Roman Catholic Church
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El C
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we don't have a RC Critical external links website at [[Calvinism]] and elsewhere that I see, so "balance" need to be in relation to other religion articles, too
{{redirect|Catholic Church}}
{{Catholic Church}}
The '''Roman Catholic Church''', officially known as the '''Catholic Church''',<ref>{{cite web | last =Whitehead | first = Kenneth| title =How Did the Catholic Church Get Her Name? | publisher =Eternal Word Television Network | date =1996 | url = http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/churb3.htm| accessdate =2008-05-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Apostolic Constitution Fidei Depositum on the Publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/aposcons.htm| accessdate = 2008-05-07}}</ref><ref name="McClintoc71">McClintock, ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature'' (1889), p. 71, quote: "The name may be found in a number of Roman Catholic writers, and is generally used in the constitution of those states in which the Roman Catholic Church is recognized as one of the recognized or tolerated State churches. It is, however, not the official name used by the authorities of the Church–who rather dislike it, and substitute for it the name 'Catholic' or 'Holy Catholic' Church. The name 'Roman Church' is applied, in the language of the Church, to the Church or diocese of the Bishop of Rome."</ref> is the world's largest [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Ecclesia (church)|church]] and represents over half of all [[Christian]]s and [[Major religious groups|one-sixth]] of the [[world population|world's population]].<ref name="Zenit">{{cite web | title =Number of Catholics and Priests Rises | publisher =Zenit News Agency | date =2007-02-12 | url =http://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english | accessdate =2008-02-21}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{cite web | title =CIA World Factbook | publisher =United States Government Central Intelligence Agency | date =2007 | url =https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#People | accessdate =2008-02-28}}</ref> It is made up of one Western church (the [[Latin Rite]]) and 22 [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] [[Particular Church|churches]], divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world.<ref name="sees"/> The Church looks to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], as its highest human authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.<ref name="LumenG"/><ref name="SandSp1"/> The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the [[laity]].<ref name="Schreck153">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 153</ref> Both groups may become members of religious communities such as the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Carmelites]] and [[Jesuits]].<ref name="Schreck153"/>
The Catholic Church defines its mission as spreading the message of [[Jesus Christ]], found in the four [[Gospel]]s, administering [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]] that aid the spiritual growth of its members and the exercise of charity.<ref name="LumenG"/><ref name="DeusCE"/><ref name="OneFaith50">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 50–1</ref> To further its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include [[Catholic school|schools]], universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as [[Catholic Relief Services]], [[Caritas (charity)|Caritas Internationalis]] and [[Catholic Charities]] that help the poor, families, the elderly and the sick.<ref>{{cite web | title =Statistics on the Church's Mission Work | publisher =National Institute for the Renewal of the Priesthood | date =2003-02-27 | url =http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:Y52z_nw0PH8J:www.jknirp.com/miss2.htm+Statistics+on+the+Church%27s+Mission+Work&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us| accessdate =2008-02-09 }}</ref><ref name="OneFaith98">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 98–9</ref>
Through [[Apostolic succession]], the Church believes itself to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by [[Jesus]] in his consecration of [[Saint Peter]].<ref name="NatGeographic281">Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"</ref><ref name="Norman11"/> The Church has defined its doctrines through various [[ecumenical council]]s, following the example set by the first Apostles in the [[Council of Jerusalem]].<ref name="OneFaith43"/><ref name= "McManners37"/><ref name="McManners371"/> Catholic faith is summarized in the [[Nicene Creed]] and detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref name="cat"/> Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the [[liturgy]], which is regulated by Church authority. The [[Eucharist (Catholic Church)|Eucharist]], one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every [[Catholic Mass]], is considered to be the center of Catholic worship.<ref name="OneFaith71">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 71</ref>
With a two thousand year history, the Church is the world's largest Christian institution.<ref>{{cite book | last =O'Collins | first =Gerald | coauthors =Mario Farrugia | title =Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =2003 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=YegPh4Kz2A4C&pg=PR5&dq=catholic+church+world%27s+oldest+institution&lr=&sig=ACfU3U0EvUKWs4lW3Qruw7NuczYFrM75Pg | doi =2008-06-26 | id =019925995X }}</ref>{{Verify source|date=July 2008}} From at least the 4th century, it has played a prominent role in the [[history of Western civilization]].<ref name="Orlandis">Orlandis, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church'' (1993), preface</ref> In the 11th century, the Eastern, [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], and the Western, Catholic Church, split, largely over disagreements regarding papal primacy.<ref name="Vidmar100">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 97, 100</ref><ref name="SandSp91">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91</ref> Eastern churches which maintained or later re-established communion with Rome now form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the [[Protestant Reformation]], the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]].<ref name="Norman81"/>
The Catholic Church believes that it is the "[[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic church]]" founded by Jesus, but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 865 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> The Church teaches that it is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians—a movement known as [[ecumenism]].<ref name = "vatican.va-dogma"/><ref name="Kreeft110">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 110</ref> Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of [[secularism]] and opposition to its [[pro-life]] stance on [[abortion]], [[contraception]] and [[euthanasia]].<ref>{{cite web | last =Shorto | first =Russel | title =Keeping the Faith | work =The New York Times Magazine | publisher =''The New York Times'' | date =2007 | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/08/magazine/08pope.t.html | accessdate =2008-03-29 }}</ref>
== Origin and mission ==
{{seealso| History of the Roman Catholic Church|History of the Papacy}}
[[Image:Gesupietrochiave.jpg|thumb|180 px|This detail of a [[fresco]] (1481–82) by [[Pietro Perugino]] in the [[Sistine chapel]] shows Jesus giving the [[Keys of Heaven|keys of heaven]] to [[Saint Peter]].]]
The Catholic Church traces its foundation to [[Jesus]] and the [[Twelve Apostles]]. It sees the [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] of the Church as the [[Apostolic Succession|successors of the apostles]] and the pope in particular as the successor of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], leader of the apostles.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 881 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref><ref name="OneFaith46">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 46</ref> Catholics cite Jesus' words in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] to support this view: "... you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church ... I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."<ref name="LumenG">{{cite web | last = Paul VI| first = Pope| title =Lumen Gentium | publisher =Vatican | date =1964 | url =http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html | accessdate =2008-03-09 }}</ref><ref name="SandSp1">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 1</ref><ref name="Matthew">{{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18–19}}</ref> According to Catholic belief, the coming of the [[Holy Spirit]] upon the apostles in an event known by Christians as [[Pentecost]] brought this promised "church" fully into the world.<ref name="OneFaith46"/>
Scholars such as [[Edward Norman]] note that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus and that the historical record confirms that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from its beginning.<ref name="Norman11">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 11, 14, quote: "The Church was founded by Jesus himself in his earthly lifetime.", "The apostolate was established in Rome, the world's capital when the church was inaugurated; it was there that the universality of the Christian teaching most obviously took its central directive–it was the bishops of Rome who very early on began to receive requests for adjudication on disputed points from other bishops."</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Temporini | first =Hildegard | coauthors =Wolfgang Haase | title =[[Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt]] Principat.: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung | publisher =Walter de Gruyter | date =1982 | pages =480 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=kNPV4P5h1qgC&pg=PA480&dq=The+church+was+founded+by+jesus&lr=&sig=ACfU3U1lmU6VawAuGMAmaC9rwF-HU74CFw | doi =2008-06-26 | id =3110087006 }}</ref> [[John McManners]], among other leading scholars, cites a letter from [[Pope Clement I]] to the church in Corinth (c. 95) as evidence of a presiding Roman cleric who exercised authority over other churches.<ref name= "McManners36">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]], quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favour of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner."</ref> Others, like [[Eamon Duffy]], acknowledge the existence of a Christian community in Rome and that Peter and Paul "lived, preached and died" there<ref name="SandSp6">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 6, quote: "For all these reasons, most scholars accept the early Christian tradition that Peter and Paul died in Rome. Yet, though they lived, preached and died in Rome, they did not strictly 'found' the Church there. Paul's Epistle to the Romans was written before either he or Peter ever set foot in Rome, to a Christian community already in existence."</ref> but doubt that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century, and question the concept of apostolic succession.<ref name="SandSp7">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 7</ref> Duffy described the second-century list of popes by [[Irenaeus]] as "suspiciously tidy", and stated that "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of [[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] in the mid-150s, when [[Polycarp]], the aged bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of [[Easter]]".<ref name="SandSp9">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 9–11</ref>
The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:<ref name="Norman11">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 11</ref> "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|28:19–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 849 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref><ref name="Norman12">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 12</ref> Pope [[Benedict XVI]] summarized the Church's mission as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity. He has stated that these duties presuppose each other and are thus inseparable.<ref name="DeusCE">{{cite web | last = Benedict XVI| first =Pope | title =Deus Caritas Est | publisher =Vatican | date =2005 | url =http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html | accessdate =2008-05-06 }}</ref> As part of its ministry of charity the Church runs [[Catholic Relief Services]], [[Catholic Charities]], [[Caritas (charity)|Caritas Internationalis]], [[Catholic school]]s, universities, hospitals, shelters and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized. Through these social programs the Church applies the tenets of [[Catholic social teaching]] and tends to the corporal and spiritual needs of others.<ref name="OneFaith98" />
== Beliefs ==
{{seealso|Roman Catholic theology}}
The Catholic Church's beliefs are detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref name="cat">Marthaler, ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues'' (1994), preface</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = John Paul II| first =Pope | title =Laetamur Magnopere | publisher =Vatican | date =1997 | url =http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | accessdate =2008-03-09 }}</ref> The Catholic Church is [[trinitarian]] since it believes that there is one eternal God who exists as a [[perichoresis|mutual indwelling]] of [[3 (number)#In religion|three]] [[Hypostasis (religion)|persons]]: the [[God_the_Father#Christianity|Father]], the Son [[Jesus]] and the [[Holy Spirit]]. Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified over the centuries by [[Ecumenical council|councils of the Church]] convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.<ref name="McManners371"/> The first such council, the [[Council of Jerusalem]], was convened by the apostles around the year 50.<ref name= "McManners37"/> The most recent was the [[Vatican II|Second Vatican Council]], which closed in 1965.<ref name="SandSp275">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 275, 281</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]] dating back to the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325), is the core statement of Catholic Christian belief.<ref name="Schaff"/> This creed is recited at Sunday Masses and is also the central statement of belief of many other Christian denominations.<ref name="Schaff">Schaff, ''Creeds of Christendom, With a History and Critical Notes'' (1910), pp. 24, 56</ref><ref name="Richardson">Richardson, ''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' (1983), p. 132</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians do not accept the [[Filioque|filioque clause]].<ref>Langan, ''The Catholic Tradition'' (1998), p. 118</ref><ref>Parry, ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity'' (1999), p. 292</ref> [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches vary in their beliefs, but generally accept the Nicene Creed with reservations regarding the term "Catholic". They generally differ from the Catholic Church regarding the authority of the pope, church tradition, and on issues pertaining to [[divine grace]], good works and [[salvation]].<ref name= "McManners254">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), pp. 254–60, Chapter 7 The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation by Patrick Collinson (University of Cambridge)</ref>
===Teaching authority===
[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|A 19th-century painting by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]] depicts Jesus preaching the [[Sermon on the Mount]].]]
The Catholic Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error. It bases this belief on biblical promises that Jesus made to his apostles.<ref name="OneFaith43">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 37, 43–4</ref> In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus tells Peter, "the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against [the church]",<ref name="Matthew">{{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18–19}}</ref> and in the Gospel of John, Jesus says, "... when He comes, the Spirit of truth, He will guide you to all truth".<ref name="LumenG"/><ref>{{bibleverse||John|16:12–13}}</ref><ref name="Schreck16"/>
The Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through [[Books of the Bible|Sacred Scripture]], [[Sacred Tradition]] and the [[Magisterium]]. The sacred scriptures consist of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible. These are made up of those contained in the Greek version of the [[Old Testament]]—known as the [[Septuagint]]<ref name="Schreck21">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 21, quote "Catholics recognize as divinely inspired the writings included in the ancient Greek version of the Old Testament that was used in the early church, known as the Septuagint. Protestants accept only the writings found in an early Hebrew version of the Bible, which did not include the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These books are sometimes referred to by Protestants as "the Apocrypha."</ref>—and the 27 [[New Testament]] writings found in the [[Codex Vaticanus]] and listed in [[Athanasius]]' [[Easter letter|Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter]].<ref name="Schreck23">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 23, quote "In caring for the flock of Christ, one of the bishop's chief tasks was to ensure that correct doctrine was taught. So it was the bishops who needed to discern which writings and teachings being widely distributed were truly God's word for the whole church-and which were not. Their determination was officially announced in a decree of the Council of Rome in A.D. 382, under Pope Damasus, and confirmed by the Third Council of Carthage in A.D. 397. The present list of New Testament writings was first founded in the Codex Vaticanus from Rome around A.D. 340, and in St. Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter of A.D. 367."</ref> Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.<ref name="Schreck16">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 15–9</ref> Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith". These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium, or the teaching authority of the Church. The Magisterium includes [[Papal infallibility|infallible]] pronouncements of the pope,<ref name="Schreck30"/> pronouncements of ecumenical councils, and those of the [[college of bishops]] acting in union with the pope to define truths or to condemn interpretations of scripture believed to be false.<ref name="Schreck30">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 30</ref>
According to the ''Catechism'', Jesus instituted seven [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]] and entrusted them to the Church.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1131 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s1c1a2.htm| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> These are [[Baptism]], [[Confirmation]], the [[Eucharist]], [[Penance]], [[Anointing of the Sick]], [[Holy Orders]] and [[Christian views of marriage|Holy Matrimony]]. Sacraments are visible rituals which Catholics see as providing God's [[Divine grace|grace]] to all those who receive them with the proper mindset or disposition ([[ex opere operato]]).<ref name="Kreeft">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), pp. 298–9</ref><ref name="Mongoven">Mongoven, ''The Prophetic Spirit of Catechesis: How We Share the Fire in Our Hearts'' (2000), p. 68</ref> Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the worldwide Church. These reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than a diversity in beliefs.<ref name="Eastrites">{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1200–9 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s1c2a2.htm| accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref> The most commonly used is the Western or [[Latin Rite|Latin rite]]. Others are the [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine rite]], the [[Alexandrian Rite|Alexandrian]] or Coptic rite, the [[Antiochene Rite|Syriac]], [[Armenian Rite|Armenian]], [[Maronite Church|Maronite]] and [[East Syrian Rite|Chaldean]] rites.
===God the Father, original sin and Baptism===
{{seealso|Original sin}}
[[Image:Guido Reni 031.jpg|thumb|180 px|[[Guido Reni]]'s ''Archangel Michael'' (1636) shows [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]—one of three [[archangel]]s—defeating [[Lucifer]].]]
Catholic belief holds that God is the source and creator of nature and all that exists.<ref name="Schreck45">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 45</ref> as expressed in the opening statement of the Nicene Creed, "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen ...". The Church perceives him as a loving and caring God who is involved in the world and in people's lives<ref name="OneFaith7">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 7</ref> and who desires his creatures to love him and to love each other.<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|22:37–40}}</ref><ref name="OneFaith90">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 91–92</ref> Before the creation of mankind, however, the scriptures teach that God made spiritual beings called [[angel]]s. In an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of them chose to rebel against God and his reign.<ref name="angels">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 390, 392, 405 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p7.htm#II| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> The leader of this rebellion has been called "Lucifer", "Satan" and the [[Devil in Christianity|devil]] among other names. The sin of pride, considered one of [[seven deadly sins]], is attributed to Satan for wishing to be equal to God.<ref name="Schreck57">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 57</ref> One of these [[fallen angel]]s is believed to have tempted the first humans, [[Adam and Eve]], whose act of [[original sin]] brought suffering and death into the world.
This event is known as the [[Fall of Man]] and according to Catholic belief, left humanity isolated from their original state of intimacy with God.<ref name="OneFaith18">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 18–9</ref><ref>{{bibleverse||Romans|5:12}}</ref> The ''Catechism'' states that the description of the fall described in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms "... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man" and resulted in "a deprivation of original holiness and justice" that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin".<ref name="angels"/> The Church believes that people can be cleansed of original sin and all personal sins through [[Baptism]].<ref name="Kreeft308">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 308</ref> This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.<ref name="Kreeft308"/>
===Jesus, sin and Penance===
In the [[Messiah|messianic]] texts of the Jewish [[Tanakh]] which make up much of the Christian [[Old Testament]], [[Claimed Messianic prophecies of Jesus|Christians believe God promises to send his people a savior]].<ref name="Kreeft71">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), pp. 71–2</ref> The Church believes that this savior was Jesus who is described in the Nicene Creed as "... the only begotten son of God, ... one in being with the Father. Through him all things were made ...". In an event known as the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], the Church teaches that God descended from heaven for the salvation of humanity, and became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]. Jesus' mission on earth is believed to have included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four [[Gospel]]s.<ref name="McGrath">McGrath, ''Christianity: An Introduction'' (2006), pp. 4–6</ref> The Church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to become closer to him, and therefore to grow in true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.<ref>{{bibleref|John|10:1–30}}</ref><ref name="Schreck265">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 264–5</ref> Sinning is considered to be the opposite to following Jesus, robbing people of their resemblance to God and turning their souls away from his love.<ref name="sins"/> Per Catholic teaching, people can sin by failing to obey the [[Ten Commandments]], failing to love God, or failing to love other people. Some sins are held to be more serious than others. Sins range from lesser or [[venial sin]]s, to grave or [[mortal sin]]s which end a person's relationship with God.<ref name="OneFaith77">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 77</ref><ref name="sins">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1850, 1857 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c1a8.htm#II| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref>
Through the [[Passion (Christianity)|passion]] of Jesus and his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]], the Church teaches that all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.<ref name="Kreeft71"/><ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 608 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p122a4p2.htm#III| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> [[John the Baptist]], respected by the Church as a [[prophet]], called Jesus "the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world"<ref name="John1">{{bibleverse||John|1:29}}</ref> in reference to the ancient Jewish practice of offering [[sacrificial lamb]]s to God to obtain some greater good. By reconciling with God and following Jesus' words and deeds, the Church believes one can enter the [[Kingdom of God]] which is not a place but a state of being defined by the Church as "... the reign of God over people's hearts and lives."<ref name="OneFaith26">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 26</ref><ref name="Schreck100">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 100</ref>
Since Baptism can be received only once, the sacrament of [[Penance]] (informally known as [[Confession]]) is the principal means by which Catholics can obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. Catholics believe Jesus gave the apostles special authority to forgive sins in God's name based on Jesus' words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.<ref name="Schreck242">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 242</ref> A penitent confesses his sins to the priest, who may then offer advice. After the priest has imposed a particular penance to be performed, the penitent then prays an [[Act of Contrition|act of contrition]] and the priest administers [[absolution]], formally forgiving the person of his sins.<ref name="Kreeft344">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), pp. 343–4</ref> A priest is forbidden under penalty of [[excommunication]] to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the [[seal of confession]]. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can [[Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church#Validity_and_liceity_of_administration_of_the_sacraments|licitly]] receive the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1310 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-02-11}}</ref><ref name="Eucharist">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1385, 1389 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-02-11}}</ref>
===Holy Spirit and Confirmation===
[[Image:Gian Lorenzo Bernini - Dove of the Holy Spirit.JPG|thumb|250 px|[[Bernini]]'s stained glass window in [[St. Peter's Basilica]] depicts the Holy Spirit as a dove, a common motif in Christian art, referencing [[John the Baptist]]'s proclamation that he saw the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at his baptism "like a dove".]]
Jesus told his apostles that after his death and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] he would send them the "Advocate", the "[[Holy Spirit]]", who " ...will teach you everything and remind you of all that (I) told you".<ref>{{bibleverse||John|14:26}}</ref><ref name="OneFaith37">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 37</ref> In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus told his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"<ref name="Schreck230">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1997), pp. 230–1</ref>
The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son. Thus the Church teaches that receiving the Holy Spirit is an act of receiving God.<ref name="Kreeft88">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 88</ref> Through the sacrament of [[Confirmation]], Catholics ask for and are taught by the Church to receive the Holy Spirit. Confirmation is sometimes called the "sacrament of Christian maturity" and is believed to increase and deepen the grace received at [[Baptism]].<ref name="Schreck230"/> Spiritual graces or [[Spiritual gift|gifts of the Holy Spirit]] may include the wisdom to see and follow God's plan, as well as judgment, love, courage, knowledge, reverence and rejoicing in the presence of God.<ref name="Schreck277"/> The corresponding [[fruits of the Holy Spirit]] are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control.<ref name="Schreck277">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 277</ref>
To be licitly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, in that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or [[godparent]] for spiritual support, and selected a [[saint]] to be their special patron and intercessor.<ref name="Schreck230"/> Baptism in the Eastern rites, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1233 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url =http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref> {{clear}}
===Nature of the Church and social teaching===
{{seealso|Catholic social teaching}}
[[Image:Extreme Unction Rogier Van der Weyden.jpg|thumb|left|Extreme Unction (Anointing of the Sick) by [[Rogier Van der Weyden]], a detail of his work ''The Seven Sacraments'' (1445)]]
Catholic belief holds that the Church " ...is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth."<ref name="Schreck131">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 131</ref> Jesus told his disciples to "Remain in me, as I remain in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches."<ref>{{bibleverse||John|15:4–5}}</ref> In Catholic interpretation, the term "Church" refers to the people of God, who abide in Jesus and who, " ...nourished with the [[Body of Christ]], become the Body of Christ."<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 777–8 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p1.htm| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> Catholic teaching maintains that the Church exists simultaneously on earth, in [[purgatory]] (Church suffering), and in heaven (Church triumphant). Thus the [[Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)| Virgin Mary assumed into heaven]] and the saints are alive and part of the living Church.<ref name="Kreeft113">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), pp. 113–4</ref> This unity of the Church in heaven and on earth is the "[[Communion of Saints]]".<ref name="Kreeft114">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 114</ref><ref name = "vatican.va-956">{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 956 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p5.htm#II| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref>
While the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the "[[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church]]" founded by Jesus,<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 750 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s2c3a9.htm| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> it also holds that the Holy Spirit can work through other churches to bring people to salvation.<ref name="OneFaith46">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 46</ref> In its apostolic constitution [[Lumen Gentium]], the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in diverse Christian churches and communities, and that Catholics are called to work for unity among all Christians.<ref name = "vatican.va-dogma">{{cite web| title=Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 2 paragraph 15|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|year=1964| accessdate =2008-03-09}}</ref>
The Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world but teaches that individual Catholics are required to practice spiritual and corporal [[Works of Mercy|works of mercy]] as well. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it and pray for the living and the dead.<ref name="OneFaith98"/> In conjunction with the work of mercy to visit the sick, the Church offers the sacrament of [[Anointing of the Sick]], performed only by a priest who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.<ref name="Kreeft373">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 373</ref>
Church teaching on works of mercy and the new social problems of the industrial era led to the development of [[Catholic social teaching]]. Emphasizing human dignity, it criticizes elements of both capitalism and socialism <ref>[[Leo XIII in [[Rerum Novarum]]]]</ref> <ref>Pius XI in [[Quadragesimo Anno]] </ref> and commits Catholics to the welfare of others.<ref name="OneFaith98">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 98–99</ref> The seven main themes are respect for human life and the dignity of each person, the strengthening of the family unit, respect for the rights and responsibilities of each person, the care for the poor, the rights and dignity of the worker, and, the [[subsidiarity]] and [[solidarity]] of all humans as one family.<ref name="OneFaith98"/> Modern application of Catholic social teaching has resulted in significant Church efforts to fight what it sees as violations of immigrant, worker, and family rights. In addition, the Church is known for its staunch opposition to abortion and euthanasia. Further matters of concern have included capital punishment and environmental issues.<ref name="Massaro116">Massaro, ''Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Action'' (2001), pp. 116–7</ref>
===Final judgment and afterlife===
[[Image:Hieronymus II Francken – The Last Judgement.jpg|thumb|180 px|''The Last Judgement'', by [[Francken|Hieronymus Francken II]] (c. 1610)]]
Catholic teaching includes belief in an afterlife as described in the final statement of the Nicene Creed, "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come." The Church teaches that each [[soul]] will be judged by Jesus immediately after death and receive a [[particular judgment]] based on the deeds of their earthly life.<ref name="Schreck">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 379–86</ref> Chapter 25:35–46 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind.<ref name="OneFaith98">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 98, quote: "Come, you who are blessed by my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, a stranger and you welcomed me, naked and you clothed me, ill and you cared for me, in prison and you visited me ... amen I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me."</ref><ref name="Matthew25">{{bibleverse||Matthew|25:35–36}}</ref> The Church teaches that this [[Last Judgment|final judgment]] will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.<ref name="Schreck397">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 397</ref>
There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. [[Purgatory]] is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.<ref name="Schreck" /> [[Heaven#In Roman Catholicism|Heaven]] is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.<ref name="Schreck" /> Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to [[Hell in Christian beliefs#Roman_Catholicism|hell]], an everlasting separation from God.<ref name="OneFaith105">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 105</ref> The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God and his love.<ref name="Schreck" /> He [[predestination|predestines]] no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.<ref name="Schreck" /> Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved "like the [[Saint Dismas|good thief]] who was crucified next to Jesus".<ref name="Schreck" /><ref name="Luke23">{{bibleverse||Luke|23:39–43}}</ref>
== Prayer and worship==
In the Catholic Church, a distinction is made between the formal, public [[Catholic liturgy|liturgy]] and other prayers or devotions. The liturgy is regulated by [[Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments|Church authority]]<ref name="Schreck141">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 141</ref> and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the [[Liturgy of the Hours]]. All Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church but individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.<ref name="Schreck193">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 193</ref> The Church provides a set of precepts that every Catholic is expected to follow.<ref name="Precepts">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 2041–3 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a3.htm#II| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> These set a minimum standard for personal prayer and require the Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of [[fasting and abstinence in the Roman Catholic Church|fasting and of abstinence]] as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.<ref name="Precepts"/>
=== Eucharist ===
{{seealso|Eucharist (Catholic Church)|Catholic liturgy|Sacraments of the Catholic Church}}
The Eucharist, also known as ''Holy Communion,'' or ''the Lord's Supper'',<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1324–31 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-11}}</ref> is celebrated at each [[Catholic Mass|Mass]]. This sacrament is considered to be the center of Catholic worship.<ref name="Kreeft320">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 320</ref> The Church believes that at the [[Last Supper]], Jesus ratified a [[New Covenant]] with humanity by instituting the Eucharist and that the [[Sacramental bread|bread]] and [[Sacramental wine|wine]] brought to the altar at each Mass are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ through [[transubstantiation]].<ref name="Schreck232">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 232–7</ref><ref name="Kreeft328">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 328</ref> The Eucharist is distributed to worshippers through the eating of the consecrated unleavened bread, or bread-like wafer, or the drinking of consecrated wine from a common cup. Catholicism teaches that just as God's first covenant or solemn agreement with Moses and the Hebrew people was sealed with the blood of sacrificial animals, his new covenant with humanity was sealed with the blood of Jesus.<ref name="Schreck232"/> The words of institution for this sacrament are found in the three [[synoptic Gospels]] of Matthew,<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|26:26–28}}</ref> Mark,<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|14:22–24}}</ref> and Luke,<ref>{{bibleverse||Luke|22:19–20}}</ref> as well as in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|I Corinthians]];<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Cor|11:23–25}}</ref> "Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me.' "<ref name="Luke22">{{bibleverse||Luke|22:19}}</ref> "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, 'Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.' "<ref name="Mthew">{{bibleverse||Matthew|26:27–28}}</ref> The New Covenant is, according to Catholic teaching, celebrated and renewed in the Eucharist.<ref name="Schreck232"/> [[Image:BentoXVI-51-11052007 (frag).jpg|left|thumb|[[Pope Benedict XVI]] celebrates Holy Mass at the [[canonization]] of [[Frei Galvão]] in [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] on [[May 11]], [[2007]].]]
The celebration of the Eucharist in the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] is termed [[Divine Liturgy]]. Variations in this liturgy between the different Eastern Churches reflect different cultural traditions. The ordinary form of the Eucharist in the Latin rite, the [[Mass of Paul VI]], is most often celebrated in the [[vernacular]]. It is separated into two parts. The first, called [[Liturgy of the Word#Liturgy of the Word|Liturgy of the Word]], consists of readings from the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]s, a Gospel passage and the priest's [[homily]] or explanation of one of those passages.<ref name="Kreeft325"/> The second part, called [[Liturgy of the Word#Liturgy of the Eucharist|Liturgy of the Eucharist]] is the celebration of the Eucharist.<ref name="Kreeft325">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 325</ref> According to professor Alan Schreck, in its main elements and prayers, the Catholic Mass celebrated today "bears striking resemblance" to the form of the Mass described in the [[Didache]] and [[First Apology of Justin Martyr]] in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries.<ref name="Schreck189">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 189–90, quote: "Some of the earliest Christian writings, such as the Didache, or the 'Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,' chapters 9–10 (late first and early second century), and the First Apology of Justin Martyr, chapters 65–67 (about A.D. 155), describe the primitive form of the Mass and its prayers in a way that bears striking resemblance to the basic format of the Mass today. In fact, the main elements of St. Justin's description of the Mass are almost identical to the form Catholics now employ."</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1345–6 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm| accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref>
An alternate or extraordinary form of Mass, celebrated primarily in Latin, is that used prior to the Second Vatican Council. Called the [[Tridentine Mass]], it derives from the missal [[promulgated]] by [[Pope Pius V]] after the [[Council of Trent]]. It was intended to reaffirm, in opposition to Protestant belief, that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Jesus' death as the one he suffered on [[Calvary]].<ref name ="Orate">Traufler, ''The Mass'' (1927), p. 79</ref> Although this form was superseded by the vernacular as the primary form after the Second Vatican Council, it was not forbidden; it was offered by an [[indult]] since Pope John Paul II's 1988 [[motu proprio]], ''[[Ecclesia Dei]]''<ref>{{cite web | last =John Paul II | first =Pope | title =Ecclesia Dei | publisher =Vatican | date =1988 | url =http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/motu_proprio/documents/hf_jp-ii_motu-proprio_02071988_ecclesia-dei_en.html | accessdate =2008-03-27}}</ref> and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio, ''[[Summorum Pontificum]]''.<ref>{{cite web | last =Benedict XVI | first =Pope | title =Summorum Pontificum | publisher =Eternal Word Television Network | date =2007 | url =http://www.ewtn.com/library/papaldoc/b16SummorumPontificum.htm | accessdate =2008-03-27}}</ref>
Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,<ref name="Kreeft326">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 326</ref> there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the Mass are specified and Catholics must abstain from eating for one hour before receiving Communion.<ref name="Kreeft331">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 331</ref> Those who are conscious of being in a state of [[mortal sin]] are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.<ref name="Kreeft331"/> According to Church belief, receiving the Eucharist forgives venial sins.<ref name="Kreeft331"/> Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, [[full communion|intercommunion]] with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.<ref name=East/> Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they freely ask for them, truly believe what the Catholic Church teaches regarding the sacraments, and have the proper disposition to receive them.<ref name=East>{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1399–401 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm| accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref> Catholics may not receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1400 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-06-05}}</ref>
===Liturgy of the Hours and the liturgical year===
{{seealso|Liturgy of the Hours}}
In the Gospel of Luke, [[Jesus]] instructs his disciples to "pray always".<ref name="Luke">{{bibleverse||Luke|18:1}}</ref> The Liturgy of the Hours, or Divine Office, is the Church's effort to respond to this request. It is considered to be an extension of the celebration of the Mass and is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.<ref name="Schreck198">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 198</ref> It makes particular use of the [[Psalms]] as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.<ref name="Schreck198"/> It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church that has been called a [[breviary]]. By [[canon law]], priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 276 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__PY.HTM|publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]| accessdate =2008-03-09}}</ref> Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.<ref name="Schreck198"/><ref name="liturgy of the hours">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1174–8, 1196 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s1c2a1.htm#IV| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref>
The [[liturgical year]] is the annual calendar of the Catholic Church.<ref name="OneFaith116"/> The Church sets aside certain days and seasons of each year to recall and celebrate various events in the life of Christ.<ref name="OneFaith116"/> The Byzantine liturgical year, like the former [[Byzantine calendar|imperial calendar]], starts on [[1 September]], while in the Western Church the liturgical year begins with [[Advent]], the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time.<ref name="OneFaith116"/> [[Christmas]]tide follows, beginning on the night of [[24 December]] (Christmas Eve), and ending with the feast of the [[Baptism of the Lord|baptism of Jesus]].<ref name="OneFaith116"/> [[Lent]] is the period of purification and penance that in the Latin church begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on [[Maundy Thursday|Holy Thursday]].<ref name="OneFaith116"/> (In the [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine]] Catholic churches, "Great Lent" begins on [[Clean Monday]] and, counting the Sundays as part of the forty days of Lent, ends on [[Lazarus Saturday]], being followed immediately by [[Holy Week|Great and Holy Week]].) The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the [[Last Supper|Lord's Supper]] marks the beginning of the [[Easter Triduum]] which includes [[Good Friday]], [[Holy Saturday]] and [[Easter Sunday]].<ref name="OneFaith116"/> These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection.<ref name="OneFaith116"/> The seven-week liturgical season of [[Easter]] immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at [[Pentecost]]. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the [[Ascension of Jesus]].<ref name="OneFaith116"/> The rest of the liturgical year is known as [[Ordinary Time]].<ref name="OneFaith116">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 116</ref>
=== Devotional life, prayer, Mary and the saints ===
{{seealso| Catholic spirituality|Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church}}
[[Image:Albrecht Dürer 022.jpg|thumb|180 px|Mary, Joseph, and the child Jesus during the [[flight into Egypt]] are depicted in a panel from [[Albrecht Dürer]]'s ''Seven Sorrows of the Virgin'' (c. 1494–97).]]
In addition to the Mass, the Catholic Church considers prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and one of the principal ways its members nourish a relationship with God.<ref name="OneFaith8698">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 86, 98</ref> The ''Catechism'' identifies three types of prayer: vocal prayer (sung or spoken), meditation and contemplative prayer. Quoting from the early [[Church Fathers|church father]] [[John Chrysostom]] regarding vocal prayer, the ''Catechism'' states, "Whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls."<ref name="prayer methods"/> Meditation is prayer in which the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking."<ref name="prayer methods"/> Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.<ref name="prayer methods"/> Three of the most common devotional prayers of the Catholic Church are [[The Lord's Prayer]], the [[Rosary]] and [[Stations of the Cross]].<ref name="OneFaith122" /> These prayers are most often vocal, yet always meditative and contemplative. [[Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament]] is a common form of contemplative prayer, whereas [[Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament|Benediction]] is a common vocal method of prayer. ''[[Lectio Divina|Lectio divina]]'', which means "sacred reading", is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop into habitual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals, the Rosary, or the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.<ref name="prayer methods">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 2697–724 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p4s1c3a1.htm| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref>
Prayers and [[Catholic devotions|devotions]] to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)|Virgin Mary]] and the [[saint]]s are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the [[latria|worship]] of God.<ref name="Schreck200">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), pp. 199–200</ref> Explaining the [[intercession of saints]], the ''Catechism'' states that the saints "... do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."<ref name="vatican.va-956"/><ref name="Schreck200"/> The Church holds Mary, as [[Perpetual virginity|ever Virgin]] and [[Theotokos|Mother of God]]". in special regard. She is believed to have been [[Immaculate Conception| conceived without original sin]], and was [[Assumption of Mary| assumed into heaven]]. These [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogmas]], focus of [[Roman Catholic Mariology]], are considered infallible. She is honored with many titles such as [[Queen of Heaven]]. [[Pope Paul VI]] called her [[Mother of the Church]], because by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the [[Body of Christ]].<ref name="OneFaith106">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 106</ref> Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions, such as the [[Rosary]], the [[Hail Mary]], the [[Salve Regina]] and the [[Memorare]] are old Catholic practices.<ref name="OneFaith122">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), pp. 122–3</ref> Pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as [[Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes|Lourdes]] and [[Our Lady of Fátima|Fátima]] are popular devotions. The Church celebrates several liturgical Marian feasts throughout the Church Year.<ref>{{cite news | last =Baedeker | first =Rob | title =World's most-visited religious destinations | journal =USA Today | date =2007 | url =http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2007-12-21-most-visited-religious-spots-forbes_N.htm | accessdate =2008-03-03 }}</ref>
==Church organization and community==
Although the Church considers Jesus to be its ultimate spiritual head, as an earthly organization its spiritual head and leader is the pope.<ref name="Kreeft109">Kreeft, ''Catholic Christianity'' (2001), p. 109</ref> The pope governs from [[Vatican City]] in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the civil head of state.<ref>{{cite web | title =Country profile: Vatican | publisher =BBC | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1066140.stm| date=2008-01-29 | accessdate=2008-03-09 }}</ref> Each pope is elected for life by the [[College of Cardinals]], a body composed of bishops and priests who have been granted the status of Cardinal by previous popes. The cardinals, who also serve as papal advisors, may select any male member of the Church to reign as pope, but if not already [[ordination|ordained]] as a [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishop]], such ordination must occur before the candidate can take papal office.<ref>{{cite web | last =Thavis | first =John | title =Election of new pope follows detailed procedure
| publisher = Catholic News Service| date = 2005| url =http://www.catholicnews.com/jpii/stories/concl03.htm | accessdate =2008-02-11 }}</ref> The pope is assisted in the administration of the Church by the [[Roman Curia]], or civil service. The Church community is governed according to formal regulations set out in the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]. The official language of the Church is Latin, however Italian is the working language of the Vatican administration.<ref>{{cite web | title =Vatican Introduces Latin to 21st Century With New Dictionary | work = The New York Times| date =2003-05-14 | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEED6113FF937A25756C0A9659C8B63| accessdate =2008-05-13 }}</ref>
Worldwide, the Catholic Church comprises a Western or [[Latin Rite|Latin]] and 22 [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] [[Particular Church|autonomous particular churches]]. The Latin Church divides into jurisdictional areas known as [[diocese]]s, or [[eparchy|eparchies]] in the Eastern Church. Each is headed by a [[bishop]], [[patriarch]] or [[Eparchy|eparch]], appointed by the pope. By 2007, including both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 [[Episcopal see|sees]].<ref name="sees">Vatican, ''[[Annuario Pontificio]] (Pontifical Yearbook)'' (2007), p. 1172</ref> Each diocese is divided into individual communities called [[parish]]es, which are staffed by one or more priests.<ref name="OneFaith52">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 52</ref>
The community is made up of [[ordination|ordained]] members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as [[Nun#Roman_Catholic|nuns]], [[friar]]s and [[Monk#Roman_Catholic_Monks|monks]] are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 207 |url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_PS.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>
=== Ordained members and Holy Orders===
{{seealso|Catholic Church hierarchy|College of Bishops|Priesthood (Catholic Church)|Deacon}}
Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of [[Holy Orders]], and form a three-part [[Catholic Church hierarchy|hierarchy]] of [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]], [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priests]] and [[deacon]]s. As a body the [[College of Bishops]] are considered to be the successors of the apostles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 42 |url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG1199/_P16.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 375 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P1D.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, [[patriarch]]s, [[Primate (religion)|primates]], [[archbishop]]s and [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitans]] of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).<ref name="OneFaith114">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 114</ref> While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. Priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, but only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Deacons |url=http://www.usccb.org/deacon/faqs.shtml |author=Committee on the Diaconate |publisher=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>
[[Image:Priestly ordination.jpg|thumb|A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France]]
Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the [[Latin Rite]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 1037 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3R.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 1031 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3Q.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cholij| first=Roman |title=Priestly Celibacy in Patristics and in the History of the Church|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html |publisher=Vatican |date=1993 |accessdate=2008-04-06}}</ref> The [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] ordain both celibate and married men.<ref>{{cite web | last =Niebuhur | first =Gustav | title =Bishop's Quiet Action Allows Priest Both Flock And Family | work =The New York Times | date =1997-02-16 | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07EEDD133FF935A25751C0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all | accessdate =2008-04-04 }}</ref><ref>''Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium 1990'', Code of Canon Law for the Eastern Catholic Churches, Canons 285, 373, 374, 758</ref> All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be knowingly ordained.<ref name="vatdocord">{{cite news|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20051104_istruzione_en.html|author=Pope Benedict XVI|publisher=Vatican|year=2005|title=Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>
All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canons 232–93 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__PW.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-05-05}}</ref> They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as [[Pastores Dabo Vobis]], [[Novo Millennio Ineunte]], [[Optatam Totius]] and others to create these programs.<ref>USCCB, ''Program for Priestly Formation'' (2006), preface</ref> In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a [[seminary]]. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.<ref>USCCB, ''Program for Priestly Formation'' (2006), paras. 72, 243</ref> The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.<ref name="OneFaith114"/>
Because the [[Twelve Apostles]] chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1577 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c3a6.htm#III| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> While this position on an all male priesthood has been criticized as evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,<ref name="Bokenkotter496">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 496</ref> the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.<ref name="Benedict180">Pope Benedict XVI, ''Jesus of Nazareth'' (2008), pp. 180–1, quote: "The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that 'many' women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection."</ref> Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.<ref name="CFL">{{cite web | last =John Paul II | first =Pope | title =Christifideles Laici | publisher =Vatican | date =1988 | url =http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_30121988_christifideles-laici_en.html | accessdate =2008-03-17 }}</ref> This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in [[Pope Paul VI]]'s statement "If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities".<ref name="CFL"/>
=== Lay members, Marriage ===
{{seealso|Laity}}
The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being important to enable the body to function.<ref name="Schreck153">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 153</ref> The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.<ref name="laity">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 871–2, 899, 901, 905, 908–9 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#II| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref> Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of [[Christian views of marriage|Holy Matrimony]] in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or [[deacon]] serves as witness.<ref name="OneFaith114"/> In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.<ref name="marriage">{{cite web | last =Paragraph numbers 1623 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P52.HTM| accessdate = 2008-06-05}}</ref> Church law makes no provision for [[divorce]], however [[annulment]] may be granted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.<ref name="Schreck350">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 350</ref> [[Natural family planning]] is approved.<ref name="Schreck315">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 315</ref>
[[Roman Catholic lay ecclesial movement|Lay ecclesial movements]] consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.<ref name="tertiaries"/> Such groups include: [[Communion and Liberation]], [[Neocatechumenal Way]], [[Regnum Christi]], [[Opus Dei]], [[Life Teen]] and many others.<ref name="tertiaries">{{cite web | last =Pontifical Council for the Laity| title =International Associations of the Faithful | publisher =Vatican | date =2000 | url =http://209.85.207.104/search?q=cache:JRPsPBBPiVEJ:www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/laity/documents/rc_pc_laity_doc_20051114_associazioni_en.html+lay+ecclesial+movements,+tertiaries&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=16&gl=us | accessdate =2008-03-27 }}</ref> Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 129 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__PF.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> These are called [[Lay Ecclesial Ministry|lay ecclesial ministers]], a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.<ref name="USCB9">USCCB, ''Co–Workers in the Vineyard of the Lord'' (2005), p. 9</ref>
==== Religious orders ====
{{seealso|Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|Roman Catholic religious order}}
[[Image:Teresa of Avila dsc01644.jpg|thumb|[[Teresa of Ávila]], shown in a 1615 painting by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], was a [[Carmelite]] nun honored as a [[Doctor of the Church]].]]
Both the ordained and the laity may enter the religious or [[consecrated life]]—either as [[monk]]s or [[nun]]s if cloistered, or [[Roman Catholic religious order|friars and sisters]] if not. A candidate takes [[Religious vows|vows]] confirming their desire to follow the three [[evangelical counsels]] of chastity, poverty and obedience.<ref name = "vatican.va-Canons573">{{cite web |title=Canons 573–746 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P1Y.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>
The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join one of the [[Consecrated life#Institutes of Consecrated Life|religious institutes]] which are also referred to as monastic or religious orders. They follow a common rule such as the [[Rule of St Benedict]] and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canons 573–602, 605–709 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P1Y.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 654 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> They usually live together in groups of various sizes as a [[community]] although occasionally an individual is given permission to live as a [[hermit]], or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 587 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P1Y.HTM|publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Examples of religious institutes include the [[Sisters of Charity]], [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Franciscan]]s, [[Carmelites]], [[Cistercians]], [[Marist Brothers]], [[Paulist Fathers]] and the [[Society of Jesus]], but there are many others.<ref name = "vatican.va-Canons573"/>
[[Tertiaries]] are laypersons who live according to the [[Third order|third rule of orders]] such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.<ref name="tertiaries"/> Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in a religious community.
The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, [[Society of Apostolic Life|societies of apostolic life]] and consecrated widows and widowers.<ref name = "vatican.va-Canons573"/> It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 605 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P1Y.HTM|publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>
===Membership===
According to canon law, membership of the Catholic Church is attained through Baptism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canon 11 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3.HTM |publisher=Vatican |work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]]|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> For those baptized as children, [[First Communion]] is a particular rite of passage, when, following instruction, they are allowed to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist for the first time. Christians baptized outside of the Catholic Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the [[Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults]].<ref name="OneFaith56"/><ref>{{cite web | last = Gledhill| first =Ruth | title =Tony Blair converts to Catholicism | work = Times Newspapers Ltd | date =2007 | url =http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3086753.ece | accessdate =2008-04-04 }}</ref> In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the [[Sacraments of Initiation|sacraments of initiation]] at the [[Easter Vigil|Easter vigil]] on [[Holy Saturday]].<ref name="OneFaith56">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 56</ref>
A person can [[Excommunication|excommunicate]] themselves or be excommunicated by committing particularly grave sins.<ref>{{cite web | title =Pro-abortion politicians excluded from Communion: Pope | publisher =''Catholic World News'' | date =2007-05-09 | url =http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=51031 | accessdate =2008-02-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Excommunication | publisher =''Catholic World News'' | date =2007-05-09 | url =http://www.cwnews.com/news/biosgloss/definition.cfm?glossID=91 | accessdate =2008-02-12 }}</ref> Examples include violating the [[Seal of Confession|seal of confession]] (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in [[heresy]], creating [[Schism (religion)|schism]], becoming an [[apostate]] or having an [[abortion]].<ref>{{cite web | author =Ioannes Paulus PP. II |authorlink = Pope John Paul II| title =Evangelium Vitae| publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1995| url = http://www.vatican.va/edocs/ENG0141/__PQ.HTM| accessdate = 2008-03-03}}</ref> Throwing away or retaining for a sacrilegious purpose consecrated [[sacramental bread]] or [[Sacramental wine|wine]] received during the Eucharist is considered an excommunicable offense.<ref>{{cite web | title =Code of Canon Law section 1364,1367 | publisher =Vatican | url =http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P52.HTM | accessdate =2008-03-03 }}</ref> Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.<ref>{{cite web | last =Paragraph number 1463 | title =Catechism of the Catholic Church | publisher = Libreria Editrice Vaticana| date = 1994| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c2a4.htm#IX| accessdate = 2008-02-08}}</ref>
==Catholic institutions, personnel and demographics==
{{see|Roman Catholicism by country}}
[[Image:St. Theresa School 2007.jpg|thumb| right|250 px|[[St. Theresa School]] in Coral Gables, FL is one of over 125,000 worldwide Catholic schools.]]
In 2000, worldwide Catholic institutions totalled 408,637 parishes and missions, 125,016 primary and secondary schools, 1,046 universities, 5,853 hospitals, 8,695 orphanages, 13,933 homes for the elderly and handicapped and 74,936 dispensaries, leprosaries, nurseries and other institutions.<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), pp. 17–20 </ref> Many of these institutions are at least partially staffed by religious sisters who comprise over two thirds of all Church personnel. As of 2000, there were 769,142 religious sisters and 194,454 religious priests and brothers in Africa, the America's, Asia, Europe and Oceania.<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), pp. 41–3 </ref> In addition, there were 3,475 bishops, 914 archbishops, 183 cardinals, 405,178 diocesan and religious priests, 27,824 permanent deacons and 110,583 diocesan and religious seminarians (men studying for the priesthood).<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), pp. 30–5 </ref>
Church membership in 2007 exceeded 1.131 billion people;<ref name="cathstats">{{cite web | title =Number of priests increases, but not as fast as number of Catholics | publisher =Catholic News Service | date =2008-02-29 | url =http://www.catholicnews.com/data/briefs/cns/20080229.htm | accessdate =2008-03-09 }}</ref> a substantial increase over the 1970 figure of 654 million.<ref>{{cite web | last =Bazar | first =Emily | title =Immigrants Make Pilgrimage to Pope | work = USA Today| date =2008-04-16 | url =http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:bm0DPoMmOkIJ:www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-04-15-popeimmigrants_N.htm+Catholic+population+1970&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=27&gl=us | accessdate =2008-05-03 }}</ref> It is the largest Christian church encompassing over half of all Christians, one sixth of the world's population and is the largest organized body of any world religion,<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Duffyp">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), preface</ref> as such, it is known for its ability to use its transnational ties and organizational strength to bring significant resources to needy situations.<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), p. 132 </ref> Although the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,<ref name=bbcfact>{{cite news |title= Factfile: Roman Catholics around the world |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4243727.stm|publisher=BBC News |date=2005-04-01 |accessdate=2008-03-24 }}</ref> membership is growing particularly in Africa and Asia.<ref name="Zenit"/>
Some parts of Europe and the Americas have experienced a priest shortage in recent years as the number of priests has not increased in proportion to the number of Catholics.<ref>{{cite web | last =Pogatchnik | first = Shawn| title =Catholic Priest Shortage | publisher =CBS News | date =2005 | url =http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/04/13/world/main688030.shtml | accessdate =2008-04-04 }}</ref>
The Latin American Church, known for its large parishes where the parishioner to priest ratio is the highest in the world, considers this to be a contributing factor in the rise of pentecostal and evangelical Christian denominations in the region.<ref name="Froehle128"/> [[Secularism]] has seen a steady rise in Europe yet the Catholic presence there remains strong as evidenced by a large presence of Catholic institutions and personnel.<ref name="Froehle128"/>
With an unusually high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else even though the continent is a center of strife between [[Islam]] and Christianity and suffers the world's highest rate of AIDS.<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), pp. 127–8 </ref>
The Church in Asia is a significant minority among other religions yet its vibrance is evidenced by the large proportion of women religious, priests and parishes to total Catholic population.<ref name="Froehle128">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), pp. 128–9 </ref>
Oceania is overwhelmingly Christian with Catholic the majority denomination. There, the Church faces challenges in reaching indigenous populations where over 715 different languages are spoken.<ref name="Froehle128"/> Of the 1.5 billion worldwide Catholics, 12% reside in Africa, 50% in the American continent, 10% are in Asia, 27% in Europe and 1% live in Oceania.<ref name="Froehle">Froehle, ''Global Catholicism'' (2003), p. 10 </ref>
==History==
{{main|History of the Roman Catholic Church}}
{{see|History of Christianity|History of Western civilization|Criticism of the Catholic Church}}
{{seealso|Role of the Roman Catholic Church in civilization}}
=== Roman Empire===
The Catholic Church believes it came fully into being on the day of [[Pentecost]] when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles emerged from hiding following the death of Jesus to preach and spread his message.<ref name="Vidmar19">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 19–20</ref><ref name="Schreck130">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 130</ref> According to church tradition, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities.<ref name="Vidmar19"/><ref name="Hitchcock 281"/><ref name="Bokenkotter18"/> Historians believe that over 40 such communities were established by the year 100.<ref name="Hitchcock 281"> Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 281, quote: "By the year 100, more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean, including two in North Africa, at Alexandria and Cyrene, and several in Italy."</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter18">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 18, quote: "The story of how this tiny community of believers spread to many cities of the Roman Empire within less than a century is indeed a remarkable chapter in the history of humanity."</ref> From the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] had led the Church there.<ref name="Norman11"/><ref name="Vidmar40">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 40–2, quote: "Several pieces of evidence indicate that the Bishop of Rome even after Peter held some sort of preeminence among other bishops. ... (lists several historical documents) ... None of these examples, taken by themselves, would be sufficient to prove the primacy of the successors of Peter and Paul. Taken together, however, they point to a Roman authority which was recognized in the early church as going beyond that of other churches."</ref><ref name="McManners361">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]], quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians ... Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the second century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles ... Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition or true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with [[Gnosticism]] Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in [[Asia Minor]] created by the claims of the Montanist prophets to be the organs of the Holy Spirit's direct utterances."</ref>
[[Image:The Christian Martyrs Last Prayer.jpg|left|thumb|250 px|Early Christians were martyred as entertainment in the [[Colosseum]] in Rome, a short distance from the [[Vatican Hill]]. [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1883.]]
The apostles had already convened the first Church council, the [[Council of Jerusalem]], in or around the year 50 to reconcile differences concerning the Gentile mission.<ref name= "McManners37">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), p. 37, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]], quote: "In Acts 15 scripture recorded the apostles meeting in synod to reach a common policy about the Gentile mission."</ref> Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, the Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in [[ecumenical council]]s to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.<ref name="McManners371">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), pp. 37–8, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]], quote: "The '[[synod]]' or, in Latin, 'council' (the modern distinction making a synod something less than a council was unknown in antiquity) became an indispensable way of keeping a common mind, and helped to keep maverick individuals from centrifugal tendencies. During the third century synodal government became so developed that synods used to meet not merely at times of crisis but on a regular basis every year, normally between Easter and Pentecost."</ref> In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological [[apologists]] such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Augustine of Hippo]].<ref name="Norman27">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 27–8, quote: "A distinguished succession of theological apologists added intellectual authority to the resources at the disposal of the papacy, at just that point in its early development when the absence of a centralized teaching office could have fractured the universal witness to a single body of ideas. At the end of the first century there was St. Clement of Rome, third successor to St. Peter in the see; in the second century there was St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Irenaeus of Lyons and St. Justin Martyr; in the fourth century St. Augustine of Hippo, the greatest theologian of the Early Church."</ref>
Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]].<ref name="Hitchcock 282"> Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 282 </ref>
Beginning under [[Nero]] in the first century, peresecution, at first intermittent, became more extensive by the mid-third century, culminating in the [[Diocletianic Persecution|great persecution]] of [[Diocletian]] and [[Galerius]], which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.<ref name="StoChris53">Collins, ''The Story of Christianity'' (1999), pp. 53–5</ref> In spite of these persecutions Christianity continued to spread. The [[Edict of Milan]] of the Emperor [[Constantine I]] finally legalized Christianity in 313.<ref name="Hitchcock 282"/>
In 325, the [[First Council of Nicaea]] was convened in response to the [[Arianism|Arian]] challenge concerning the [[Trinity|trinitarian]] nature of God. The council formulated the [[Nicene Creed]] as a basic statement of Christian belief.<ref name="Hitchcock 283"> Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 283 </ref> Emperor Constantine I commissioned the [[Old St. Peter's Basilica|first Basilica of St. Peter]] and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.<ref name="SandSp18">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 18</ref> The observation of Sunday as the official day of worship, the use of the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar had been established by this time.<ref name="Hitchcock P.284">Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 284</ref> By 380, Christianity had become the official religion of the Empire.<ref name="Hitchcock 286"> Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 286</ref>
In subsequent decades a series of [[Ecumenical council|ecumenical christological councils]] codified critical elements of the Church's theology. The [[Council of Rome]] in 382 set the [[Biblical canon]], listing the accepted books of the ''[[Old Testament|Old]]'' and ''[[New Testament]]'', and in 391 the [[Vulgate]] Latin translation of the Bible was made.<ref name="StoChris61">Collins, ''The Story of Christianity'' (1999), pp. 61–2</ref> The Councils of [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]] in 431, and [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] two decades later, clarified the nature of Jesus' [[incarnation]].<ref name="SandSp35">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 35</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter223">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 84–93</ref> These definitions sparked [[Monophysite]] disagreements which led to the first of the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] breaking away from the Catholic Church.<ref name="McManners371">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), p. 142, Chapter 4 Eastern Christendom by [[Timothy Ware|Kallistos Ware]] </ref>
{{clear}}
=== Early Middle Ages===
{{see|Middle Ages|Christian monasticism}}
After the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in 476, the Catholic faith competed with [[Arianism|Arian Christianity]] for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.<ref name="LeGoff20">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), pp. 5–20</ref> The 496 conversion of [[Clovis I]], pagan king of the [[Franks]], marked the beginning of a steady rise of the Catholic faith in the West.<ref name="LeGoff21">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), p. 21</ref>
[[Image:Fra Angelico 031.jpg|left|thumb|[[Saint Benedict]], father of Western monasticism and author of ''[[Rule of St Benedict]]''. Detail from fresco by [[Fra Angelico]], c. 1437–46.]]
In 530, [[Saint Benedict]] wrote his ''[[Rule of St Benedict|monastic Rule]]'', which became a blueprint for the organization of [[Monastery|monasteries]] throughout Europe.<ref name="Woods27">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), p. 27</ref> The new monasteries preserved classical craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, [[Scriptorium|scriptoria]] and libraries. As well as providing a focus for spiritual life, they functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers, particularly in remote regions, becoming major conduits of civilization.<ref name="LeGoff120">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), p. 120</ref> From 590 [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed church practice and administration, launching renewed missionary efforts.<ref name="Duffy52">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 50–2</ref> As the Visigoths and Lombards moved from Arianism toward Catholicism,<ref name="LeGoff21"/> missionaries such as [[Augustine of Canterbury]], [[Saint Boniface]], [[Willibrord]] and [[Ansgar]] took Catholic Christianity to the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Slavic peoples]] of northern Europe. Later missions reached the [[Viking]]s and other [[Scandinavia]]ns.<ref name="StoChris84">Collins, ''The Story of Christianity'' (1999), pp. 84–6</ref>
In the early 700s, [[iconoclasm]] became a major source of conflict between the Eastern and Western churches. Under the direction of the Byzantine emperors, iconoclasts ordered the destruction of all religious images. [[Iconodule]]s supported by the pope and the Western Church strongly opposed this.<ref name="Vidmar103">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 102–3</ref><ref name="Duffy63">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 63, quote: "Leo's edict was the product of profound social panic, several generations of theological reflection by bishops and theologians, and the cumulative impact of controversy about the person and natures of Christ. Whatever the causes however, the Emperor's attack on images, and the resulting wave of image-breaking or 'iconoclasm', fell like a thunderbolt in the West. ... and Pope Gregory II saw in it yet another example of the empire espousing heresy. Indignantly, he rejected Leo's decree, and warned him that as a layman he had no right to interfere in theological matters. The Emperor ordered the new Exarch to depose the Pope, provoking a series of uprisings ... Gregory did what he could to prevent this feeling escalating into revolution, urging loyalty to the imperial ideal, but the Iconoclastic crisis deepened under his successor Gregory III (731–41)."</ref> The dispute was resolved in 787 when the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] ruled in favor of icons.<ref name="Duffy74">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 63, 74</ref> In 800, continuing disagreements with the east culminated when the pope crowned [[Charlemagne]] Holy Roman Emperor in the west. Charlemagne attempted to unify Western Europe through the common bond of Christianity, creating an improved system of education and establishing unified laws. However imperial interest created a problem for the church as succeeding emperors sought to impose increasingly tight control over the popes.<ref name="Vidmar107">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 107–11</ref><ref name="Duffy78">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the Pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the Pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate, and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."</ref> Disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again in 858, when [[Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople]], favored by the pope, was deposed for the more extreme [[Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople|Photios]].<ref name="Duffy82">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 82</ref> The pope declared the election of Photios invalid and excommunicated him. The consequent long-running dispute added to the growing alienation between the churches.<ref name="Vidmar103"/><ref name="Duffy81">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 81–2, quote: "Relations between Rome and Constantinople had been poor for generations, and since the creation of the Carolingian empire and the Iconoclastic controversy what little contact there was between the Latin and Greek Churches was charged with mutual suspicion. The Photius affair crystallised that hostility."</ref>
After a particularly acrimonious dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily, the two Churches mutually excommunicated each other in 1054, resulting in the [[East-West Schism]].<ref name="SandSp91"/> The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref name="StoChris44">Collins, ''The Story of Christianity'' (1999), p. 103</ref><ref name="Vidmar104">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 104</ref> The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) both failed to heal the schism.<ref name="Duffy119">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 119, 131</ref> Some [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern churches]] have subsequently reunited with the Catholic Church.<ref name="Vidmar104"/><ref>{{cite web | title =Eastern Catholic | work = Catholic World News| publisher =Trinity Communications | date =2008 | url =http://209.85.207.104/search?q=cache:wklnnxgTmVMJ:www.cwnews.com/news/biosgloss/definition.cfm%3FglossID%3D67+uniate&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=16&gl=us | accessdate =2008-05-30 }}</ref> Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although [[Catholic-Orthodox Joint Declaration of 1965|excommunications were mutually lifted]] in 1965.<ref name="Duffy278">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 278</ref>
{{clear}}
=== High Middle Ages===
{{see|High Middle Ages}}
The [[Cluniac reforms|Cluniac reform]] of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked a great monastic renewal.<ref name="Duffy88">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 88–9</ref> Monasteries introduced new crops, developed technologies such as metallurgy, fostered the creation and preservation of literature, and invented musical notation. They could also function as credit establishments promoting economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.<ref name="Woods40">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), pp. 40–4</ref><ref name="LeGoff80">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), pp. 80–2</ref> After 1100, some cathedral schools split into lower, grammar, schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in [[University of Bologna|Bologna]], then at [[University of Paris|Paris]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], some of these higher schools developed into [[Medieval university|universities]], the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.<ref name="Woods44">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), pp. 44–8</ref> Notable theologians such as [[Thomas Aquinas]] worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.<ref name="Bokenkotter158"/> His ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought and Christianity.<ref name="Bokenkotter158">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 158–9</ref>
[[Image:CouncilofClermont.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] (1095), where he preached the [[First Crusade]]; later [[illuminated manuscript|manuscript illumination]] of c. 1490]]
In 1095, Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help in warding off a Turkish invasion.<ref name="rileysmith">Riley-Smith, ''The First Crusaders'' (1997), p. 8</ref> Urban launched a military campaign known as the [[First Crusade]], believing that it might help to bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity.<ref name="Vidmar130">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 130–1</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter140">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 140 quote: "And so when Urban called for a crusade at Clermont in 1095, one of his motives was to bring help to the beleaguered Eastern Christians."</ref> Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians,<ref name="Bokenkotter155">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 155 quote: "Stories were also circulating about the harsh treatment of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem at the hands of the infidel, inflaming Western opinion."</ref> the series of military campaigns that followed were intended to return the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.<ref name="LeGoff66">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), pp. 65–7</ref> [[Fourth Crusade#Diversion_to_Constantinople|The sack of Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]] left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that [[Pope Innocent III]] had expressly forbidden any such attack.<ref name="Tyerman">Tyerman, ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'' (2006), pp. 525–60</ref> In 2001, [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.<ref>{{cite web | title =Pope sorrow over Constantinople
| publisher =BBC News | date = 2004-06-29| url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3850789.stm | accessdate =2008-04-06 }}</ref>
Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style combined massive walls, rounded arches and ceilings of masonry. To compensate for the absence of large windows, interiors were brightly painted with scenes from the Bible and the lives of the saints. Later, the [[Basilique Saint-Denis]] marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized [[Gothic architecture]].<ref name="Woods122">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), pp. 119–22</ref> This style, with its large windows and high, pointed arches, improved lighting and geometric harmony in a manner that was intended to direct the worshiper's mind to God who "orders all things".<ref name="Woods122"/> [[Cistercian]] monk [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] exerted great influence over the eight new monastic orders founded in the 12th century, including the [[Military order|Military Knights]] of the Crusades.<ref name="Norman62">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church'' (2007), p. 62</ref> His influence led [[Pope Alexander III]] to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|canon law]].<ref name="Duffy101">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 101</ref> In the following century, new [[mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Dominic de Guzmán]] which brought [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] into urban settings.<ref name="LeGoff87">Le Goff, ''Medieval Civilization'' (1964), p. 87</ref>
In the 12th century, members of the [[Dominican]] order attempted to convert the [[Cathar]]s, a powerful heretical movement centered in southern France. Cathars held a [[dualistic cosmology|dualistic]] belief in extreme asceticism, taught that all matter was evil, accepted suicide and denied the value of Church sacraments. After a [[papal legate]] was murdered by them in 1208, [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]].<ref name="Duffy112">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 112</ref> Concern that matters had grown so out of hand prompted Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to to bring people considered heretics to trial.<ref name="Vidmar144">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 144–7, quote: "The Albigensian Crusade, as it became known, lasted until 1219. The pope, Innocent III, was a lawyer and saw both how easily the crusade had gotten out of hand and how it could be mitigated. He encouraged local rulers to adopt anti-heretic legislation and bring people to trial. By 1231 a papal inquisition began, and the friars were given charge of investigating tribunals."</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter132">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 132, quote: "A crusade was proclaimed against these Albigenses, as they were sometimes called ... It was in connection with this crusade that the papal system of Inquisition originated-a special tribunal appointed by the Popes and charged with ferreting out heretics. Until then the responsibility devolved on the local bishops. However, Innocent found it necessary in coping with the Albigensian threat to send out delegates who were entrusted with special powers that made them independent of the episcopal authority. In 1233 Gregory IX organized this ''ad hoc'' body into a system of permanent inquisitors, who were usually chosen from among the mendicant friars, Dominicans and Franciscans, men who were often marked by a high degree of courage, integrity, prudence, and zeal."</ref> Formalized under [[Pope Gregory IX |Gregory IX]], this [[Medieval inquisition]] executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.<ref name="Bokenkotter132"/><ref name="Norman93"/>.<ref name="Vidmar144"> Over time, other [[inquisitions]] were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of [[Moors|Moorish]] invasion or for political purposes.<ref name=christopherblack/> Accused persons were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture, and for repeated offences, execution by burning.<ref name="Casey">Casey, ''Early Modern Spain: A Social History'' (2002), pp. 229–30</ref><ref name="christopherblack">Black, ''Early Modern Italy'' (2001), pp. 200–2</ref>[[Catholic Monarchs|King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella]] formed an inquisition in 1480, originally to deal with distrusted ex-Jewish and ex-Muslim converts.<ref name="Kamen48">Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1997), pp. 48–9</ref> Over a 350-year period, this [[Spanish Inquisition]] executed between 3,000 and 4,000 people,<ref name="Vidmar150">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 150–2</ref> representing around two percent of those accused.<ref name="kamen203">Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1997), pp. 59, 203</ref> In 1482, [[Pope Sixtus IV]] condemned its excesses but Ferdinand ignored his protests.<ref name="kamen49">Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1997), p. 49, quote: "In this bull the pope protested ... the Inquisition has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth, and that many true and faithful Christians, on the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other lower and even less proper persons, have without any legitimate proof been thrust into secular prisons, tortured and condemned as relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and property and handed over to the secular arm to be executed, to the peril of souls, setting a pernicious example, and causing disgust to many."</ref> Despite their severities many historians consider that for centuries popular literature and Protestant propaganda have exaggerated the horrors of these inquisitions.<ref name="Armstrong103">Armstrong, ''The European Reformation'' (2002), p. 103, quote: "Contrary to subsequent Protestant propaganda the procedure followed by the (Papal) Inquisition was careful and respectful with regard to legal rights. Clear proof was required, along with two witnesses, and rarely was torture used to extract confessions. Anonymous denunciations were illegal, while a defence lawyer was guaranteed for the suspect. Punishments were generally lenient and designed to bring the guilty party back into the fold. The public abjuration of protestantism before a congregation might suffice, for example."</ref><ref name="Norman92"/><ref name="McManners215">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 215, Chapter 5 Christianity and Islam by Jeremy Johns (University of Oxford), quote: "The inquisition has come to occupy such a role in European demonology that we must be careful to keep it in proportion. ... and the surviving records indicate that the proportion of executions was not high."</ref><ref name="Vidmar146">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 146, quote: "The extent of the Inquisition trials for heresy has been highly exaggerated. Once the Inquisition was established ... the pyromania which had characterized lay attempts to suppress heresy came to an end. Ninety percent of the sentences were "canonical" or church-related penances: fasting, pilgrimage, increased attendance at Mass, the wearing of distinctive clothing or badges, etc. The number of those who were put to death was very small indeed. The best estimate is that, of every hundred people sentenced, one person was executed, and ten were given prison terms. Even these latter could have their sentences reduced once the inquisitors left town."</ref> <ref name="Norman92">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 93, quote: "... subsequent Protestant propaganda for centuries identified the entire Catholic Church in Spain, and elsewhere, with their occasional excesses. By the 19th century political liberals and religious dissenters took the 'crimes' of the Inquisition to be the ultimate proofs of the vile character of 'popery', and an enormous popular literature on the subject poured from the presses of Europe and North America. At its most active, in the 16th century, nevertheless, the Inquisition was regarded as far more enlightened than the secular courts: if you denied the Trinity and repented you were given penance; if you stole a sheep and repented you were hung. It has been calculated that only one per cent of those who appeared before the Inquisition tribunals eventually received death penalties. But the damage wrought by propaganda has been effective, and today the 'Spanish' Inquisition, like the Crusades, persists in supplying supposedly discreditable episodes to damn the memory of the Catholic past."</ref> Over all, one percent of those tried by the inquisitions received death penalties, leading many scholars to consider them rather lenient when compared to the secular courts of the period.<ref name="Norman93"/><ref name="Vidmar150"/><ref name="Armstrong103"/>
A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. [[Pope Clement V|Clement V]] in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside under French influence in the fortified city of [[Avignon]].<ref name="Duffy122">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 122</ref> What became known as the [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1378 when, at the urging of [[Catherine of Siena]] and others, the papacy finally returned to Rome.<ref name="McManners232">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 232, Chapter 6 Christian Civilization by Colin Morris (University of Southampton)</ref><ref name="Vidmar155">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 155</ref> With the death of [[Pope Gregory XI]] later that year, the papal election was strongly disputed. Supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates were unable to come to agreement, resulting in the [[Western Schism|Western schism]] in which for 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third, compromise, pope was elected in 1409.<ref name="McManners240">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 240, Chapter 7 The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation by Patrick Collinson (University of Cambridge)</ref> The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]] pope.<ref name="McManners240"/>
===Late Medieval and Renaissance===
{{Main|Reformation|English Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}
{{see|Roman Catholic Church and colonialism|Catholicism and the wars of religion}}
Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the [[Americas]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]] and [[Oceania]]. [[Pope Alexander VI]], in the papal bull [[Inter caetera]], awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]].<ref name="Koschorke13">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), pp. 13, 283</ref> Under the ''patronato'' system, state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican.<ref name="Dussel39">Dussel, Enrique, ''A History of the Church in Latin America'', Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 39, 59</ref> On December 1511, the Dominican friar [[Antonio de Montesinos (Dominican friar)|Antonio de Montesinos]] openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing [[Hispaniola]] for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people".<ref name="Woods135">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), p. 135</ref><ref name=Johansen109>Johansen, Bruce, ''The Native Peoples of North America,'' Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, pp. 109, 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolome de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail."</ref><ref name="Koschorke287">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), p. 287</ref> [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand]] enacted the ''[[Laws of Burgos]]'' and ''Valladolid'' in response. Enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.<ref name="Dussel45">Dussel, Enrique, ''A History of the Church in Latin America'', Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 45, 52, 53 quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolome de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."</ref> The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.<ref name=Johansen109>Johansen, Bruce, ''The Native Peoples of North America,'' Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, pp. 109, 110, quote: In large part because of Las Casas's work, a movement arose in Spain for more humane treatment of indigenous peoples.</ref><ref name="Koschorke287"/> An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably [[Francisco de Vitoria]], led to debate on the nature of [[human rights]]<ref name="Koschorke287"/> and the birth of modern international law.<ref name="Woods137">Woods, ''How the Church Built Western Civilization'' (2005), p. 137</ref><ref name="Chadwick327">Chadwick, Owen, ''The Reformation'', Penguin, 1990, p. 327</ref>
In 1521, through the leadership and preaching of the Spanish explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]], the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the [[Philippines]].<ref name="Koschorke21">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), p. 21</ref> The following year, [[Franciscan]] missionaries arrived in what is now [[Mexico]], and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well-being by establishing schools and hospitals. They taught the Indians better farming methods, and easier ways of weaving and making pottery. Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism, [[Pope Paul III]] in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or [[Sublimis Deus]] (1537) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people.<ref name=Johansen110>Johansen, Bruce, ''The Native Peoples of North America,'' Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, p. 110, quote: "In the Papal bull ''Sublimis deus'' (1537), Pope Paul III declared that Indians were to be regarded as fully human, and that their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans. This edict also outlawed slavery of Indians in any form ..."</ref><ref name="Koschorke290">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), p. 290</ref> Afterward, the conversion effort gained momentum.<ref name=samora20>Samora ''et al'', ''A History of the Mexican-American People'' (1993), p. 20</ref> Over the next 150 years, the missions expanded into [[Southwestern United States|southwestern North America]].<ref name=jacksonxiv>Jackson, ''From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest'' (2000), p. 14</ref> The native people were legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, often enforced with corporal punishment.<ref name=jacksonxiii>Jackson, ''From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest'' (2000), p. 13</ref> Elsewhere, in India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit [[Francis Xavier]] evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by [[Thomas the Apostle]].<ref name="Koschorke3">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), pp. 3, 17</ref>
[[Image:Whitby abbey.jpg|left|thumb|180 px|[[Whitby Abbey]] England, one of hundreds of European monasteries destroyed during the Reformation.]]
In Europe, the [[Renaissance]] marked a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. It also brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs. Cathedrals and churches had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated. The stained glass windows, [[fresco]]es, statues, paintings and panels retold the stories of the saints and of biblical characters. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like [[Michelangelo]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]], who created some of the world's most famous artworks.<ref name="Duffy133">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 133</ref> In 1509, however, the most famous scholar of the age, [[Erasmus]], wrote ''[[The Praise of Folly]],'' a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church.<ref name="Norman86">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 86</ref> Attempts to eliminate Church corruption by the councils of [[Council of Constance|Constance]], [[Council of Basel|Basel]] and the [[Lateran Council]] were thwarted in large measure by the [[simony]] and [[nepotism]] practiced in the Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries.<ref name="Bokenkotter202"/> As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo [[House of Borgia|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were able to win election to the papacy.<ref name="Bokenkotter202">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 201–5</ref><ref name="Duffy149">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 149</ref> These abuses of power, usury, clerical wealth and hypocrisy all contributed to a general feeling among educated people that reform of some sort was necessary.<ref name="Norman86"/> In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] included his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' in a letter to several bishops, hoping to spark debate.<ref name="Vidmar184">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 184</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter215">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 215</ref> His theses protested key points of Catholic [[doctrine]] as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s.<ref name="Vidmar184"/><ref name="Bokenkotter215"/> [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the [[Protestant Reformation]].<ref name="Vidmar196">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 196–200</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter223">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 223–4</ref> In Germany, the reformation led to war between the Protestant [[Schmalkaldic League]] and the Catholic Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict, the [[Thirty Years' War]], which broke out in 1618.<ref name="Vidmar233"/> In France, a series of conflicts termed the [[French Wars of Religion]] were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the [[Huguenot]]s and the forces of the [[Catholic League (French)|French Catholic League]]. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League.<ref name="Duffy177">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 177–8</ref> This ended under [[Pope Clement VIII]], who hesitantly accepted King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV's]] 1598 [[Edict of Nantes]], which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants.<ref name="Vidmar233">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 233</ref><ref name="Duffy177"/>
The [[English Reformation]] was ostensibly based on [[Henry VIII]]'s desire for annulment of his marriage with [[Catherine of Aragon]], and was initially more of a political than a theological dispute. However, growing theological disagreements eventually came to the fore.<ref name=scruton1996p470>Scruton, ''A Dictionary of Political Thought'' (1996), p. 470, quote: "The (English) Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make any substantial change in doctrine."</ref> The [[Acts of Supremacy]] made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the [[Church of England]]. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, [[Wales]] and [[Ireland]] were [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolved]] and Catholic churches were confiscated.<ref name = Schama>Schama, ''A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World?'' (2003), pp. 309–11</ref><ref name="Vidmar220"/> Henry VIII executed those like [[Thomas More]] who disagreed with his Act of Supremacy. He later reaffirmed Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation and the celibacy of the clergy in the [[Six Articles]] of 1539, in opposition to the Calvinist and Lutheran views that were dominant among the Protestants of continental Europe.<ref name="Vidmar220"/><ref name="Bokenkotter236">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 236 quote: "While no longer the powerful spiritual force and centers of learning they were in the early Middle Ages, the monasteries were an important part of traditional church life and their destruction was an important factor in the gradual triumph of reformation ideas in England. The spread of these ideas occurred in spite of Henry, who though defiant of the Pope remained deeply devoted to traditional Catholicism and was determined to maintain its substance. It is true that under the pressure of political necessity Henry allowed the publication of the ambiguous Ten Articles (1536) and he also approved of the Act that set up the English Bible in all the churches. But his Six Articles (1539) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and imposed savage penalties for denial of transubstantiation, private Masses, private confession, or the need for clerical celibacy."</ref><ref name = Haigh10>Haigh, ''The English Reformation Revised'' (1987), p. 10, quote: "The dominance of the evangelicals was broken in the coups of 1539–40, when Henry's distaste for radical religion and for Anne of Cleves allowed conservatives to reverse religious policy and overthrow Cromwell."</ref> However this affirmation did not extend to papal authority or the dissolution of monasteries, and when he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were gone.<ref name="Vidmar220">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 220, quote: "Henry, seeing how far Cranmer had tried to take him in making the land Lutheran or Calvinist, pulled the plug in September 1538 and passed the Six Articles, which tried to restore the ancient faith, including the practice of celibacy for the clergy. By 1543 most of the Reformation legislation was reversed. One man, John Lambert, was made an example in November 1538. He was burned by being dragged in and out of the fire for holding the very same beliefs about the Eucharist that Cranmer held. Cranmer was made to watch the whole brutal event. He also had to send his wife back to Germany."</ref><ref name = Gonzalez75>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity, Volume 2'' (1985), p. 75, quote: "In England, he took steps to make the church conform as much as possible to Roman Catholicism, except in the matter of obedience to the pope. He also refused to restore monasteries, which he had suppressed and confiscated under the pretense of reformation, and whose properties he had no intention of returning."</ref> [[Mary I of England]] reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the [[Marian Persecutions]].<ref name="Vidmar225">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 225–6</ref><ref name = Haigh159>Haigh, ''The English Reformation Revised'' (1987), p. 159, quote: "Mary wanted to make England a Catholic country as quickly as possible: to reintroduce the pope's authority, to repeal those parliamentary statutes which had so radically altered the relationship of Church and State and to restore to the Church its Catholic doctrine and services. Nothing was to be allowed to stand in her way. No murmurings among the people, no riots or rebellions or intrigues, not even the advice of the Spanish ambassador to make haste slowly could deflect the Queen from her purpose. ... Death by burning at the hands of the sheriffs became the penalty for those who, convicted of heresy in the church courts, refused to recant."</ref> After some provocation, the following monarch, [[Elizabeth I]] enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children.<ref name="Vidmar225"/><ref name=Solt149>Solt, ''Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640'', (1990), p. 149 </ref> [[List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation|Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I]], who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions<ref name="Vidmar225"/> and persisted under subsequent English monarchs.<ref name = SchamaII>Schama, ''A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World?'' (2003), pp. 272–3.</ref> [[Penal Laws (Ireland)|Penal laws]] were also enacted in Ireland<ref name= "jackson">Jackson, ''Ireland Her Own'' (1991), p. 514</ref> but were less effective than in England.<ref name="Vidmar225"/><ref name="Norman132"/> In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.<ref name="Vidmar225"/><ref name="Norman132"/> The [[Catholic Emancipation|Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829]] and subsequent actions of the English parliament eventually helped to eliminate some of the oppressive anti-Catholic laws throughout the British empire.<ref name="Norman132">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 131–2</ref>
[[Image:Stift melk 001 2004.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|[[Melk Abbey]]—adjoining [[Wachau Valley]], [[Lower Austria]]—exemplifies the [[Baroque]] style.]]
Historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]], in his book ''The Reformation, A History'' noted that through all the slaughter of the Reformation era emerged the valuable concept of religious toleration and an improved Catholic Church<ref>{{cite web | last =Potemra | first =Michael | title =Crucible of Freedom | publisher =National Review | date =2004-07-13 | url = http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:KZDS2cPHW0kJ:nationalreview.com/books/potemra200407131542.asp+The+Reformation:+A+History+Diarmaid+MacCulloch+book+review&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=15&gl=us| accessdate =2008-06-21 }}</ref> which responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563). The council became the driving-force of the [[Counter-Reformation]], and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as [[transubstantiation]], and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.<ref name="Bokenkotter242">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 242–4</ref> It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.<ref name="Norman81">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 81</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter242"/><ref name="Vidmar237">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 237</ref> The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the [[Theatines]], [[Barnabites]] and [[Jesuits]], some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.<ref name="Norman91">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 91–2</ref> Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like [[Teresa of Avila]], [[Francis de Sales]] and [[Philip Neri]] whose writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church ([[Oratorians]], [[Carmelites]], [[Salesian]]), etc.<ref name="Bokenkotter251">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 251</ref> Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era, with a proliferation of secondary schools reinvigorating higher studies such as history, philosophy and theology.<ref name="Vidmar241">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 241</ref> To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the [[Baroque]] style in art, music and architecture. Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor.<ref name="Murray45">Murray, ''Dictionary of the Arts'' (1994), p. 45</ref>
Elsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to [[Japan]], and by the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]] who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians.<ref name="Koschorke31">Koschorke, ''A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America'' (2007), pp. 31–2</ref> Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century.<ref name="Koschorke31"/><ref name="McManners318">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 318, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by [[John McManners]]</ref>
===Enlightenment===
Toward the latter part of the 17th century, [[Pope Innocent XI]] attempted to reform abuses by the Church, including [[simony]], [[nepotism]] and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 [[Italian scudo|scudi]].<ref name="Duffy188"/> By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies, Innocent XI was able to regain control of the church's finances.<ref name="Duffy188"/> He further promoted missionary activity across the world while condemning religious persecution of all kinds.<ref name="Duffy188"/> In 1685 King [[Louis XIV]] of France issued the [[Revocation of the Edict of Nantes]], ending a century-long experiment in religious toleration. However, the religious conflicts of the Reformation era had provoked a backlash against Christianity. Secular powers gained control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties.<ref name="Duffy188">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 188–91</ref><ref name="Norman137">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 137</ref> In France, Church battles with [[Jansenism]] and [[Gallicanism]] weakened its ability to respond to thinkers such as [[Denis Diderot]], who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church.<ref name="Bokenkotter267">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 267–9</ref> Matters grew still worse with the violent anti-clericalism of the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Edward">Edward, ''The Cambridge Modern History'' (1908), p. 25</ref> Direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church.<ref name="Bokenkotter285"/> Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason".<ref name="Bokenkotter285"/> In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.<ref name="Bokenkotter285">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 283–5</ref>
When [[Pope Pius VI]] sided against the revolution in the [[First Coalition]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] invaded Italy. The pope was imprisoned by French troops, and died in 1799 after six weeks of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the [[Concordat of 1801]].<ref name="Collins176">Collins, ''The Story of Christianity'' (1999), p. 176</ref> All over Europe, the end of the Napoleonic wars signaled by the [[Congress of Vienna]], brought Catholic revival, renewed enthusiasm, and new respect for the papacy following the depredations of the previous era.<ref name="Duffy216">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 214–6</ref>
[[Image:Ruinas 030.jpg|thumb|250 px|Church from the [[Jesuit Reductions|Indian settlement]] of [[San Ignacio Miní]]]]
In the Americas, the Church expanded its missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military. [[Junípero Serra]], the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which became important economic, political, and religious institutions.<ref name="Norman111">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 111–2</ref> These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] in 1776 and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in 1781. However, by bringing Western civilization to the area, these missions and the Spanish government have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease.<ref name="King">King, ''Mission to Paradise'' (1975), p. 169</ref>
During this period the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called [[Jesuit Reductions|reductions]]. [[Pope Gregory XVI]], challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull [[In Supremo Apostolatus]]), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.<ref name="Duffy221">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 221</ref>
While missionary expansion was occurring in the Americas, the Church in China experienced missionary setbacks in 1721 when the [[Chinese Rites controversy]] led the [[Kangxi Emperor]] to outlaw Christian missions.<ref name="McManners328">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (1990), p. 328, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by [[John McManners]]</ref> This controversy added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits who were held in disdain throughout Europe because they were seen to symbolize the strength and independence of the Church. They also defended the rights of native peoples in South America, hindering the efforts of European powers to maintain absolute rule over their domains.<ref name="Duffy193"/> In 1773, European rulers united to force [[Pope Clement XIV]] to dissolve the order.<ref name="Duffy193">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 193</ref> Several decades later [[Pius VII]] restored the Jesuits in the 1814 papal bull [[Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum]].<ref name="Bokenkotter295">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 295</ref>
=== Industrial age ===
In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] affirmed the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]] when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.<ref name="Leith">Leith, ''Creeds of the Churches'' (1963), p. 143</ref><ref name="Duffy232">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 232</ref> Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a small breakaway movement called the [[Old Catholic Church]].<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001), p. 729</ref>
In Latin America, [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] regimes came to power from the 1830s onward.<ref>Stacy, ''Mexico and the United States'' (2003), p. 139</ref> The confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms generally accompanied secularist, and later, Marxist-leaning, governmental reforms.<ref name="Norman172">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 167–72</ref> One such regime emerged in Mexico in 1860. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy. Harsh enforcement of these measures eventually led to an uprising known as the [[Cristero War]]. Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.<ref name="Scheina">Scheina, ''Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo'' (2003), p. 33</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Van Hove | first =Brian | title =Blood Drenched Altars | publisher =EWTN | date =1994 | url =http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT Blood-Drenched Altars |accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Despite persecution, the Church in Mexico has continued to grow, and a 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.<ref>{{cite web | title = International Religious Freedom Report 2001| publisher = US Department of State| date =2001 | url =http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/9001.pdf | format=PDF| accessdate =2008-03-13 }}</ref> In 1954, under the regime of General [[Juan Perón]], Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.<ref name="Norman167">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 167–8</ref>
The [[Industrial Revolution]] brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Catholic industrialist Lucien Harmel, in 1891 [[Pope Leo XIII]] published the encyclical ''[[Rerum Novarum]]'', which set in context [[Catholic social teaching]] in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. ''Rerum Novarum'' argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form [[trade union]]s.<ref name="Duffy240">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 240</ref>
[[Image:Das Schwarze Korps Eugenio Pacelli Judenfreund Feind des Nationalsozialismus.jpg|thumb|left|180 px|Cardinal Pacelli (the future Pope Pius XII) attacked by Nazi papers as a friend of [[Jew]]s and western [[communists]].]]
By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.<ref name="Has398"/> The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate, and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.<ref name="Has398"/> Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, monasteries and churches.<ref name="Has398">Hastings, ''The Church in Africa'' (2004), pp. 397–410</ref>
In the 1937 encyclical ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'', drafted by the future [[Pope Pius XII]],<ref name="Pham45">Pham, ''Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession'' (2005), p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, ''Mit Brennender Sorge'', his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.' "</ref> [[Pope Pius XI]] warned Catholics that [[antisemitism]] is incompatible with Christianity.<ref name="Vidmar327">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 327–33, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."</ref> However, [[World War II]] presented challenges for the Catholic Church after historians such as [[David Kertzer]] accused it of encouraging centuries of anti–semitism, and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.<ref>{{cite news | last =Eakin | first =Emily | title =New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX | work =The New York Times | date =2001-09-01 | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B04E3DF1130F932A3575AC0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |accessdate=2008-03-09 }}</ref> Although the historical record reveals his words and efforts were against the Nazis, his actions continue to be a source of debate.<ref name="Woolner">Woolner, ''FDR, The Vatican and the Roman Catholic Church'' (2003), pp. 141, 268</ref><ref name="Saints and sinners">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 264, quote: "But clearly the accusations of moral failure cut deep, and in the wake of Hochhuth's play the Vatican took the unprecedented step of appointing a team of Jesuit historians to publish everything in the archives that bore on Vatican involvement with the war and especially with the Jewish question. The resulting eleven volumes of documents decisively established the falsehood of Hochhuth's specific allegations, but did not entirely exorcise the sense that the troubling silence and tortuous diplomacy of the Vatican had more to do with Pius XII's oblique and timid sensibility than with rational prudence."</ref> Prominent members of the Jewish community, including [[Golda Meir]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Moshe Sharett]] and Rabbi [[Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog|Isaac Herzog]] contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews,<ref>{{cite book | last =Kolatch | first = Alfred J.| title =Great Jewish Quotations| publisher = Jonathan David Publishers| url =http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J2wod3MJrEoC&pg=PA315&lpg=PA315&dq=%22When+fearful+martyrdom+came+to+our+people+in+the+decade+of+Nazi+terror,+the+voice+of+the+Pope+was+raised+for+the+victims.+%22&source=web&ots=y2uzgii3UM&sig=5PKlgKyVxWr0aUWvoeH_GvzgJV4&hl=en#PPA325,M1| isbn =978-0824603694}}</ref> while others such as rabbi [[David G. Dalin]] noted that "hundreds of thousands" of Jews were saved by the Church.<ref name="Bokenkotter481">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 480–1, quote:"A recent article by American rabbi, David G. Dalin, challenges this judgement. He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding, and he thinks Jews should reject any 'attempt to usurp the Holocaust' for the partisan purposes at work in this debate. Dalin surmises that well–known Jews such as Albert Einstein, Golda Meir, Moshe Sharett, and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius. Einstein, for instance, in an article in ''Time'', paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' Dalin points out that 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history." ' Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."</ref> Even so, [[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged past sins of the Church against Jews, and in 2000 formally apologized to the Jewish people by inserting a prayer at the [[Western Wall]] that read "We're deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer, and asking your forgiveness, we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."<ref>{{cite web | last =Randall | first = Gene| title = Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land| publisher =CNN | date =2000-03-26 | url =http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:rp_ZurEy5e4J:transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0003/26/bn.02.html+john+paul+ii+apology+at+wailing+wall&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=38&gl=us | accessdate =2008-06-09 }}</ref>
===Vatican II and beyond===
In the aftermath of World War II, religious freedoms came under fire from [[Communism|communist]] governments in [[Eastern Europe]].<ref name="communist"/> Although some priests have since been exposed as collaborators,<ref>{{cite news |first=Craig S. |last=Smith |title=Ties to Communist Secret Police Snare Polish Bishop |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/06/world/europe/06poland.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2007-01-06 |accessdate=2008-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Slovak Church Plans to Review Its Past 50 Years |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/14/world/europe/14slovakia.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=2007-02-14 |accessdate=2008-05-24 }}</ref> both the Church's official resistance and the leadership of [[Pope John Paul II]] are credited with helping to bring about the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.<ref name="communist">{{cite news | title =Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won | work =CBC News | date = April 2005| url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/obit/pope/communism_homeland.html| accessdate =2008-01-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Smith | first =Craig | title =In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics | work =The New York Times | date =2007-01-10 | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/10/world/europe/10poland.html | accessdate = 2008-05-23}}</ref>
The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–65).<ref name="Duffy272">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 270–6</ref> Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under [[Pope John XXIII]] the council developed into an engine of modernisation.<ref name="Duffy272"/> It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world, and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity and religious freedom.<ref name="Duffy272"/> The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the [[Latin liturgical rites]] to use vernacular languages as well as [[Latin]] during mass and other sacraments.<ref name ="Paulvi">{{cite web | last = Paul VI| first =Pope | title =Sacrosanctum Concilium | publisher = Vatican| date = [[1963-12-04]] | url =http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html | accessdate = 2008-02-09}}</ref> Efforts by the Church to improve [[Ecumenism|Christian unity]] became a priority.<ref name="Duffy274">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 274</ref> In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.<ref>{{cite web | title =Roman Catholic-Eastern Orthodox Dialogue | publisher =Public Broadcasting Service | date =2000-07-14 | url =http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week346/feature.html | accessdate =2008-02-16 }}</ref>
Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II stunned many Catholics and produced a variety of responses. Some stopped going to church, while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.<ref name="Bokenkotter410">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 410</ref> The latter formed the basis of today's [[Traditionalist Catholic]] groups, which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far in departing from traditional church norms, particularly with regard to changes made to the Mass. [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal]] Catholics form another dissenting group. They typically take a less literal view of the Bible and of divine revelation, and sometimes disagree with official Church views on social and political issues. The most famous liberal theologian of recent times has been [[Hans Küng]], whose unorthodox views of the [[incarnation]], and his denials of infallibility led to Church withdrawal of his authorization to teach as a Catholic in 1979.<ref>Bauckham, Richard, in ''New Dictionary of Theology'', Ed. Ferguson, (1988), p. 373</ref> In his book ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'', professor Thomas Bokenkotter commented on the situation by stating "Most Catholics, however, accepted the changes more or less gracefully but with little enthusiasm and have learned to take in stride the continuing series of changes that have modified not only the Mass but the other sacraments as well."<ref name="Bokenkotter410"/> In 2007, [[Benedict XVI]] reinstated the old mass as an option.
In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Latin American Church gave birth to [[liberation theology]]. It re–interpreted the Gospel in radical ways that redefined the Church's mission. Peruvian priest, [[Gustavo Gutiérrez]], became one of the movement's better-known scholars.<ref name="LTBBC">{{cite web | title = Liberation Theology| publisher =BBC | date =2005 | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/liberationtheology.shtml | accessdate =2008-06-02 }}</ref> A meeting of Latin American bishops in 1968, charged with the implementation of Vatican II, led to the new movement growing increasingly influential. In 1979, the subsequent bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".<ref>{{cite book |author= Aguilar, Mario |title=The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1 |location=London |publisher=SCM Press |year= 2007 |page= 31|isbn= 978-0334040231}}</ref> Salvadoran Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]] became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered while saying mass by forces allied with the government.<ref>For more on Romero, by a former colleague, see {{cite book|author= Sobrino, Jon |authorlink= Jon Sobrino |title= Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections |location= Maryknoll, NY |publisher= Orbis |year= 1990 |isbn= 978-0883446676}}</ref> [[Pope John Paul II]] and [[Pope Benedict XVI]] have denounced the movement as dangerous and "a fundamental threat to the faith of the church"<ref>{{cite news | last = Rohter| first =Larry | title =As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists | publisher =''The New York Times'' | date =2007-05-07 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/world/americas/07theology.html | accessdate =2008-02-21 }} Benedict's main involvement in dealing with liberation theology was while he was still Cardinal Ratzinger.</ref> because, as Edward Norman explains, the Church considers it an attempt to establish a Christian society "through the coercive machinery of political management".<ref name="Norman176">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), pp. 176–7</ref> The Brazilian theologian [[Leonardo Boff]] was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.<ref>{{cite book |author= Aguilar, Mario |title=The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1 |location=London |publisher=SCM Press |year= 2007 |page= 121|isbn= 978-0334040231}}</ref> While Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by resorting to violence or partisan politics.<ref name="LTBBC"/> The movement is still alive in Latin America today, though the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal [[Revivalism|revival]] in much of the region.<ref>For liberation theology's persistence, see {{cite news | last = Rohter| first =Larry | title =As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists | publisher =''The New York Times'' | date =2007-05-07 |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/world/americas/07theology.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1| accessdate =2008-06-02 }} For the threat from Pentecostalism, see {{cite book|last= Stoll |first= David |title= Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth |location= Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date= 1990 |isbn= 978-0520064997}}</ref>
[[Image:March for life 2007.JPG|thumb|left|250 px|[[Pro-life]] activists at the [[March for Life]] in Washington, D.C. on January 22, 2007]]
The [[sexual revolution]] of the 1960s brought challenging issues for the Church. [[Pope Paul VI]]'s 1968 encyclical ''[[Humanae Vitae]]'' affirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and rejected the use of [[contraception]]; both [[abortion]] and [[euthanasia]] were considered to be murder.<ref>{{cite web | last = Paul VI| first =Pope | title =Humanae Vitae | publisher =Vatican | date =1968 | url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html | accessdate =2008-02-02 }}</ref><ref name="Norman184">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'' (2007), p. 184</ref> The Church's rejection of the use of [[condom]]s has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where [[AIDS]] and [[HIV]] have attained epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that countries like Kenya, where behavioral changes are endorsed instead of condom use, have experienced greater progress towards controlling the disease than countries solely promoting condoms.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dugger | first =Carol | title =Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?
| work =International Herald Tribune | date =2006-05-18 | url = http://209.85.207.104/search?q=cache:9HvWTi-IEdEJ:www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/18/news/aids.php+kenya,+condoms,+hiv,+abstinence&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us| accessdate =2008-02-21 }}</ref> Efforts to lead the Church to consider the [[ordination of women]] led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching. ''Mulieris Dignitatem'' was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complimentary role in the work of the Church.<ref>{{cite web | last =John Paul II | first =Pope | title =Mulieris Dignitatem | publisher =Vatican | date =1988 | url =http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_15081988_mulieris-dignitatem_en.html | accessdate =2008-02-21 }}</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter467">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 467</ref> Then in 1994, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' explained that the Church only extends ordination to men in order to follow the example of Jesus, who chose only men for this specific duty.<ref name="Benedict180"/><ref>{{cite web | last =John Paul II | first =Pope | title =Apostolic Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly Ordination to Men Alone| publisher = Vatican| date =1994-05-22 | url = http://209.85.207.104/search?q=cache:hargcmbWQ5QJ:www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html+Catholic+Church,+women%27s+ordination&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=10&gl=us| accessdate =2008-02-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last =Cowell | first =Alan | title =Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests | work = The New York Times | date =1994-05-31 | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F05E7DE133BF932A05756C0A962958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all | accessdate =2008-02-12 }}</ref> John Paul II then set the Church in opposition to capital punishment when he issued [[Evangelium Vitae]] in 1995. Explaining that execution was appropriate when it was the only way to defend society, the pope noted that the modern penal system made this option rare or nonexistent.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Death Penalty Pro and Con: The Pope's Statement| publisher = PBS | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/angel/procon/popestate.html| accessdate =2008-06-12 }}</ref>
Several major lawsuits emerged in 2001 claiming that [[Catholic sex abuse cases|priests had sexually abused minors]].<ref name="Bruni336">Bruni, ''A Gospel of Shame'' (2002), p. 336</ref> Some priests resigned, others were defrocked and jailed<ref>{{cite news | last =Newman | first =Andy | title =A Choice for New York Priests in Abuse Cases | work =The New York Times | date =2006-08-31 | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/31/nyregion/31priest.html | accessdate =2008-03-13 }}</ref> and financial settlements were agreed with many victims.<ref name="Bruni336"/> In the US, where the vast majority of sex abuse cases occurred, the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] commissioned a comprehensive study that found that four percent of all priests who served in the US from 1950 to 2002 faced some sort of sexual accusation.<ref name="sexabuse">{{cite web | last =Owen | first =Richard | title =Pope calls for continuous prayer to rid priesthood of paedophilia | work =Times Online UK edition | publisher =Times Newspapers Ltd | date =2008-01-07 | url =http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3142511.ece | accessdate =2008-03-31 }}</ref><ref name="JohnJay">{{cite web | author = Terry, Karen et al| title = John Jay Report| publisher =John Jay College of Criminal Justice | date = 2004| url =http://www.bishop-accountability.org/reports/2004_02_27_JohnJay/index.html | accessdate =2008-02-09 }}</ref> Further, the Church was widely criticized when it emerged that some bishops had known about abuse allegations, and reassigned many of the accused after first sending them to psychiatric counseling, instead of removing them.<ref name="Bruni336"/><ref name="adrift">Steinfels, ''A People Adrift'' (2003). pp. 40–6</ref><ref name="JohnJay"/><ref name="FrawleyOdea">Frawley-ODea, ''Perversion of Power: Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church '' (2007), p. 4</ref> Some bishops and psychiatrists contended that the prevailing psychology of the times suggested that people could be cured of such behavior through counseling.<ref name = "adrift"/><ref name="sexabusereport"/> Pope John Paul II responded by declaring that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young".<ref name="Walsh">Walsh, ''John Paul II: A Light for the World'' (2003), p. 62</ref> The US Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring background checks for Church employees;<ref name="charteryouth"/> and, because the vast majority of victims were teenage boys, the worldwide Church also prohibited the ordination of men with "deep–seated homosexual tendencies".<ref name="vatdocord"/><ref name="sexabusereport">{{cite web | last = Filteau | first =Jerry | title =Report says clergy sexual abuse brought 'smoke of Satan' into church | publisher =Catholic News Service | date =2004 | url =http://www.catholicnews.com/data/abuse/abuse08.htm | accessdate =2008-03-10 }}</ref> It now requires dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty.<ref name="charteryouth">{{Cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/ocyp/charter.shtml|title=Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People|accessdate=2007-10-08|publisher=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|year=2005|author=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Scandals in the church: The Bishops' Decisions; The Bishops' Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People | work= The New York Times | date =2002-06-15 | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9906EFDA133CF936A25755C0A9649C8B63 | accessdate =2008-02-12 }}</ref> In 2008, Cardinal Cláudio Hummes, head of the Vatican Congregation for the Clergy, affirmed that the scandal was an "exceptionally serious" problem, but estimated that it was "probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent'" of the over 400,000 Catholic priests worldwide.<ref name="sexabuse"/> Some commentators, such as journalist Jon Dougherty, have argued that media coverage of the issue has been excessive, given that the same problems plague other institutions such as the US public school system with much greater frequency.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dougherty | first =Jon | title =Sex Abuse by Teachers Said Worse Than Catholic Church | publisher =Newsmax | date =2004-04-05 | url =http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/4/5/01552.shtml | accessdate =2008-06-11 }}</ref><ref name="USgov">{{cite web | last =Shakeshaft | first =Charol | title =Educator Sexual Misconduct | publisher = US Department of Education| date =2004 | url = http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/misconductreview/report.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate =2008-04-12 }}</ref>
===Catholicism today===
With the election of [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in 2005, the Church saw largely a continuation of the policies of his predecessor, John Paul II, with some notable exceptions. Benedict lowered the barriers for [[laicization]],<ref>In 1980, Pope John Paul II had taken from bishops the right diciding on laicization of their priests, reserving this to himself personlly Peter Nichols, The Popes Divisions, Penguin, 1981, 266</ref> reverted the decision of his predecessor regarding papal elections,<ref>Moto Proprio, De Aliquibus Mutationibus, June 11, 2007</ref> and decentralized beatification. His first encyclical [[Deus Caritas Est]] (God is Love) discussed [[love]] and [[sex]] without mentioning the continued opposition of the Catholic Church to several views on sexuality.<ref>[[Deus Caritas Est]]</ref> In an address at the University of [[Regensburg]], Germany,<ref>Quoted as Benedict XVI, Meeting with the representatives of science in the Aula Magna of the University of Regensburg (September 12, 2006), Vatican, 2006. source: http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2006/september/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20060912_university-regensburg_en.html</ref> Benedict maintained that in the Western world, to a large degree, only [[positivism|positivistic]] [[reason]] and [[philosophy]] are valid. Yet the world's profoundly religious cultures see this exclusion of the divine, as an attack on their most profound convictions. A concept of '' reason'' which excludes the divine, is incapable of entering into the dialogue of cultures, according to Benedict.<ref>Benedict XVI, Meeting with the representatives of science in the Aula Magna of the University of Regensburg (September 12, 2006)</ref> During this [[Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy|Regensburg address]] Benedict quoted a Byzantine emperor who said Muhammad had brought the world only things "evil and inhuman".<ref name="popeprofile">{{cite web | title =Profile: Pope Benedict XVI | publisher =BBC |date=2008-4-16| url = http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:2dUIjow19p0J:news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4445279.stm+Pope+Benedict&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=us| accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref> After the Pope explained his quote,<ref>{{cite web | title =Text of Pope's statement | publisher =BBC |date=2006-9-17| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5353774.stm| accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref> the dialogue continued, with cordial meetings of Islam representatives in Turkey, and the ambassadors of Muslim countries in 2007. A May 2008 declaration agreed on between Benedict and Muslims, led by Mahdi Mostafavi stressed, that religion is essentially non-violent and that violence can be justified neither by reason nor by faith.<ref>{{cite web |last= Kleiber| first=Reinhard| title =Iran and the Pope Easing Relations | publisher =Quantara |date=2008| url = http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:sO2sUod5fnQJ:www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-759/i.html+Pope+Benedict+agreement+with+muslims&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=10&gl=us| accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref> Pope Benedict has spoken out against human rights abuses in [[China]], [[Darfur]], and [[Iraq]] and encouraged protection of the [[environment]] and the poor.<ref name="popeprofile"/> He spoke strongly against drug dealers in Latin America,<ref>{{cite web | title =Pope Benedict XVI: God Will Punish Drug Dealers | publisher =Fox News | date =2007-05-12 | url =http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,271812,00.html | accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref> against abuse scandals, and Catholic politicians supporting abortion laws.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pullella|first=Philip| title =Pope warns Catholic politicians who back abortion | publisher =Reuters | date =2007-05-09 | url =http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:mMys1ijvBHAJ:www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL0956318820070509%3FfeedType%3DRSS%26rpc%3D22+pope+benedict,+catholic+politicians+abortion+laws&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us | accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref>
In 2007, the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]] clarified the Catholic Church's position vis-a-vis other Christian communities. Quoting the statement of [[Pope Paul VI]]: "What the Church has taught down through the centuries, we also teach: ''that there is only one Church",'' the Vatican insisted that while communities separated from the Catholic Church can be instruments of salvation, only those with apostolic succession can be properly termed "churches".<ref>{{cite web | title =Responses to questions regarding aspects of the doctrine of the Church | publisher =Vatican |date=2007-7-10| url =http://www.zenit.org/article-20090?l=english | accessdate =2008-06-28 }}</ref> Some Protestants representatives were not surprised, others announced themselves insulted by the document, which also stressed the Church's commitment to ecumenical dialogue. A Church official told Vatican radio that any dialogue is facilitated when parties are clear about their identity.<ref>{{cite web | last = Di Cadore| first =Lorenago | title = Pope: Other denominations not true churches| publisher =MSNBC | date =2007-07-10 | url =http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:lyPf0xYFvf0J:www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19692094/+pope+benedict,+true+church&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us | accessdate =2008-06-24 }}</ref> Important ethical decisions during the pontificate of Benedict XVI involved continued [[nutrition]] and [[hydration]] for persons in a vegetative status. While making many exceptions, the Church ruled that “the provision of water and food, even by artificial means, always represents a natural means for preserving life.”<ref> United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ... Responses to Certain Questions Concerning Artificial Nutrition and Hydration, Congregation for the Doctrine ...
www.usccb.org/prolife/issues/euthanas/index.shtml</ref>
==References==
===Footnotes===
{{reflist|2}}
===Bibliography===
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*{{cite book |author= Armstrong, Alastair |title=The European Reformation |location=London |publisher=Heinemann |year= 2002 |isbn= 0435327100}}
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*{{cite book |title=Jesus of Nazareth |last=Benedict XVI |first=Pope | authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI|year=2008 |publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-52341-7}}
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*{{cite book |title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church |last=Bokenkotter |first=Thomas |year=2004 |publisher=Doubleday|isbn=0385505841}}
*{{cite book | last = Bruni | first = Frank | coauthors = Burkett, Elinor | authorlink=Frank Bruni| title = A Gospel of Shame: Children, Sexual Abuse, and the Catholic Church | pages = 336 | publisher = Harper Perennial |year= 2002 |isbn=9780060522322}}
*{{cite book | last = Casey | first = James | title = Early Modern Spain: A Social History (Social History of Modern Europe) | publisher = Routledge |year= 1999 |isbn=0415206871}}
*{{cite book | last = Chadwick | first = Owen | title = The Reformation | publisher = Penguin |year= 1964, 1990 |isbn=0140137572}}
*{{cite book |last= Collins|first= Michael|coauthors = Price, Mathew A. | title=The Story of Christianity| publisher= Dorling Kindersley | year=1999 |isbn=0-7513-0467-0}}
*{{cite book |title=Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes |last=Duffy |first=Eamon | authorlink=Eamon Duffy|year=1997 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-3000-7332-1}}
*{{cite book |title=A History of the Church in Latin America |last=Dussel |first=Enrique |authorlink=Enrique Dussel|year=1981 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=0802821316}}
*{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Modern History |last=Edward |first=John Emerich |authorlink=John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|year=1908 |publisher=Macmillan & Co. ltd., original from Harvard University}}
*{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |last=Fahlbusch |first=Erwin |year=2007 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=7ly4DgtT3LkC&pg=PA729&dq=old+catholic+church,+origin&sig=n9mbyiNf8G6AUpPj7ij6zHPwXMY|isbn=0802824153}}
*{{cite book |title=New Dictionary of Theology |last=Ferguson |first=Sinclair |authorlink=Sinclair Ferguson |year=1988 |publisher=Inter-varsity Press|isbn=0-85110-636-6}}
*{{cite book |title=Perversion of Power: Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church |last=Frawley-ODea |first=Mary Gail |year=2007 |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press|isbn=9780826515469}}
*{{cite book |title=Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church|last= Froehle |first=Bryan |coauthors= Mary Gautier|year=2003 |publisher=Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University|isbn=157075375x}}
*{{cite book |title=The Story of Christianity, Volume 2, The Reformation to the Present Day |last=Gonzalez |first=Justo L.|authorlink=Justo Gonzalez |year=1985 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=0-06-063316-6}}
*{{cite book |title=The English Reformation Revised |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-33631-7}}
*{{cite book |title=The Church in Africa 1450–1950 |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198263996}}
*{{cite book |title=Geography of Religion |last=Hitchcock |first=Susan Tyler |coauthors= [[John Esposito]] |year=2004 |publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=0-7922-7313-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Robert H.| authorlink=Robert Jackson|title=From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest|publisher=ME Sharpe, Inc|date=2000|isbn=9780765605979}}
*{{cite book |title= Ireland Her Own|last= Jackson |first=T.A. |year=1991 |publisher=Lawrence & Wishart |isbn=0853157359 }}
*{{cite book |last= Jenkins|first= Elizabeth|title=Elizabeth the Great|year= 2000|publisher= Phoenix Press|isbn= 978-1842121627 |pages=pp. 149–52 }}
*{{cite book |title=The Native Peoples of North America |last=Johansen |first=Bruce |year=2006 |publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=0813538998}}
*{{cite book |last= Kamen|first= Henry|title=The Spanish Inquisition |year= 1997|publisher= Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|isbn= 0-297-81719-1 }}
*{{cite book |title=Mission to Paradise: The Story of Junipero Serra and the Missions of California |last=King |first=Kenneth | authorlink=Kenneth King|year=1975|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=R_o8AAAAIAAJ&dq=junipero+serra&q=death+of+indians+by+disease&pgis=1 |publisher=Society of California Pioneers}}
*{{cite book |title=A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450–1990 |last=Koschorke |first=Klaus |coauthors=Ludwig, Frieder; Delgado, Mariano |year=2007 |publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Co |isbn=978-0-8028-2889-7 }}
*{{cite book |title=Catholic Christianity |last=Kreeft |first=Peter | authorlink=Peter Kreeft|year=2001 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=0-89870-798-6 }}
*{{cite book |title=Catholic Youth Bible |last=Krough |first=Rev. Jack |coauthors=Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops |year=2000 |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |isbn=0-88489-667-6 }}
*{{cite book|last=Langan|first=Thomas|title=The Catholic Tradition|publisher=University of Missouri Press|date=1998|isbn=9780826260963}}
*{{cite book|last=Le Goff|first=Jacques| authorlink=Jacques Le Goff|title=Medieval Civilization|publisher=Barnes & Noble|date=2000|isbn=978-0-7607-1652-6}}
*{{cite book |title= Creeds of the Churches|last=Leith |first=John | authorlink=John Leith|year=1963 |publisher=Aldine Publishing Co| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fOaXP-CjPOIC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=first+vatican+council&source=web&ots=R6EKi09sWe&sig=oLD8CHbsh-Li4EC3nxTtuzLJyzk#PPA144,M1|isbn=0664240577}}
*{{cite book |title=Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues |last=Marthaler |first=Berard |year=1994|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=QLbf1iijp-cC&dq=catechism+of+the+catholic+church&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=513-uA909C&sig=Y1kNT5c05_hLDeWViAE85cdDFyY#PPR5,M1 |publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=0809134950}}
*{{cite book |title=Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Action|first=S J |last=Massaro|year=2000| publisher=Rowan & Littlefield|isbn=1580510469}}
*{{cite book |title=Catholicism: New Study Edition-Completely Revised and Updated|first=Richard P. |last=McBrien| authorlink=Richard McBrien |year=1994| publisher=HarperOne| pages=1344|isbn=0-06-065405-8}}
*{{cite book |title=Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature|first=John |last=McClintock |authorlink=John McClintock|year=1889| publisher=Harper & Brothers, original from Harvard University}}
*{{cite book |title=Christianity: An Introduction |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=1405108991}}
*{{cite book |last=McManners |first=John | authorlink=John McManners|year=1990| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0198229283}}
*{{cite book |title=The Prophetic Spirit of Catechesis: How We Share the Fire in Our Hearts |last=Mongoven |first= Anne Marie|year=2000 |publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=0809139227}}
*{{cite book |title= The Catholic Reformation|last=Mullet |first=Michael A |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203264034}}
*{{cite book |title= Dictionary of the Arts|last=Murray |first=Chris | authorlink=Chris Murray|year=1994 |publisher=Helicon Publishing Ltd|isbn=081603205x}}
*{{cite book |title= The Reformation: How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World|last=Nichols |first=Stephen | authorlink=Stephen Nichols|year=2007 |publisher=Good News Publishers|isbn=1581348290}}
*{{cite book |title=The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History |last=Norman |first=Edward | authorlink=Edward Norman|year=2007 |publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25251-6 }}
*{{cite book |title=A Short History of the Catholic Church |last=Orlandis |first=Jose | authorlink=Jose Orlandis|year=1993 |publisher=Scepter Publishers|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M8kjqryq8dIC&dq=catholic+church+and+world+history&pg=PP1&ots=z95cumMcAL&source=citation&sig=O1U0JEBrP34V6V-0rg--hL0965E&hl=en&prev=http://www.google.com/search?q=Catholic+church+and+world+history&rls=com.microsoft:en-us:IE-Address&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7ADBR&sa=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=1&cad=bottom-3results#PPA7,M1|isbn=1851821252}}
*{{cite book|last=Parry|first=Kenneth|title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|date=1999|isbn=9780631189664}}
*{{cite book|last=Pham|first=John Peter|title=Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2006|isbn=0195178343}}
*{{cite book |title=The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology|last=Richardson |first=Alan | authorlink=Alan Richardson|year=1983 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=PN7UMUTBBPAC&pg=PA132&dq=nicene+creed+protestant&ei=o3bER7ObJITIyAT-2sHxDA&sig=PTNYfnO9MLH4Yy29A79A4VSjI70| isbn=0664227481}}
*{{cite book |title=The First Crusaders |last=Riley-Smith |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511003080}}
*{{cite book |title=Creeds of Christendom, With a History and Critical Notes |last=Schaff |first=Philip | authorlink=Philip Schaff| year=1910 |publisher=Harper|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.iv.iii.html }}
*{{cite book |title= Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo|last=Scheina |first=Robert L. |year=2007 |publisher=Brassey's| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=8aWQ_7oKJfkC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=cristero+war+priests+killed&source=web&ots=YNDpLM2ukb&sig=YWccvtnJKnSpaI15bTHCOX3zoyc#PPA33,M1 |isbn=1574884522}}
*{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|date=1993|isbn=9780268010973}}
*{{cite book |last= Schama|first= Simon|authorlink= Simon Schama|title= A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? |origyear= 2000|year= 2003|publisher= [[BBC|BBC Worldwide]]|location= London|isbn= 0 56 348714 3|pages= pp. 309–11|chapter= Burning Convictions}}
*{{cite book |title=The Essential Catholic Catechism |last=Schreck |first= Alan|year=1999 |publisher=Servant Publications|isbn=0569551286}}
*{{cite book |title= A Dictionary of Political Thought |last=Scruton |first=Roger | authorlink=Roger Scruton|year=1996 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0330280996}}
*{{cite book|last= Sobrino |first= Jon |authorlink= Jon Sobrino |title= Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections |location= Maryknoll, NY |publisher= Orbis |year= 1990 |isbn= 978-0883446676}}
*{{cite book|last= Stacy |first= Lee |title= Mexico and the United States |publisher= Marshall Cavendish |date= 2003 |isbn= 0761474021}}
*{{cite book|last= Stoll |first= David |authorlink=David Stoll |title= Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth |location= Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date= 1990 |isbn= 978-0520064997}}
*{{cite book |title= Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640 |last=Solt |first=Leo Frank | authorlink=Leo Frank Solt|year=1990 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195059794}}
*{{cite book |title=A People Adrift: The Crisis of the Roman Catholic Church in America |first=Peter |last=Steinfels| authorlink=Peter Steinfels| year=2003|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-68-483663-7}}
*{{cite book | last = Traufler| first = Louis| coauthors = Michael, Virgil |title=The Mass: The Sacrifice of Christ | year=1927| publisher = The Liturgical Press }}
*{{cite book |title= God's War: A New History of the Crusades |last=Tyerman |first=Christopher |year=2006 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674023870}}
*{{cite book |title=Co–Workers in the Vineyard of the Lord |last=USCCB |authorlink=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops |year=2005 |publisher= USCCB Publishing|isbn=1574557246 }}
*{{cite book |title=Program for Priestly Formation |last=USCCB |authorlink=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops |year=2006 |publisher= USCCB Publishing|isbn=1-57455-517-0 }}
*{{cite book |title=[[Annuario Pontificio]] (Pontifical Yearbook) |last=Vatican, Central Statistics Office |year=2007 |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|isbn=978-88-209-7908-9}}
*{{cite book |title=The Catholic Church Through the Ages |last=Vidmar |first=John |authorlink=John Vidmar|year=2005 |publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=0809142341}}
*{{cite book |title= John Paul II: A Light for the World, Essays and Reflections on the Papacy of |last=Walsh |first=Mary Ann |coauthors=Thavis, John |year=2003 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=pWkVkkWcNIUC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=john+paul+ii+no+place+in+priesthood+for+those+who+would+abuse+children&source=web&ots=JHtN19slKn&sig=ku39uj118QJXeVxQhUC0gi2gffU&hl=en |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1580511422}}
*{{cite book |title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization |last=Woods Jr |first=Thomas | authorlink=Thomas Woods|year=2005 |publisher=Regnery Publishing, Inc|isbn=0-89526-038-7}}
*{{cite book |title=FDR, The Vatican and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933–1945 |last=Woolner |first=David |year=2003 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=jMvaoXvJ4VcC&dq=role+of+catholic+church+during+world+war+ii&pg=PP1&ots=wcJJVgBWwO&source=citation&sig=x1NCTXVDVpk7cYhXAseBD93h3z0&hl=en&prev=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Role+of+Catholic+Church+during+World+War+II&btnG=Google+Search&sa=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=2&cad=bottom-3results#PPP14,M1 |publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-88-209-7908-9}}
== External links ==
{{Catholicismportal}}
{{Portalpar |Pope|Coat of arms of the Holy See.svg|30|300px}}
* [http://www.vatican.va/ Vatican: the Holy See] – The official website of the Vatican.
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] – Information on Catholic bishops and dioceses.
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] – Information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.earthhealing.info/catholicstats.pdf Global Catholic Statistics: 1905 and Today]|26.3 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 26977 bytes -->}} by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD.
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ MassTimes] – A comprehensive database of every Catholic Church and Mass in the entire world.
* [http://www.thecatholicguide.com The Catholic Guide] – A comprehensive source on the Roman Catholic Church.
* [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page Catholic Wiki] – A wiki site dedicated to the Catholic Church.
{{Catholicism}}
{{Seven Sacraments}}
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