003422&source=gale&srcprod=GRGM&userGroupName=va0053_remote&version=1.0 Family group to boycott Ford for its gay support.](American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article)." ''PR Week (US)'' (June 6, 2005): 02. ''General Reference Center Gold''. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 Apr. 2007.</ref> After meeting with representatives of the group, Ford announced it was curtailing ads in a number of major gay publications (thus depriving them of a major source of income), an action it claimed to be determined not by cultural but by "cost-cutting" factors. That statement was contradicted by the AFA, which claimed it had a "good faith agreement" that Ford would cease such ads. Soon afterwards, as a result of a strong outcry from the gay community, Ford backtracked and announced it would continue ads in gay publications, in response to which the AFA denounced Ford for "violating" the agreement, and renewed threats of a boycott.<ref name="fordca">{{citation |url=http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/ford_gay_ads04.html |title=Anti-Gay Group Renews Ford Boycott Threat |date=[[2005-12-17]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |periodical=ConsumerAffairs.com}}</ref>
==Religious persecution of homosexuality==
Persecution of lesbians and gay men is common in conservative Islamic nations such as [[Saudi Arabia]], where gay men have reportedly been [[beheaded]], or forced into therapy. The [[Taliban]] regime in [[Afghanistan]] reportedly executed homosexuals by [[live burial|burying them alive]].
LGBT rights activists often argue that the conservative position on homosexuality is oppresive.
Some translations of the [[Old Testament]] have been used to argue that gay men should be punished with death, and [[AIDS]] has been portrayed by some such as [[Fred Phelps]] and [[Jerry Falwell]]<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/people/558/000022492/ Jerry Falwell<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> as a punishment by God against gay men and lesbians.
==Religious support for homosexuality==
{{weasel}}
There exist groups and denominations whose interpretation of scripture and doctrine states that homosexuality is morally acceptable, and a natural occurrence. Some conclude that there can be no scriptural prohibition against homosexuality as it is presently understood, namely as the outworking of an orientation. Others consider that scriptural prohibitions only relate to [[pederasty]], which was a mode of same-sex practice in ancient times. Others consider that scripture has a thoroughgoing [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] bias, which expresses itself in a disapproval of all gender-transgressive sexual practices; present-day readings must account for this. Proponents of [[liberation theology]] may consider that the liberation of gays and lesbians from stigmatisation and oppression is a Kingdom imperative. Similarly, the inclusion of the "unclean" [[Gentile]]s in the early Church is sometimes said to be a model for the inclusion of other peoples called "unclean" today.
Others consider that Christ made the commandments to "love God and one's neighbour," and to "love one's neighbour as oneself" touchstones of the moral law; that these imply a radical equality, and that, by this principle of equality, the Law of [[Moses]] is to be adjusted. [[Jesus]] exemplified this principle in his teaching on divorce. Furthermore, it is said that Jesus Christ instituted a virtue ethic, whereby the worth of one's action is to be adjudged by one's interior disposition. For these reasons, it is said that to condemn homosexuality is to fall into a pre-Christian "[[Pharasee|Pharasaical]]" legalism.
People adopting one of the foregoing positions would hold that morality which applies to heterosexuals should similarly apply to gay men and lesbians, i.e. sex is acceptable within a monogamous relationship or a [[same-sex marriage]].
Others seek a naturalistic justification for the view that homosexual behavior is moral or that morality does not apply, pointing to evidence of the existence of such behavior in the animal kingdom. Therefore it is said to be natural, perhaps even integral to a species' survival.
==See also==
* [[LGBT rights by country]]
* [[Religion and sexuality]]
==General references==
*[[John Boswell (historian)|John Boswell]], ''Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century'', University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980 ISBN 0-226-06710-6, paperback Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-06711-4
*[[Dane S. Claussen]], ed. ''Sex, Religion, Media,'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. ISBN 0-7425-1558-3
*[[Mathew Kuefler]] (editor), ''The Boswell Thesis : Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality'', University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-45741-9
*[[Eckhart Tolle]], ''The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment'', New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004 ISBN 1-57731-480-8
*[[Arlene Swidler]]: ''Homosexuality and World Religions.'' Valley Forge 1993. ISBN 156338051X
*Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" NYU Press New York 1997
*Wafer, Jim (1991) "The Taste of Blood: Spirit Possession in Brazilian Candomblé" UPP Philadelphia
*Wafer, Jim (1997) "Muhammad and Male Homosexuality" in "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), NYU Press New York
*Wafer, Jim (1997) "The Symbolism of Male Love in Islamic Mysthical Literature" in "Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.), NYU Press New York 1997
==References==
<div class="references-small"><references />
==External links==
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/index.htm Homosexuality and Religion] Comparison of religious views
*[http://www.religiousinstitute.org/declaration.html Religious Declaration on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing] "signed by over 2600 religious leaders"; an alternative sexuality - friendly document.
*[http://www.soulforce.org Soulforce] Religious based gay rights organization.
*[http://www.gospelcom.net/mlm/declaration/declaration.htm Religious Declaration on Human Sexual Morality] Pro-heterosexuality and monogamy.
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ Greek Mythology] The secret Greek myths of male love, ancient coming-of-age rituals, uncensored and developed.
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Culture/NativeAmerica/amerindian.htm The Two-Spirit Tradition] essay on male love and gay marriage in Native American shamanic religion.
*The Gay and Lesbian Vaishnava Association — http://www.galva108.org — For more information on Homosexuality and Hinduism.
*[http://www.garyhopkins.net/pilgrimageoffaith/ Pilgrimage of Faith Research] Research about homosexuality and the British Methodist Church.
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