Religion in China 367843 223640332 2008-07-05T01:00:37Z Blanchardb 5311630 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.255.161.140|201.255.161.140]] to last version by Wikiklrsc (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]]) [[Image:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] are one'', a ''litang'' style painting portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, [[Song Dynasty]].]] [[Image:Buddhist monk and Taoist priest, Mount Wutai, Shanxi, China.PNG|thumb|250px|right|[[Buddhist monk]] and [[Taoist priest]] posing for photography on [[Mount Wutai]], [[Shanxi]].]] {{portal|People's Republic of China}} {{portal|China}} '''Religion in China''' has been characterized by [[pluralism]] since the beginning of [[Chinese history]]. [[Temple]]s of many different religions dot [[China]]'s landscape, particularly those of [[Taoism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Chinese folk religion]]. [[Mahayana Buddhism]] remains the largest organized religion in China since its introduction in the [[1st century]]. The original and state religion throughout Chinese history generally involved [[Heaven worship]] based on serving an [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[incorporeal]] (without body), personal, judicious, [[monotheism|monotheistic]] supreme being called [[Shangdi]] ("Lord on High") or Tian ("Heaven").<ref>Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock. God's Promise to the Chinese. p 8. ISBN 0-937869-01-5.</ref> Buddhism was introduced to China around the first century AD and rose to predominance during the [[Tang Dynasty]] (618-907 AD), which initially tolerated its coexistence. Tensions between Buddhism and the Chinese Tang state led to the [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]] in 845 AD, from which Buddhism in China never fully recovered. Chinese religions are often classified as [[religion]]s, [[philosophy|philosophies]], [[spirituality|spiritualities]] or [[way of life|ways of life]]. [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]] are considered [[pantheism|pantheistic]] and [[nontheism|nontheistic]], while [[Chinese folk religion]] is widely [[polytheism|polytheistic]].<ref>[http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD]</ref><ref>[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Religion/buddhism.html#china CHINA KNOWLEDGE - Buddhism in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Religion/daoism.html CHINA KNOWLEDGE - Religious Daoism]</ref> Independently of adherence to organized religions (see below), most Chinese ground their spirituality in [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Confucianism]] and [[ancestor veneration]]. These are not organized religions but rather practices or thought systems denoting membership in ethnic Chinese culture and civilization. The Chinese religions are family-oriented and, unlike Western religions, do not demand the exclusive adherence of members. Chinese people may visit Buddhist temples while living according to Taoist principles and participating in local ancestor veneration rituals. To cite Rodney L. Taylor, "There is little doubt that Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism are deeply influenced by each other and that at the level of practice, methods from various sources are tried, borrowed, and interrelated."<ref>Taylor, Rodney L. "Proposition and Praxis: The Dilemma of Neo-Confucian Syncretism". Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Apr., 1982). pg. 187</ref> In other words, the questions of who should be called religious in China, and what religion or religions they should be called are up to debate. ==Modern history== [[Image:Father and daughter pray at White Cloud Temple, Beijing.PNG|thumb|160px|Father and daughter praying at [[White Cloud Temple]] in [[Beijing]].]] [[Image:Buddhist temple in Qibao, China.PNG|thumb|160px|Modern-style [[Buddhist temple]] in [[Qibao]], [[Shanghai]].]] {{see also|State atheism}} The [[People's Republic of China]] was established in 1949. Its [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government]] is officially [[atheist]], which viewed religion as emblematic of [[feudalism]] and foreign [[colonialism]]. Religious belief or practice was banned because it was regarded as backward and superstitious by some of the [[communism|communist]] leaders, from [[Vladimir Lenin]] to [[Mao Zedong]], who had been critical of religious institutions.<ref>[http://atheism.about.com/library/world/AJ/bl_ChinaIndex.htm About.com: Agnosticism / Atheism - Religion in China: General Information]</ref> Houses of worship, including [[pagodas]], [[temples]], [[mosques]], and [[church (building)|churches]], were converted into non-religious buildings for secular use during its early years. The [[Cultural Revolution]] led to a policy of elimination of religions; a massive number of places of worship were destroyed. This policy relaxed considerably in the late 1970s at the end of the Cultural Revolution and more tolerance of religious expression has been permitted since the 1980s. The [[1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Since the mid-1990s there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples. The [[Chinese Communist Party]] has said that religious belief and membership are incompatible. Party membership is a necessity for many high level careers and posts. That along with other official hostility makes statistical reporting on religious membership difficult. There are five recognized religions by the state, namely [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Islam]], [[Catholicism]], and [[Protestantism]].<ref>[http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36492.htm White Paper-Freedom of Religious Belief in China<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In recent times, the government has expressed support for [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]], organizing the [[World Buddhist Forum]] in 2006 and the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/daodejingforum/207752.htm International Forum on the Daodejing] in 2007. The government sees these religions as an integral part of Chinese culture<ref>[http://www.gse.harvard.edu/~t656_web/Spring_2002_students/zhu_cheng_taoism_tk.htm Harvard - Tacit Knowledge in Taoism and Its Influence on Chinese Culture]</ref>. In October 2007, the new statute of China cites religion as an important element of citizens' life.<ref>[http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=26639&sec=36&cont=all WorldWide Religious News-China statute uses 'religion' for first time]</ref> However, the Chinese government has also banned religious cults such as the [[Falun Gong]] and [[Xiantianism]]. ===Statistics=== [[Image:White Cloud Temple inner hall.PNG|thumb|right|170px|[[Taoists]] attending a service at [[White Cloud Temple]] in [[Beijing]].]][[Image:Buddhist temple on Mount Emei.PNG|thumb|170px|[[Buddhist]] temple on [[Mount Emei]], [[Sichuan]].]][[Image:Lamas at Sera Monastery in Tibet.PNG|thumb|170px|[[Buddhist monk]]s at [[Sera Monastery]], [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]].]] [[Image:Taoist chanting the Tao Te Ching.PNG|thumb|170px|right|Girls chanting the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]''.]] Under Communist governments which have traditionally suppressed religious freedom and officially (often forcibly) endorsed atheism and due to this at one point the relation between Government with religions was not smooth in the past<ref>[http://adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html#Com Top 50 Countries With Highest Proportion of Atheists / Agnostics (Zuckerman, 2005)] '''Source:''' Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005).</ref>. But in fact, the people are still holding private worship of popular traditional religions (Buddhism/Taoism) at home freely<ref>http://atheism.about.com/library/world/AJ/bl_ChinaIndex.htm</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.htmll#People CIA - The World Factbook: China]</ref><ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/pix/home/stateattitudes.pdf [[openDemocracy.net]] - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc The Range of Religious Freedom]</ref>. In recent years, the Chinese government has opened up to religion, especially traditional religions such as Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism because the Government also continued to emphasize the role of religion in building a "Harmonious Society," which was a positive development with regard to the Government's respect for religious freedom <ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm U.S. Department of States: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>. According to the old Chinese government estimate, there were "over 100 million followers of various faiths" in China<ref>http://english.gov.cn/2006-02/08/content_182603.htm</ref>. Other estimates put about 100 million or about 8% Chinese who follow Buddhism, with the second largest religion as Taoism (no data), Islam (19 million or 1.5%) and Christianity (14 million or 1%; 4 million Roman Catholics and 10 million Protestants)<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm China in Brief - china.org.cn]</ref>. According to the 1993 edition of The Atlas of Religion, the number of atheists in China is between 10 and 14 percent<ref>O'Brien, Joanne, and Palmer, Martin. "The Atlas of Religion". University of California Press (Berkely, 1993) in Zuckerman, pg. 53</ref>. The accuracy of the religious data in China from census sources is questioned. While official data estimated 100 million religious believers in [[China]], a survey taken by [[Shanghai University]] found that 31.4% of people above the age of 16, or about 300 million people, considered themselves religious. The [[statistical survey|survey]] also found that the major [[religion]]s are [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]], accounting for 67.4 percent of believers. About 200 million people are Buddhists, Taoists or worshippers of legendary figures such as the Dragon King and God of Fortune, accounting for 66.1 per cent of all believers, while Christianity accounted for 12% of believers, or 40 million people.<ref>[ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm Survey finds 300 million China believers]</ref><ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/07/content_802994.htm Religious Believers thrice the estimate]</ref> The official ''China Daily'' called the Shanghai professors' research "the country's first major survey on religious beliefs"<ref>"Religious Believers Thrice The Official Estimate Poll". China Daily, February 7, 2007. Chinadaily.com.cn</ref>. The Chinese government have accepted these new numbers. The wide disparity among these estimates underscores the difficulty of accurately surveying the religious view of a nation of over a billion people and the lack of reliable data. China is also known to have small numbers of people who follow Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong). However, some surveys suggest that the cultural adherents or even outright religious adherents of Buddhism could number as high as 50% to 80% of the population, or about 660 million to over 1 billion<ref>http://www.vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html</ref><ref>http://www.seanetwork.org/article.php?story=20041020143036414</ref>. Some estimates for Taoism as high as 400 million or about 30% of the total population<ref>[http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34 Asia Sentinel - How Now Tao?</ref>, but [[Adherents.com]] argues that these are actually numbers for [[Chinese folk religion]] or [[Chinese traditional religion]], not Confucianism and Taoism themselves.<ref>[http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Chinese Adherents.com - Major Religions Ranked by Size]</ref> The number of adherents to these religions can be overlaid in percentage due to the fact that mostly [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist<ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion Religions and Beliefs in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacu.org/religion.html SACU Religion in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions]</ref><ref>[http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/clusters/8072.html The Diaspora Han Chinese]</ref>. However, it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies <ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>. The minority religions are [[Christianity]] (between 40 million, 3%,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Survey finds 300m China believers<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and 54 million, 4%<ref>[http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>), [[Islam]] (20 million, 1.5%), [[Hinduism]], [[Dongbaism]], [[Bön|Bon]] and a number of [[New religious movements|new religions]] and sects (particularly [[Xiantianism]] and [[Falun Gong]]). According to the surveys of Phil Zuckerman on [[Adherents.com]] in 1993; there was 59% (over 700 million)<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_473.html Adherents.com]</ref> of the Chinese population was [[irreligious]] and 8% - 14% was atheist (from over 100 to 180 million) as of 2005<ref>[http://adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html#Com Top 50 Countries With Highest Proportion of Atheists / Agnostics (Zuckerman, 2005)] '''Source:''' Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005).</ref>. There are intrinsic logistical difficulties in trying to count the number of religious people anywhere, as well as difficulties peculiar to China. According to Phil Zuckerman, "low response rates," "non-random samples," and "adverse political/cultural climates" are all persistent problems in establishing accurate numbers of religious believers in a given locality<ref> Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns". In Martin, Michael "The Cambridge Companion to Atheism". (New York: Cambridge University Press) 2006. pg. 47 </ref>. Similar difficulties arise in attempting to subdivide religious people into sects. These issues are especially pertinent in China for two reasons. First, it is a matter of current debate whether several important belief systems in China constitute "religions." As Daniel L. Overmeyer writes, in recent years there has been a "new appreciation...of the religious dimensions of [[Confucianism]], both in its ritual activities and in the inward search for an ultimate source of moral order"<ref>Overmeyer, Daniel L. et al. "Introduction". The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 54, No. 2 (May, 1995). pp. 314-321</ref>. Many Chinese belief systems have concepts of a sacred and sometimes spiritual natural world yet do not always invoke a concept of [[personal god]] (with the exception of [[Heaven worship]])<ref>Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock. God's Promise to the Chinese. p 8. ISBN 0-937869-01-5.</ref>. ==Cultural background== ===Confucianism=== [[Image:Confucius Statue at the Confucius Temple.jpg|thumb|160px|Statue of [[Confucius]] at the Confucius Temple of Beijing.]] {{main|Confucianism}} The cultural background of [[Chinese people]] is deeply influenced by [[Confucianism]] (儒家; ''Rujia''). It is a [[philosophy]] stressing [[ethics|ethical]], [[morality|moral]] and [[social philosophy|social]] values. Confucian system is sometimes considered the proper culture of the Chinese; consequently, it targets religious tendencies and customs. Confucianism arose during the 5th century BCE from the teachings of [[Confucius]], collected under the name of the [[Analects]]. The [[Han Dynasty]] eventually made Confucianism the official state culture, along with [[Taoism]] which was the official religion. Confucian social and political system remained established until 1912, when it was rejected by the new [[Republic of China]] and subsequently by the [[People's Republic of China]]. Since 2004<ref>http://www.chinanews.cn/culture_education/2007-12-12/41982.html</ref> Confucianism is experiencing a great revival in [[China]], as it is supported by the central government. People's Republic of China is establishing institutes for Confucian education all over the world.<ref>http://www.chinanews.cn/culture_education/2007-12-12/41982.html</ref> The headquarter of all [[Confucius Institute]]s around the world locates in [[Beijing]].<ref>[http://china.org.cn/english/photo/206586.htm Confucius Institute Headquarters Founded in Beijing - china.org.cn<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> China has planned to establish 500 of such institutes by 2010.<ref>http://in.news.yahoo.com/070218/43/6c7xw.html</ref> ===Chinese folk religion=== [[Image:Chinese folk religion house shrine, China.PNG|thumb|160px|[[Chinese folk religion]] domestic altar in a [[hairdresser]]'s shop.]] {{main|Chinese folk religion}} Chinese folk religion is considered the collection of [[folklore|folkloric]] beliefs that draws heavily from [[Chinese mythology]]. This religious system is practiced by Chinese people as a cultural matter, independently of their adherence to [[Buddhism]] or [[Taoism]]. Chinese folk religion is based on the worship of [[deity|deities]], [[Xian (Taoism)|xians]], [[hero|cultural heroes]], [[demigod]]s and [[supernatural being]]s (particularly the [[Chinese dragon]]) that vary depending on geographical and local conditions. Chinese folk religion is not organized in institutions, has no clergy or formal rituals, but it has its own temples called [[joss houses]] or mius. These buildings are popular in [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]], while in [[Mainland China]] the vast majority of them was destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]] and the following decades, and the few remaining were converted into Buddhist and Taoist temples<ref>As happened to the [[City God Temple]] of [[Shanghai]]</ref>. In the mainland, Chinese folk religion is practiced privately, and shrines survive as home altars. ===Ancestor worship=== {{main|Ancestor worship}} Chinese veneration of ancestors (拜祖, ''baizu''; or 敬祖, ''jingzu'') dates back to the [[prehistory]]. [[Culture of China|Chinese culture]], [[Taoism]],[[Confucianism]], and [[Chinese Buddhism]] all value [[filial piety]] as a top [[virtue]] and [[De (Chinese)|De]], and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The veneration of ancestors can even extend to legendary figures or historical, such as the patriarch or founder of one's [[Chinese surname]], virtuous individuals such as [[Confucius]] or [[Guan Yu]], or the mythological figures like the [[Yellow Emperor]], supposed as the ancestor of all Chinese people. The two major festivals involving ancestor veneration are the [[Qingming Festival]] and the [[Double Ninth Festival]], but veneration of ancestors is conducted in many other ceremonies, including [[Chinese marriage|weddings]], funerals, and [[Triad society|triad]] initiations. Worshipers generally offer prayers in a [[Jingxiang]] rite, with food, light [[incense]] and candles, and burn offerings of [[joss paper]]. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an [[ancestral temple]], or at a household shrine. ==Organized religions== ===Taoism=== [[Image:Taoist ritual.PNG|thumb|160px|left|Taoist priests performing ritual.]] [[Image:Taoist clergymen in red robes.PNG|thumb|160px|left|Taoist clergymen playing [[Taoist music]].]] [[Taoism]] (道教; ''Daojiao'' in Chinese) is a religion born in China itself in the 6th century BC and is traditionally traced to the composition of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' attributed to the sage [[Laozi]], a person who subsequently came to be venerated by Taoist as ''Daode Tianjun'' in the [[Three Pure Ones]]. In 1956 a national organization, the [[Chinese Taoist Association]] (with chapters in every province and city) was set up to administer Taoist activities. Banned during the Cultural Revolution (along with all other religions), Taoism is undergoing a major revival today <ref>http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/SCMP%20Daoism%2030%20April%202007.pdf</ref>, and it is the spirituality followed by about 30% (400 million) of the total Chinese population. <ref>[http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34 Asia Sentinel - How Now Tao?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In April 2007, China took place the [[International Forum on the Daodejing]], during which celebrities and government officials expressed will to support Taoism as one of the foundations of [[Chinese culture]].<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/daodeforum/207879.htm The Way of Harmony: International Forum on the Daodejing - News]</ref> Chinese Taoist clergy is organizing missionary systems to spread the spirituality around the world.<ref>http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/SCMP%20Daoism%2030%20April%202007.pdf</ref> ===Buddhism=== [[Image:Buddhist temple in Zhenjiang.PNG|right|thumb|160px|Buddhist complex in [[Zhenjiang]], [[Jiangsu]].]] [[Image:Buddhist ceremony in China.PNG|thumb|160px|Chinese [[Buddhist]] clergy gathered to perform services.]] [[Image:Lama at Drepung Monastery near Lhasa.PNG|thumb|160px|Buddhist monk reading scriptures at [[Drepung Monastery]] near [[Lhasa]], [[Tibet]].]] {{main|Buddhism in China|Buddhism in Tibet}} [[Buddhism]] (called 佛教, ''Fojiao'') was introduced from [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]] during the [[Han Dynasty]], traditionally in the 1st century. It became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, admired by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. It is estimated that in the 9th century Buddhist institutions were the most powerful of China, surpassing the Taoist ones. This led to the so called [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]], which saw Buddhism repressed. Although the persecution was heavy, Buddhism survived and reflourished in the following centuries. It was quite popular during the [[History of China|ancient Chinese dynasties]] such as [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]], [[Sui Dynasty]], [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Song Dynasty]], etc. [[Buddhism]] is deeply embedded in the [[culture of China]], [[Chinese philosophy]], and in Chinese beliefs. With the rise of People's Republic of China in 1949 Buddhism was banned and many temples and monasteries destroyed. Restrictions lasted until the 1980s. The [[Chinese Buddhist Association]] was founded in 1953. In recent times, Buddhism has recovered popularity and it is returned to be the largest organized faith in the country. While estimates of the number of Buddhists in China range widely, Chinese government statistics estimates the number of Buddhists at 100 million.<ref>http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-12/22/content_765071.htm</ref> More recent surveys put the total number of Chinese Buddhists between 660 million (50%) and over 1 billion (80%),<ref>[http://www.vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html Buddhists in the world<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.seanetwork.org/article.php?story=20041020143036414 "Counting the Buddhist World Fairly," by Dr. Alex Smith]</ref> thus making China the country with the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. However, it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies. <ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>. Buddhism is growing fast among successful urban professional people.<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/08_03/b4067050290718.htm China's Spiritual Awakening<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The vast majority of Chinese Buddhists are [[Mahayana]]; while [[Tibetans]], [[Ethnic Mongols in China|Mongols]] traditionally follow their [[Tibetan Buddhism|denomination of Buddhism]], small communities of [[Theravada]] also exist among the minority ethnic groups live in southern provinces as [[Yunnan]] and [[Guangxi]] which are border [[Burma]], [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]] . It should be noted that many Chinese Mahayanists identify themselves as Taoist and Buddhist at the same time. Buddhism is tacitly supported by the government. The 108-metre-high statue is the world's tallest of [[Guanyin Statue of Hainan]] was enshrined on [[April 24]] [[2005]] with the participation of 108 eminent monks from various Buddhist groups in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and Mainland China, and tens of thousands of pilgrims. The delegation also included monks from the Theravada and Vajrayana traditions<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/16/content_434745.htm Giant Buddhist Statue Enshrined in Hainan]</ref> <ref>[http://english.sina.com/china/1/2005/0424/28898.html Holy statue of Guanyin Buddha unveiled]</ref>. China is one of the countries where owns many [[List of statues by height|world's highest Buddhist statues]]. In April 2006 China organized the [[World Buddhist Forum]] and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSPEK25205720070823 China bans mining on sacred Buddhist mountains | Reuters<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. In May of the same year, in [[Changzhou]], world's tallest pagoda was built and opened.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6610999.stm BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | China temple opens tallest pagoda<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070501-tallest-pagoda.html Photo in the News: Tallest Pagoda Opens in China<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/world/view_article.php?article_id=63479 China inaugurates 'world's tallest pagoda' - INQUIRER.net, Philippine News for Filipinos<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In March 2008 the [[Taiwanese]]-based [[Tzu Chi Foundation]] was approved to open a branch in mainland China.<ref>http://www.chinacsr.com/2008/03/03/2136-tzu-chi-foundation-approved-to-open-branch-in-mainland-china/</ref> However, some restrictions of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] are due to controversies about its hierarchy, and the issue of the succession of [[Tenzin Gyatso]] the current 14th [[Dalai Lama]] (who wasn't invited to the World Buddhist Forum). Gyatso - who was not only the spiritual leader, but also the sovereign of [[Tibet]] - is in exile, and China currently intends to elect its own 15th Dalai Lama. In August 2007 China has prohibited the reincarnation of Tibetan [[living buddhas]] without permission of the government, thus limiting the influence of Tenzin Gyatso and new Tibetan Buddhist monks.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article2194682.ece China tells living Buddhas to obtain permission before they reincarnate - Times Online<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> :''See also: [[Neo-Confucianism]], [[East Asian Buddhism]], [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] ===Islam=== [[Image:Chinese-style minaret of the Great Mosque.jpg|160px|left|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]], one of China's oldest [[mosque]]s.]] [[Image:Mosque in Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.PNG|160px|left|thumb|Mosque in [[Urumqi]], [[Xinjiang]].]] {{main|Islam in China|History of Islam in China}} [[Islam]] (called 伊斯兰教, ''Yisilanjiao'' or 回教 ''Huijiao'') was first brought to [[China]] in 651, eighteen years after the death of the Prophet [[Muhammad]], by an envoy led by [[Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas]], the maternal uncle of [[Muhammad]] himself.<ref name=bbc>BBC Islam in China (650-present) [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml]</ref> The Tang Emperor [[Yung Wei]] showed esteem for Islam and established the [[Huaisheng Mosque|Canton Mosque]] which also known as the Memorial Mosque, in memory of the Prophet. Many Muslims went to China to trade, and virtually dominated the import and export industry by the time of the [[Song Dynasty]] (960-1279).<ref name=bbc> Large scale immigration of [[Muslim]]s began when hundreds of thousands of immigrants were relocated by the [[Mongols]] to help the administer China.<ref>Islamic Education in China [http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/166/41]</ref> During the [[Yuan Dynasty]], Muslims headed many corporations in China and Muslim architects learned from Han architecture and helped design the construction of the Yuan capital of Dadu.<ref name=chineseciv>Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.ISBN 0-521-49712-4</ref> During the [[Ming Dynasty]], Muslims continued their influence on government. For example, six of the founder of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang's most trusted generals were Muslim, including [[Lan Yu]] who led a strong Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. During this time, the Muslims in China who were descended from earlier [[immigration]] began to assimilate by speaking [[spoken Chinese|Chinese dialects]] and by adopting [[Chinese language|Chinese]] names and [[culture]]. This era also saw [[Nanjing]] become an important center of Islamic study.<ref>[http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam]</ref> The rise of the [[Qing Dynasty]] (1644-1911) worsened relations between Muslims and non-Muslims, leading to bloody rebellions, most notably the Panthay Rebellion and the [[Dungan revolt]], which caused the deaths of millions of Muslims.<ref>Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0</ref> [[Sun Yat Sen]], after the fall of the [[Qing Dynasty]], proclaimed that [[Five Races Under One Union|the country belonged equally]] to the [[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Manchus|Manchu]], [[Mongols|Mongol]], [[Tibetans|Tibetan]] and Hui peoples (generally believers of Islam, including all various Muslim ethnic groups in China). In 1911 the provinces of [[Qinhai]], [[Gansu]] and [[Ningxia]] fell to Muslim warlords of the family known as the [[Ma clique]]. Today Islam is experiencing a modest revival. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims. Muslims are found in every province in China. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominately Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are [[Hui people|Huis]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]], [[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz]]s, [[Tatars]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Tajiks]], [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiangs]], [[Salar]]s and [[Bonan]]s.<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm China in Brief - china.org.cn<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. According to government figures, there are 20 million Muslims, 35.000 Islamic places of worship, and more than 45,000 imams in China.<ref name=bbc/> Most estimates are around 20 million to 30 million people (1.5% to 2% of the total)<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html#People CIA - The World Factbook - China<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. In 2006 a record number of Chinese traveled to [[Mecca]] for the [[hajj]], up 40 percent from the previous year.<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-12/28/content_769373.htm 4 Chinese Muslims die during Haj<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> :''See also: [[Chinese mosques]], [[Chinese Islamic cuisine]]'' ===Christianity=== [[Image:Mass in Beijing.PNG|thumb|160px|right|[[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in [[Beijing]].]] [[Image:Lords Prayer in Chinese.jpg|thumb|right|160px|The Lord's Prayer in [[Classical Chinese]], 1889.]] {{main|Christianity in China}} [[Christianity]] in China (called 基督教, ''Jidujiao'') comprises [[Protestants]], [[Catholics]], and a small number of [[Orthodox Christians]]. Christianity has been a growing minority religion for over 200 years.<ref>Austin, (2007) </ref> Growth has been more significant since the loosening of restrictions on religion after the 1970s within the People's Republic. Religious practices are still often tightly controlled by government authorities. Chinese over age 18 in the [[Peoples' Republic of China|PRC]] are permitted to be involved with officially sanctioned Christian meetings through the "[[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]]" or the "[[Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association]]".<ref>{{cite book | first = Patrick | last = Johnstone | authorlink = Patrick Johnstone | year = 2001 | title = Operation World | publisher = Paternoster | location = London}} p.165</ref> Many Chinese Christians also meet in "unregistered" [[Chinese house church|house church]] meetings. Reports of sporadic persecution against such Christians in Mainland China have caused concern among outside observers<ref>{{cite web|title= China's Christians suffer for their faith|publisher=BBC News|date=November 9,2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3993857.stm.|accessdate=2008-5-6}}</ref>. Christianity has developed in China since at least the 7th century AD. The introduction of [[Assyrian Church of the East]], around 635 is considered by some to be the first entry of the [[Christianity|Christian]] religion into China. During the [[Tang dynasty]], [[Nestorianism]] flourished for a while in China but did the Tang dynasty adopted anti-religious measures in 845. Meanwhile, Christianity reached the periphery of China as far as [[Mongolia]]. Christianity again came to China was during the [[Yuan dynasty]], when [[Franciscan]] missionaries were commissioned by the [[Pope]] in 1294. Organized Christianity failed to survive the end of the Yuan dynasty in China. At the end of the [[Ming dynasty]], [[Jesuit]]s arrived in [[Beijing]] via [[Guangzhou]]. The most famous was [[Matteo Ricci]], an [[Italy|Italian]] mathematician who came to China in 1588 and lived in Beijing in 1600. Ricci was welcomed at the imperial court and introduced Western learning into China. The Jesuits followed a policy of accommodation to the traditional Chinese practice of [[ancestor worship]], but this doctrine was eventually condemned by the Pope. Roman Catholic missions struggled in obscurity for decades afterwards. Christianity began to take root in a significant way in the [[Chinese Empire]] during the [[Qing Dynasty]], and although it has remained a minority religion in China, it has had significant recent historical impact. Further waves of missionaries came to China in the [[Qing Dynasty]] as a result of contact with foreign powers. [[Russian Orthodox]]y was introduced in 1715 and Protestants began entering China in 1807. The pace of missionary activity increased considerably after the [[First Opium War]] in 1842. Christian missionaries and their schools, under the protection of the Western powers, went on to play a major role in the [[Westernization]] of China in the 19th and 20th centuries. The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the [[Boxer Rebellion]] was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the [[List of Christian Hospitals in China| first modern clinics and hospitals]]<ref>Gulick, (1975) pp. 561-562</ref>, and provided the first modern training for nurses. Both Roman Catholics and Protestants founded numerous [[List of Christian Colleges in China|educational institutions in China]] from the primary to the university level. Some of the most prominent Chinese universities began as religious-founded institutions. Missionaries worked to abolish practices such as [[foot binding]] <ref>Burgess, (1957) pp. 47</ref>, and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the [[opium]] trade<ref>Austin, (2007) </ref> and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the [[Chinese Republic]], such as [[Sun Yat-sen]] were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings<ref>Soong, (1997) p. 151-178</ref>. The subject of China's Christian population is [[Christianity_in_China#Demographics.2FGeography|controversial]]. The government of the [[People's Republic of China]] census enumerated 4 million Roman Catholics and 10 million Protestants<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm China in Brief - china.org.cn]</ref><ref>[http://www.amitynewsservice.org/page.php?page=1151 How To Count The Number Of Christians In China</ref>. However, independent estimates have ranged from 40 million to 54 million Christians in China as the most common and reliable numbers<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Survey finds 300m China believers]</ref><ref>[http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe]</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html#People CIA - The World Factbook - China]</ref>. Between 1949-2007, indigenous Chinese Christianity has been growing<ref>{{cite book | first = Patrick | last = Johnstone | authorlink = Patrick Johnstone | year = 2001 | title = Operation World | publisher = Paternoster | location = London}} p.164</ref><ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-977347/Counting-Christians-in-China-a.html Counting Christians in China: a cautionary report. Industry & Business Article - Research, News, Information, Contacts, Divisions, Subsidiaries, Business Associations]</ref>. Most of the growth has taken place in the unofficial [[Chinese house church]] movement. {{seealso|Protestantism in China|Catholicism in China|Chinese house church|Persecution of Christians}} ===Hinduism=== {{main|Hinduism in China}} There are small communities of followers of [[Hinduism]] (called 印度教, ''Yindujiao'') in China. In October 2007 the Chinese government invited the [[BAPS]], a [[Hindu]] missionary organization, to build the first [[Hindu temple]] in China, in the [[Foshan]] city.<ref>[http://www.hindujagruti.org/news/3218.html China government invited Swaminarayan Trust to build Temple - General | hindujagruti.org<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The temple will be built following the style of the [[Akshardham (Gandhinagar)|Akshardham temple]] in [[Gandhinagar]].<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070028341&ch=10/5/2007%209:46:00%20AM NDTV.com: China hankers after Akshardham<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The temple will provide a series of centers for study of [[culture of India|Indian culture]], [[languages of India|Indian languages]] and [[music of India|Indian music]].<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070028341&ch=10/5/2007%209:46:00%20AM NDTV.com: China hankers after Akshardham<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] states it has followers in China.<ref>[http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=23598&sec=59&con=17 WorldWide Religious News-State-imposed religious monopolies deny China's religious reality<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Judaism=== {{main|Judaism in China}} [[Judaism]] (called 犹太教, ''Youtaijiao'' in Chinese) was introduced during the [[Tang Dynasty]] (between the 7th and the 10th century) or earlier, by small groups of [[Jew]]s settled in China. The most prominent early community was at [[Kaifeng]], in [[Henan]] [[province]] ([[Kaifeng Jews]]). In the 20th century many Jews arrived in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Shanghai]] during those cities' periods of economic expansion in the first decades of the century, as well as for the purpose of seeking refuge from [[the Holocaust]] in [[Western Europe]] and from the communist revolution in Russia. [[Shanghai]] was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, most of whom left after the war, the rest relocating prior to or immediately after the establishment of the [[PRC|People's Republic]]. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. Many descendants of the Kaifeng community still live among the Chinese population, mostly unaware of their Jewish ancestry. Meanwhile, remnants of the later arrivals maintain communities in Shanghai and Hong Kong. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing. More recently, since the late 20th century, along with the study of religion in general, the study of Judaism and Jews in China as an academic subject has begun to blossom. ===Indigenous religions=== [[Image:Dongbaism temple, Lijiang, Yunnan.PNG|thumb|190px|left|[[Dongba]] temple in [[Lijiang]], [[Yunnan]].]] [[Image:Dongba priest, Lijiang, Yunnan 3.PNG|thumb|190px|left|Dongba priest.]] {{main|Bön|Dongbaism}} [[Bön|Bon]] (called 苯教, ''Benjiao'' by the Chinese) is the oldest spiritual tradition of [[Tibet]], dominant before the introduction of Buddhism. Bonpo religion is traditionally considered founded by the mythical figure of [[Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche]]. With the spread of Buddhism, Bon incorporated styles, iconography and clergy system of the new religion, whereas remaining a distinguished tradition. Simultaneously, Bonpo elements combined with original Buddhism gave origin to [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Bon is essentially a [[psychologism|psychologistic]] religion. [[Dongbaism]] (東巴教, ''Dongbajiao'' in Chinese) is the primary religion of the [[Nakhi]] people. About two-thirds of today Nakhis (200.000 on 300.000) are Dongbas. Although it has remained exclusive to the Nakhis, Dongba religion is not considered native by scholars. Deep similarities between Dongba practices and the Bonpo ones seem to proof that Dongbaism arose roughly during the 11th or 12th century. [[Bonpos]] are considered to have settled among the Nakhis spreading their religion; Dongbaism eventually originated by the combination of Bon with Nakhi native beliefs. Elements drawn from Taoism are also identifiable. Dongbas worship nature, personified by human-snake-chimera creatures called ''Shv'' or ''Shu''. ===New movements=== {{main|Xiantianism|Falun Gong}} Between the 19th and the 20th century some [[new religious movements]] gained prominence, especially [[Xiantianism]] and [[Falun Gong]]. These religions are characterized by [[syncretic]], [[messianism|messianic]] and [[millenarianism|millenarian]] attitudes. All these movements are currently banned in [[Mainland China]] due to their eventual involvement in political issues. Xiantianism (先天道, ''Xiantiandao'') is referred to have roots in the 13th century doctrine of the [[White Lotus]]. It was formally founded in the 17th century as a unified religion, but in 1828 it split into many sub-groups. Today, "Xiantianism" or "Way of Former Heaven" is an umbrella term that encompass many religions, namely [[Ikuantao]], [[Tientism]], [[Miledaism]], [[T'ung-shan She|Society of Goodness]], [[Tien-te Sheng-chiao|Society of Celestial Virtue]], [[Tz'u-hui Tang|Society of Compassion]], [[Daoyuan]] and [[Haizetao]]. Xiantian religions claimed 5 million adherents before the crackdown in 1949. In 1987 Ikuantao was legalized in Taiwan, and further new sects arose in the following years. Today, Xiantians have gained notable prominence in the country. Ikuantaoists form the third largest religious community in Taiwan, while Tientists form the fifth. Falun Gong (法轮功) is a mind-body cultivation system related to Buddhism and [[qigong]], with [[ethics|ethic]] and millenarian aspects. It is sometimes described as a [[religion]], a [[spirituality]] or a [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] system. It was spread by [[Li Hongzhi]] since 1992. A 1998 figure from the Chinese government suggests there were 70 million practitioners in China at that time.<ref>http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_285.html#1563</ref> On [[July 20]] [[1999]], the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese authorities]] banned<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/special/fagong/1999072200A101.html people's daily<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and initiated a crackdown<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20030711022606/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000 Amnesty International - Library - China: The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called "heretical organizations"<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> on Falun Gong. ==Faded religions== [[Image:Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China - 001.jpg|thumb|220px|The Round Mound Altar, the altar proper at the [[Temple of Heaven]] in [[Beijing]], where the Emperor communed with Heaven.]] ===Heaven worship=== {{main|Heaven worship}} The Heaven worship was the [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] belief system subscribed to by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the [[Qing Dynasty]]. It was a [[panentheism|panentheistic]] system, centering on the worship of [[Tian]] (the "Heaven") as an omnipotent force. This religious system predated Taoism, Confucian thought and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity; its dogmas supported the basements of the imperial hierarchy. It had [[monotheism|monotheistic]] features in that Heaven was seen as an [[omniscience|omniscient]] entity, endowed with [[personal god|personality]] but no corporeal form. Heaven as a monotheistic god was variously referred to as ''[[Shangdi]]'' (literally "Lord Above"). Worship of Heaven included the erection of temples, the last and greatest being the [[Temple of Heaven]] in [[Beijing]], and the offering of prayers. Heaven was believed to manifest itself through the powers of the weather and natural disasters. No [[cult image|iconographies]] were permitted in Heaven worship. Heaven was seen as a judge of humans. Especially evil people were believed to be killed by Heaven through lightning, with their crimes inscribed on their (burnt) spines. After the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, Heaven monotheism faded in popular belief. However, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the premodern period. These concepts, often influenced heavily by [[Confucian]] theory, include the [[Mandate of Heaven]], the [[Emperor of China|Emperor]]'s role as [[Son of Heaven]], and the legitimate overthrow of a dynasty when its "mandate" ended. These structures actually consolidated the authority of the Emperor. Emperors who favoured Taoism or Buddhism neglecting the worship of Heaven were often seen as anomalous. Elements were also incorporated in [[Chinese folk religion]]. Execution by lightning, for example, became one of the roles of the thunder gods. The concept of the almighty Heaven remained in popular expressions. Where an Anglophone would say "Oh my God" or "Thank God", a Chinese person might say "Oh Heaven" ("{{lang|zh|老天!}}" or "{{lang|zh|天哪!}}") or "Thank the heavens and the earth" ("{{lang|zh|謝天謝地}}"). ===Manichaeism=== [[Image:Chao An Temple, Anhai, Fujian, China.PNG|thumb|220px|left|[[Chao An Temple]] in [[Anhai]], [[Fujian]]. It's a former [[Manichaean]] temple built in 1339. Today it has been converted into a Buddhist place of worship.]] [[Manichaeism]] (called 摩尼教, ''Monijiao''), an [[Iranic religion]], entered China between the 6th century and the 8th century due to contacts between the [[Tang Dynasty]] and states of [[Central Asia]], particularly [[Tokharistan]].<ref name="Manichaeism in China">Sammuel Lieu. ''Manichaeism in China''. The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies.</ref> In 731, a Manichaean priest was asked by the Chinese Emperor to realize a summary of the religion's teachings. He wrote the ''Compendium of the Teachings of Mani the Buddha of Light''. The Tang government approved Manichaeism to be practiced by foreigners but prohibited preaching among Chinese people.<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> A turning point occurred in 762 with the conversion of [[Bogu Khan]] of the [[Uyghurs]].<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> Since 755, the Chinese Empire had been weakened by the [[An Shi Rebellion]], and the Uyghurs had become the only fighting force serving the Tang Dynasty. Bogu Khan encouraged Manichaeism to spread in China. Manichaean temples were established in the two capitals, [[Chang'an]] and [[Luoyang]], as well as in several other cities in the Northern and Central China.<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> The decay of Uyghur power in 840 brought the closure of many Manichaean institutions.<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang]] started the [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]], which was not exclusively against Buddhism but extended to all foreign religions. The religion was severely suppressed, but didn't die out. During the period of the [[Five Dynasties]], it re-emerged as a popular underground phenomenon, particularly in Southern China.<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> In 1120, a rebellion led by [[Fang Xi]] was believed to be caused by adherents of underground religious communities, whose meeting places were said to host political protests. This event brought crackdowns of unauthorized religious congregations and destruction of scriptures. In 1280, the [[Mongol]] rule gave a century of freedom to Manichaeism,<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> but, in 1368, the [[Ming Dynasty]] started new persecutions.<ref name="Manichaeism in China"/> The religion gradually collapsed, eventually dying out during the following centuries. ===Zoroastrianism=== [[Zoroastrianism]] (called 琐罗亚斯德教, ''Suoluoyasidejiao'', or 祆教, ''Xianjiao'') expanded in Northern China during the 6th century via the [[Silk Road]]. It gained a status of officiality in some Chinese regions. Zoroastrian [[fire temples]] have been found in [[Kaifeng]] and [[Zhenjiang]]. According to some scholars, they remained active until the 12th century, when the religion started to fade from Chinese landscape. ==See also== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-2}} * [[Confucianism]] * [[Chinese folk religion]] * [[Ancestor worship]] ;Main religions * [[Buddhism in China]] * [[Islam in China]] * [[Christianity in China]] * [[Hinduism in China]] * [[Judaism in China]] ;Faded religions * [[Heaven worship]] {{Col-2-of-2}} ;Other religions * [[Bön]] * [[Dongbaism]] * [[Xiantianism]] * [[Falun Gong]] ;Concepts * [[Opium Wars]] * [[Opium of the people]] ;Other areas * [[Religion in Taiwan]] * [[Religion in Hong Kong]] * [[Religion in Macau]] {{Col-end}} == Further reading == * {{cite book | first = Alvyn | last = Austin | authorlink = Alvyn Austin | year = 2007 | title = China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society | publisher = Eerdmans | location = Grand Rapids, Michigan | id =ISBN 978-0-8028-2975-7}} * {{cite book | first = Alan | last = Burgess | authorlink = Alan Burgess | year = 1957 | title = The Small Woman | location = | id = ISBN 1568491840}} *[http://www.umass.edu/wsp/sinology/persons/degroot.html De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria)], "The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith", [[Brill Publishers]], Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892-1910. In six volumes. * {{cite book | first = Edward V. | last = Gulick | authorlink = Edward V. Gulick | year = 1975 | title = Peter Parker and the Opening of China | publisher = Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1975) | location = }} * {{cite book | first = Kenneth Scott | last = Latourette | authorlink = Kenneth Scott Latourette | year = 1929 | title = A History of Christian Missions in China | publisher = | location = }} *Manchao, Cheng, "The Origin of Chinese Deities", Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 7-119-00030-6 *{{cite book | first=Jordan D.| last=Paper | year=1995 | title=The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion | publisher=State University of New York Press | location=Albany, New York | isbn=0791423158}} * {{cite book | first = Irma Tam | last = Soong | authorlink = Irma Tam Soong | year = 1997 | title = Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i | publisher = The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 13 | location = Hawai'i}} * {{cite book | first = Jonathan D. | last = Spence | authorlink = Jonathan D. Spence | year = 1991 | title = The Search for modern China | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = | id = ISBN 0393307808}} * Yang, CK., ''Religion in Chinese Society'' (California U. Press, 1970) * Zürcher, E. ''The Buddhist Conquest of China''. (E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1972) ==External links== * [http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36492.htm Statistics of religions in China by Chinese government] * [http://www.gallagher-photo.com "Islam in China" by British Photojournalist Sean Gallagher] * [http://www.churchinchina.com Information on the Church in China] * [http://www.forum18.org/Analyses.php?region=3 Surveys/analyses of religious freedom in China by Forum 18 News Service] * [http://www.stnews.org/News-2867.htm The Sleeping Giant awakes: China reconsiders the need for spirituality to balance scientific development and consumerism], [[Science & Theology News]] * [http://www.AmeriChi.com The American School of Classical Feng Shui] * [http://www.literati-tradition.com/qi_gong_and_tai_chi.html Taoist Practices] ==References== {{reflist}} {{People's Republic of China topics|state=autocollapse}} [[Category:Chinese culture]] [[Category:Religion in China| ]] [[Category:Religion in the People's Republic of China| ]] [[de:Religion in der Volksrepublik China]] [[fr:Religions en Chine]] [[it:Religioni in Cina]] [[pt:Religião na China]] [[sv:Kinesisk religion]] [[zh:中华人民共和国宗教]]