Roman Navy 1849295 218843611 2008-06-12T12:13:02Z Cplakidas 613068 /* References */ fixed template {{ri|date=April 2008}} {{RomanMilitary}} The '''Roman Navy''' ([[Latin]]: ''Classis'', lit. "fleet") comprised the naval forces of the Roman state. Unlike modern naval forces, it never existed as an autonomous service, but operated as an adjunct to the [[Roman army]]. Founded in ca. 311 BC, and massively expanded during the course of the [[First Punic War]], the Roman navy played a vital role in the early stages of the [[Roman Republic]]'s ascension to hegemony in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], especially in the [[Punic Wars|wars against Carthage]]. However, it was gradually reduced in size and significance, undertaking mainly policing duties, under the [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. In the 4th century, the bulk of the Roman fleet was moved to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], and continued to serve as the [[Byzantine navy]]. == History == ===Early Republic=== The first mention of a Roman fleet is in ca. 311 BC, after the conquest of [[Campania]], when two new officials, the ''[[duumviri]] navales'', were appointed on an ''ad hoc'' basis and tasked with the maintenance of a fleet.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|AUC]]'' IX.30; XL.18,26; XLI.1)</ref> As a result, the Republic acquired its first fleet, consisting of 20 ships, most likely [[trireme]]s, with each ''duumvir'' commanding a squadron of 10 ships. Nevertheless, prior to the [[First Punic War]] the main task of this fleet was patrolling along the Italian coast and rivers, protecting seaborne trade from piracy. Whenever larger tasks had to be undertaken, such as the naval blockade of a besieged city, the Romans called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the ''socii navales'', to provide ships and crews.<ref name=Goldsworth34>Goldsworthy (2003), p. 34</ref> ==== Punic Wars ==== The first Roman expedition outside mainland Italy was against the island of [[Sicily]] in 265 BC, which led to the outbreak of hostilities with [[Carthage]]. Carthage at the time was the dominant sea power in the western Mediterranean, possessing a long maritime and naval experience and a large fleet. Operations in Sicily had to be supported by a fleet, so in 261 BC, the Romans set out to construct a fleet of 100 [[quinquireme]]s and 20 triremes.<ref name=Goldsworth34>Goldsworthy (2003), p. 34</ref> According to [[Polybius]], the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian warship, and used it as a blueprint for a massive naval build-up.<ref>Polybius, ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/home.html The Histories]'', I.20-21</ref> The new fleets were commanded by the annually elected Roman [[magistratus|magistrates]], but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the ''socii'', mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 201</ref> [[Image:Corvus.svg|thumb|right|200px|The use of the ''corvus'' negated the superior Carthaginian naval expertise, and allowed the Romans to establish their naval superiority in the western Mediterranean.]] Despite the buildup, the Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians, and could not hope to match them in [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|naval tactics]], which required great maneuverability. They therefore employed a novel weapon which transformed sea warfare to their advantage. They equipped their ships with the ''[[Corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'', possibly developed earlier by the Syracusians against the Athenians. This was a long plank with a spike for hooking onto enemy ships. Using it as a boarding bridge, marines were able to [[Boarding (attack)|board]] an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. However, it is believed that the corvus' weight made the ships unstable, and could capsize a ship in rough seas.<ref name=Goldsworth38>Goldsworthy (2003), p. 38</ref> Although the first sea engagement, the [[Battle of the Lipari Islands]] in 260 BC, was a defeat for Rome, the forces involved were relatively small. Through the use of the ''corvus'', the fledgling Roman navy won its first major engagement later that year at the [[Battle of Mylae]]. During the course of the war, Rome continued to win victories at sea and gained naval experience, although it also suffered a number of catastrophic losses due to storms, while conversely, the Carthaginian navy suffered from attrition. Their string of successes allowed Rome to push the war further across the sea to Africa and Carthage itself, and in the last battle of the war, at [[Battle of the Aegates Islands|Aegates Islands]] in 241 BC, the Romans displayed superior seamanship to the Carthaginians.<ref name=Goldsworth38>Goldsworthy (2003), p. 38</ref> At the beginning of the [[Second Punic War]] ([[218 BC]] - [[202 BC]]), the balance of naval power in the Western [[Mediterranean]] had shifted from Carthage to Rome. This caused [[Hannibal]], Carthage's great general, to shift the strategy, bringing the war to the Italian peninsula. Unlike the first war, the navy played little role on either side in this war or in the [[Third Punic War]], except for carrying supplies and reinforcements. Long before Rome conquered [[Illyria]] in 168 BC and established the region as [[Illyricum (Roman province)|a province]], the [[First Illyrian War]] in [[229 BC]] marks the date which the Roman Navy first sailed across the [[Adriatic Sea]] and began her eastwards expansion.<ref name="gruen 359">Gruen, 359.</ref> As Rome became increasingly involved in the affairs of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Roman fleet played again an important role. By the end of the [[2nd century BC]], Roman control over all of what was later to be dubbed ''mare nostrum'' ("our sea") had been established. ===Late Republic=== ==== The pirate threat ==== After Rome's eventual victory over Carthage, there was no other sea power left to contend with Rome's marine might in the West. Following the defeat of [[Macedon]], [[Rhodes]] and the [[Seleucid Empire]] in the early 2nd century BC, and the disbandment of their navies, the Roman Navy was drastically reduced, depending on their Greek allies to supply ships and crews as needed.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref> In the absence of a strong naval presence however, and with the disruption caused by the [[Mithridatic Wars]], [[Pirate|piracy]] flourished throughout the Mediterranean, especially in [[Cilicia]], but also in [[Crete]] and other places, further reinforced by money and warships supplied by [[Mithridates VI of Pontus|Mithridates of Pontus]], who hoped to enlist them in his wars against Rome.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§92 §92]</ref> The pirates defeated several Roman commanders, and raided unhindered even the shores of Italy. Their activity posed a growing threat for the Roman economy, and several prominent Romans, including two [[praetor]]s with the retinue and the young [[Julius Caesar]], were captured and held for [[ransom]]. But perhaps most importantly, the pirates disrupted the Rome's lifeline: the massive shipments of grain and other produce from Africa and Egypt that were needed to sustain the city's population.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§93 §93]</ref> The grain shortages were a major political issue, as popular discontent threatened to become explosive. In 74 BC, with the outbreak of the [[Third Mithridatic War]], [[Marcus Antonius Creticus|Marcus Antonius]] (the father of [[Mark Antony]]) was appointed ''praetor'' with extraordinary ''[[imperium]]'', but signally failed to defeat the pirates; rather, he was defeated off Crete in 72 BC, and died shortly after.<ref>Goldsworthy (2007), p. 186</ref> Finally, in [[67 BC]] the ''[[Lex Gabinia]]'' was passed in the [[Plebeian Council]], vesting [[Pompey]] with unprecedented powers and authorizing him to move against them.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§94 §94]</ref> In a [[Pompey#Campaign against the Pirates|massive and concerted campaign]], Pompey cleared the seas from the pirates.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref><ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§95 §95]-[http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_20.html#§96 §96]</ref> Afterwards, the fleet was reduced again to policing duties against intermittent piracy. The last major campaign of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the 3rd century AD would be in the [[Roman civil wars|civil wars]] that ended the Republic. ==== The Civil Wars ==== [[Image:Castro, Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|200px|The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted 1672.]] As the Roman Republic unraveled, competing Roman generals once again built up their naval might. [[Sextus Pompeius]], in his conflict with [[Augustus|Octavian]], had been given command of the Italian fleet by the Senate in 43 BC, and controlled the politically crucial supply of grain from Sicily to Rome.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', pp. 205-206</ref> After suffering a defeat from Sextus in 42 BC, Octavian initiated massive naval armaments, aided by his closest associate, [[Marcus Agrippa]]: ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia, the new harbor of [[Portus Julius]] built at [[Cumae]], and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 206</ref> Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the [[Battle of Naulochus]] in [[36 BC]], putting an end to all Pompeian resistance. Octavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra]], Queen of [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]], in the [[Battle of Actium]] in [[31 BC]], where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 207</ref> This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling the river frontiers of Europe. It remained however active in the periphery of the Empire. === Principate === ==== Operations under Augustus ==== [[Image:Quadriremis Rome BC31.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Augustan-era Roman [[quadrireme]].]] Under [[Augustus]] and after the conquest of [[Egypt]] there were increasing demands from the Roman economy to extend the trade lanes to [[India]]. The Arabian control of all sea routes to India was an obstacle. One of the first naval operations under ''princeps'' Augustus was therefore the preparation for a campaign on the Arabian peninsula. [[Aelius Gallus]], the prefect of Egypt ordered the construction of 130 transports and subsequently carried 10,000 soldiers to Arabia.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 208</ref> But the following march through the desert towards [[Yemen]] failed and the plans for control of the [[Arabian peninsula]] had to be abandoned. At the other end of the Empire, in [[Germania]], the navy played an important role in the supply and transport of the [[Roman legion|legion]]s. In 15 BC an independent fleet was installed at the [[Lake Constance]]. Later, the generals [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] and [[Tiberius]] used the Navy extensively, when they tried to extend the Roman frontier to the [[Elbe]]. In 12 BC [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] ordered the construction of a fleet of 1,000 ships and sailed them along the [[Rhine]] into the [[North Sea]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annales'' II.6</ref> The [[Frisians]] and [[Chauci]] had nothing to oppose the superior numbers, tactics and technology of the Romans. When these entered the river mouths of [[Weser]] and [[Ems (river)|Ems]], the local tribes had to surrender. In 5 BC the Roman knowledge concerning the North and Baltic Sea was fairly extended during a campaign by [[Tiberius]], reaching as far as the [[Elbe]]: Plinius describes how Roman naval formations came past [[Heligoland]] and set sail to the north-eastern coast of [[Denmark]], and Augustus himself boasts in his ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'': "My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea...".<ref>''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html Res Gestae]'', 26.4</ref> The multiple naval operations north of Germania had to be abandoned after the [[battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in the year 9 AD. ==== Julio-Claudian dynasty ==== In the years [[15]] and [[16]], [[Germanicus]] carried out several fleet operations along the rivers Rhine and Ems, without permanent results due to grim Germanic resistance and a disastrous storm. By 28, the Romans lost further control of the Rhine mouth in a succession of Frisian insurgencies. From [[37]] to [[85]], the Roman navy played an important role in the [[Roman conquest of Britain]]. Especially the ''classis Germanica'' rendered outstanding services in multitudinous landing operations. In [[46]] a naval expedition made a push deep into the [[Black Sea]] region and even travelled on the [[Don River, Russia|Tanais]]. By [[57]] an expeditionary corps reached [[Chersonesos]] (see [[Charax, Crimea]]). It seems that under [[Nero]] the navy obtained strategically important positions for trading with India; but there was no known fleet in the [[Red Sea]]. Possibly, parts of the [[Alexandria]]n fleet were operating as escorts for the Indian trade. In the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish revolt]], from [[66]] to [[70]], the Romans were forced to fight Jewish ships, operating from a harbour in the area of modern [[Tel Aviv]], on [[Israel]]'s [[Mediterranean]] coast. In the meantime several flotilla engagements on the [[Sea of Galilee]] took place. ==== Flavian, Antonine and Severan dynasties ==== During the [[Batavian rebellion]] of [[Gaius Julius Civilis]] ([[69]]-[[70]]), the rebels got hold of a squadron of the Rhine fleet by treachery, but could not employ it in a decisive strike against the rival fleet. The remaining ships returned to Imperial authority, when Civilis was defeated in open battle. In the years [[82]] to [[85]], the Romans launched a campaign against the [[Caledonians]] in modern [[Scotland]]. In this context the Roman navy significantly escalated activities on the eastern Scottish coast. Simultaneously multiple expeditions and reconnaissance trips were launched. During these the Romans would capture the [[Orkney Islands]] for a short period of time and obtained information about the [[Shetland Islands]]. Supposedly the Romans also landed on the [[Hebrides]] and in [[Ireland]]. Under the [[Five Good Emperors]] the navy operated mainly on the rivers; so it played an important role during [[Trajan]]'s conquest of [[Dacia]] and temporarily an independent fleet for the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]] rivers was founded. Also during the [[Marcomannic Wars|wars against the Marcomanni confederation]] under [[Marcus Aurelius]] several combats took place on the [[Danube]] and the [[Tisza]]. Under the aegis of the [[Severan dynasty]], the only known military operations of the navy were carried out under [[Septimius Severus]], using naval assistance on his campaigns along the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]], as well as in [[Scotland]]. Thereby Roman ships reached ''inter alia'' the [[Persian Gulf]] and the top of the [[British Isles]]. ==== Third century crisis ==== Under the [[barracks emperor]]s, the navy made it through a major crisis, when, during the rule of [[Trebonianus Gallus]], for the first time [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes built up their own powerful fleet in the Black Sea. Via two surprise attacks (256) on Roman naval bases in the [[Caucasus]] and near the [[Danube]], numerous ships fell into the hands of the Germans, whereupon the raids were extended as far as the [[Aegean Sea]]; [[Byzantium]], [[Athens]], [[Sparta]] and other towns were plundered and the responsible provincial fleets were heavily debilitated. It was not until the attackers made a tactical error, that their onrush could be stopped. In [[268]] another, much fiercer Germanic attack took place. Part of the invading fleet attacked the Mediterranean islands of Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus, while the other part targeted the Greek mainland. Once again the Romans had nothing to withstand against this attack. Only when the Germanic force set off for the interior could [[Claudius Gothicus]] defeat them. In [[286]] the Roman Empire faced again a great danger when the commander of the [[classis Britannica|British Fleet]], [[Carausius]], rose up and seceded with Britannia and parts of the northern Gallic coast. With a single blow Roman control of the channel and the North Sea was lost, and emperor [[Maximinus]] was forced to create a completely new Northern Fleet, but in lack of training it was almost immediately destroyed in a storm. Only under ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' [[Constantius Chlorus]] was the navy again able to deliver troops to Britannia. By a concentric attack on [[Londinium]] the insurgent province was retaken. It has been estimated that the Roman navy's strength was at 46,000 men at the beginning of Diocletian's reign, but the end of his reign, he succeeded in increasing it to 64,000 men.<ref name="navy">W. Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', 19</ref> ===Late Antiquity=== In [[330]] both main fleets were stationed in Constantinople. Classic naval battles were now a rare case. Documents tell of the victory of [[Crispus]] over the fleet of [[Licinius]] in [[324]], the destruction of the boats under [[Gainas]] in [[400]] and naval operations in the struggle with [[Geiseric]] in the 5th century. The Roman fleets suffered defeats against the powerful [[Vandals|Vandal]] fleet in 460 and 468, under the emperors [[Majorian]] and [[Anthemius]]. When the [[Völkerwanderung]] struck with full force on the Roman borders, the endeavors of the navy could hardly change a thing. Until the breakdown of the Western Roman Empire in [[476]] the Roman warships were solely employed to evacuate Roman citizens out of troublespots. The navy stationed in the Eastern Empire became the cadre for the [[Byzantine navy]]. Under the rule of [[Justinian I]] triremes were still in use, although mainly [[dromon]]s were employed, [[Constantinople]] was itself protected by a fleet of [[liburnian]]s. === Timeline of major events === * [[First Punic War]] ** [[Battle of the Lipari Islands]], [[260 BC]], minor Carthaginian victory. ** [[Battle of Mylae]], 260 BC, Roman victory. ** [[Battle of Sulci]], [[258 BC]], Roman victory, obtained by consul [[Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus]]. ** [[Battle of Tyndaris]], [[257 BC]], Roman victory. ** [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus]], [[256 BC]], Roman victory, involving huge fleets on both sides. ** [[Battle of Drepana]], [[249 BC]], Carthaginian victory. ** [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]], [[241 BC]], Roman victory; led to the end of the war. * [[Second Macedonian War]] * War against [[Antiochus III the Great]] ** [[Battle of the Eurymedon (190 BC)|Battle of the Eurymedon]], [[190 BC]]{{ndash}} Roman forces under [[Lucius Aemilius Regillus]] defeated a [[Seleucid]] fleet commanded by [[Hannibal]], fighting his last battle. ** [[Battle of Myonessus]], 190 BC{{ndash}} Another Seleucid fleet was defeated by the Romans. * [[First Mithridatic War]] ** [[Battle of Tenedos]], [[86 BC]]{{ndash}} defeat of a Pontic fleet. [[Image:Denarius Mark Anthony-32BC-legIII.jpg|thumb|200px|Roman warship on [[Mark Antony]] denarius.]] * Civil war after the death of [[Julius Caesar]] ** [[Battle of Naulochus]], [[36 BC]]{{ndash}} [[Augustus|Octavian]]'s fleet, under the command of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] defeated the forces of the rebel [[Sextus Pompeius]]. ** [[Battle of Actium]], [[31 BC]]{{ndash}} Octavian defeats the forces of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra]]. * [[68]] [[Legio I Adiutrix|Legio I ''Adiutrix'']] formed from sailors of the fleet * [[Year of the four emperors]], [[69]]{{ndash}} the fleet supported Emperor [[Otho]] against the usurper [[Vitellius]]. [[Vespasian]] formed [[Legio II Adiutrix|Legio II ''Adiutrix'']] from sailors of the fleet. * [[Battle of the Hellespont]], [[323]]{{ndash}} Flavius Iulius [[Crispus]], son of [[Constantine I]], defeats the naval forces of [[Licinius]] * [[461]]: Emperor [[Majorian]] assembles 300 ships to transport his army to north Africa. * [[468]]: a [[Vandal]]ic fleet defeats the Roman fleet commanded by [[Basiliscus]]. === Notable admirals === * [[Gaius Duilius]], winner of the [[battle of Mylae]] (260 BC) * [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]], winner of the [[battle of Cape Ecnomus]] (256 BC) * [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]], winner of the [[battle of the Aegates Islands]] (241 BC) * [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], winner of the [[battle of Actium]] (31 BC) * [[Pliny the Elder]], ''praefectus'' of ''[[Classis Misenensis]]'' (77{{ndash}} 79 AD) == Organization == === Crews === The bulk of a ship's crew was formed by the rowers the ''remiges'' (sing. ''remex'') or ''eretai'' in Greek. Despite popular perception, the Roman fleet relied throughout its existence on rowers of free status, and [[galley slave]]s were usually not put at the oars, except in times of pressing manpower demands or extreme emergency.<ref name="Jan M. Libourel 119">Jan M. Libourel, “Galley Slaves in the Second Punic War”, ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 68, No. 2 (Apr., 1973), pp. 116-119 (119)</ref> In Imperial times, non-citizen freeborn provincials (''[[Peregrinus (Roman)|peregrini]]'') and ex-slaves became the mainstay of the Roman rowing force.<ref>Lionel Casson, “Galley Slaves”, ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol. 97 (1966), pp. 35-44 (41)</ref> Among the crew were usually also a number of ''principales'' (junior officers) and ''[[immunes]]'' (specialists exempt from certain duties), some of which, mostly in administrative positions, were identical to those of the army [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]] and some of which (mostly of Greek provenance) were peculiar to the fleet. An inscription from the island of [[Cos]] dated to the [[First Mithridatic War]] lists us a ship's officers, the ''nautae'': the ''gubernator'' (''kybernētēs'' in Greek) was the helmsman or pilot, the ''celeusta'' (''keleustēs'' in Greek) supervised the rowers, a ''proreta'' (''prōreus'' in Greek) was the look-out stationed at the bow, a ''pentacontarchos'' was apparently a junior officer, and an ''iatros'' (Lat. ''medicus''), a ship's doctor.<ref>A Companion to the Roman Army, pp. 201-202</ref> Each ship was commanded by a ''[[trierarch]]us'', while squadrons were put under a ''[[Navarch|nauarchus]]'', who often appears to have risen from the ranks of the ''trierarchi''. The position of ''nauarchus princeps'' appeared later in the Imperial period, who functioned either as a commander of several squadrons or an executive officer under a civilian admiral.<ref name=Companion210>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 210</ref> These were professional officers, usually ''peregrini'' who had a status equal to an auxiliary [[centurion]] (and were thus increasingly called ''centuriones [classiarii]'' after ca. AD 70).<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', pp. 210-211</ref> Only in the 3rd century were these officers equated to the legionary centurions in status and pay, and could henceforth be transferred to a legionary position.<ref>Wesch-Klein (1998), p. 25</ref> During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a ''[[centuria]]''. Crewmen could sign on as [[marines]], rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as ''milites'' ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation was required, the terms ''classiarius'' or ''classicus'' were added. Along with several other instances of prevalence of army terminology, this testifies to the lower status of the naval personnel, who were inferior to the [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]] and the legionaries. Emperor [[Claudius]] first gave legal privileges to the navy's crewmen, enabling them to receive [[Roman citizenship]] after their period of service.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 212</ref> This period was initially set at a minimum of 26 years (one year more than the legions), and was later expanded to 28. Upon honorable discharge (''honesta missio''), the sailors received a sizable cash payment as well.<ref name=Galley80/> === High Command === During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving [[magistrate]] or [[promagistrate]], usually of consular or praetorian rank. During the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet. Since these men were political appointments, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. Its was therefore during the Punic Wars that the separate position of ''praefectus classis'' ("fleet prefect") first appeared.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|AUC]]'' XXVI.48; XXXVI.42</ref> After the fleet's reorganization by Augustus, the term ''praefectus classis'' was used for the commanders of the various fleets. They were initially appointed either from among the Emperor's [[freedmen]] or from the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] class, securing the Emperor's control over the fleets. From the period of the [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian emperors]], only equestrians with military experience who had gone through the ''militia equestri'', were appointed.<ref name=Companion210>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 210</ref> Nevertheless, the prefects were political appointees, and despite their military experience, usually in command of army auxiliary units, their experience in naval matters was minimal, forcing them to rely on their professional subordinates.<ref name=Galley80>''Age of the Galley'', p. 80</ref> ===Ship types=== [[Image:Trireme 1.jpg|thumb|200px|Model of a Roman ''bireme'']] The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship was "long ship" (Latin: ''navis longa'', Greek: ''naus makra''), as opposed to the sail-driven ''navis oneraria'', a merchant vessel, or the ''navigia minora'', the smaller craft, like the ''scapha''.<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', pp. 202-203</ref> The navy consisted of a wide variety of different classes of warships, from the heavy polyremes to the light raiding and scouting vessels. During and after the Punic Wars, the mainstay of the Roman navy was the [[quinquereme]] (Gk. ''pentērēs''), which was copied from a captured Carthaginian model, and the [[quadrireme]] (Gk. ''tetrērēs''). [[Trireme]]s continued to serve as well as a smaller, faster vessel, especially among the allied contingents. The term "trireme" can however refer to several types of ships with three banks throughout the Republican and Imperial periods, and is not necessarily indicative of one particular design. In addition, the presence of two "sixes" (''hexareme'', Gk. ''hexērēs'') is recorded, which were used as flagships. The Romans do not seem to have engaged in the construction of gigantic warships like their contemporary Hellenistic navies, at least until the Civil Wars. During the final confrontation between Octavian and Mark Antony, Octavian's fleet was composed of quinqueremes, together with some "sixes" and many triremes and liburnians, while Antony, who had the resources of Ptolemaic Egypt to draw upon, fielded a fleet also mostly composed of quinquiremes, but with a sizeable complement of heavier warships, including some "tens" (''deceres'').<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''Historia Romana'', L.23.2</ref> Later historical tradition made much of the prevalence of lighter and swifter vessels in Octavian's fleet,<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Antony'', 62</ref> with [[Vegetius]] even ascribing Octavian's victory to the liburnians.<ref>Vegetius, IV.33</ref> [[Image:Roemerschiff1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Reconstruction of a late Roman ''navis lusoria'' at [[Mainz]].]] This prominence of lighter craft is perhaps best explained in light of subsequent developments. After Actium, the operational landscape had changed: for the remainder of the Principate, no naval opponent existed to challenge Roman naval hegemony, and no massed naval confrontation was likely. The tasks at hand for the Roman navy were now policing the Mediterranean waterways and the border rivers, suppression of piracy, and escort duties for the grain shipments and for imperial army expeditions. Lighter ships were far better suited to these tasks, and after the reorganization of the fleet, the largest ship kept in service was a ''hexareme'', the flagship of the ''[[Classis Misenensis]]''. The bulk of the fleets was composed of the lighter triremes and [[Liburnian (ship)|liburnians]] (Latin: ''liburna'', Greek: ''libyrnis''), with the latter apparently providing the majority of the provincial fleets.<ref>Casson (1995), p. 141</ref> In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref> In addition, there were smaller oared vessels, such as the ''navis actuaria'', with 30 oars (15 on each bank), a ship primarily used for transport in coastal and fluvial operations, for which its shallow draught and flat keel were ideal. In late Antiquity, it was succeeded in this role by the ''[[navis lusoria]]'' ("playful ship"), which was extensively used for patrols and raids by the legionary flotillas in the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Roman ships were commonly named after gods (''[[Mars]]'', ''[[Jupiter|Iuppiter]]'', ''[[Minerva]]'', ''[[Isis]]''), mythological heroes (''[[Hercules]]''), and concepts such as Harmony, Loyalty, Victory (''Concordia'', ''Fides'', ''Victoria''). They were distinguished by their [[figurehead]] (''insigne'' or ''parasemum''),<ref>''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 203</ref> and, during the Civil Wars at least, by the paint schemes on their turrets, which varied according to each fleet.<ref>Warry (2004), p. 183</ref> === Armament and tactics === [[Image:Ballistae on roman ship.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Ballista]]e on a Roman ship.]] In Classical Antiquity, a ship's main weapon was the [[Ram (ship)|ram]] (''rostra'', hence the name ''navis rostrata'' for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use however required a skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquireme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted [[ballista]]e and [[catapult]]s.<ref>Warry (2004), p. 98</ref> Although the ram continued to be a standard feature of all warships and ramming the standard mode of attack, these developments transformed the role of a warship: from the old "manned missile", designed to sink enemy ships, they became mobile artillery platforms, which engaged in missile exchange and [[boarding (attack)|boarding actions]]. Especially the Romans, initially inexperienced at sea combat, relied upon boarding actions through the use of the ''corvus''. Although it brought them some decisive victories, it was discontinued because it tended to unbalance the quinqueremes in high seas; two Roman fleets are recorded to have been lost during storms in the [[First Punic War]].<ref>Warry (2004), p. 118</ref> During the Civil Wars, a number of technical innovations, which are attributed to Agrippa,<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Civil Wars'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/5*.html#106 V.106] & [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/5*.html#118 V.118]</ref> took place: the ''harpago'', a catapult-fired [[grappling hook]], which was used to clamp onto an enemy ship, reel it in and board it, in a much more efficient way than with the old ''corvus'', and the use of collapsible fighting towers placed one apiece bow and stern, which were used to give supporting fire.<ref>Warry (2004), pp. 182-183</ref> === Fleets === ==== Principate period ==== After the end of the civil wars, Augustus reduced and reorganized the Roman armed forces, including the navy. A large part of the fleet of Mark Antony was burned, and the rest was withdrawn to a new base at Forum Iulii (modern [[Fréjus]]), which remained operative until the reign of Claudius.<ref>''Age of the Galley'', p. 78</ref> However, the bulk of the fleet was subdivided into two praetorian fleets at [[Misenum]] and [[Ravenna]], supplemented by a growing number of minor ones in the provinces, which were often created on an ''ad hoc'' basis for specific campaigns. This organizational structure was maintained almost unchanged until the 4th century. The two major fleets were stationed in Italy and acted as a central naval reserve, directly available to the Emperor (hence the designation "praetorian"). In the absence of any naval threat, their duties mostly involved patrolling and transport duties. These were: * The ''[[Classis Misenensis]]'', established in [[27 BC]] and based at [[Portus Julius]]. Later ''Classis praetoria Misenesis Pia Vindex''. * The ''[[Classis Ravennatis]]'', established in [[27 BC]] and based at [[Ravenna]]. Later ''Classis praetoria Ravennatis Pia Vindex''. The various provincial fleets were smaller than the praetorian fleets and composed mostly of lighter vessels. Nevertheless, it was these fleets that saw action, in full campaigns or raids on the periphery of the Empire. The provincial fleets were: * The ''[[Classis Alexandrina]]'', based in [[Alexandria]], it controlled the eastern part of the Mediterranean sea. It was founded by [[Caesar Augustus]] around [[30 BC]], probably from ships that fought at the [[battle of Actium]]. Having supported emperor [[Vespasian]] in the [[Year of the Four Emperors|civil war of 69]], it was awarded of the ''[[cognomen]]'' ''Augusta'', and was called ''Classis Augusta Alexandrina''. * The ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', established in [[43]] at ''Portus Itius'' ([[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]){{Fact|date=April 2008}}, it controlled the English Channel and the waters around ''[[Roman Britain|Britannia]]'' * The ''[[Classis Germanica]]'', established in [[12 BC]] at ''[[Xanten#History|Castra Vetera]]'', it controlled the [[Rhine river]], and was mainly a fluvial fleet, although it also operated in the [[North Sea]]. After [[50]], this fleet moved its main base to ''[[Cologne|Colonia Agrippinensis]]''. Later ''Classis Augusta Germanica Pia Fidelis''. * The ''[[Classis Pannonica]]'', a fluvial fleet established in [[35 BC]] at in ''[[Aquincum]]'' in [[Pannonia]] (modern [[Budapest]]). It controlled the [[Danube]] river from ''[[Castra Regina]]'' in [[Raetia]] (modern [[Regensburg]]) to ''[[Singidunum]]'' in [[Moesia]] (modern [[Belgrade]]). It was re-organised under the [[Flavian dynasty]], when it was renamed ''classis Flavia Pannonica''. * The ''[[Classis Moesica]]'', based in ''[[Isaccea|Noviodunum]]'', it controlled the Lower Danube and the western [[Black Sea]]. * The ''[[Classis Pontica]]'', founded in [[14 BC]], and based since [[54]]/[[60]] in ''[[Trapezus]]'' ([[Pontus]]), this fleet was used to guard the Southern and Eastern [[Black Sea]]. * The ''[[Classis Perinthia]]'', established after the annexation of [[Thrace]] in 46 and based in [[Perinthus]]. It operated in the [[Propontis]] and the [[Thracia]]n coast. Probably united with the ''Classis Pontica'' at a later stage. * The ''[[Classis Syriaca]]'', established in [[63 BC]], and based since [[70]] in ''[[Seleucia Pieria]]e'' in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], this fleet controlled the Eastern Mediterranean and the [[Aegean sea]].. * The ''[[Classis Mauretanica]]'', based at ''Caesarea Mauretaniae'', it controlled the African coasts of the western Mediterranean sea. In essence, it was formed by joint [[vexillation]]s of the ''Classis Syriaca'' and the ''Classis Alexandrina''. * The ''Classis nova Libyca'', first mentioned in 180, based at [[Ptolemais]] on the [[Cyrenaica]] In addition, there is significant archaeological evidence for naval activity by certain legions, which in all likelihood operated their own squadrons, by [[Legio XXII Primigenia|''legio'' XXII ''Primigenia'']] in the Upper [[Rhine]] and [[Main]] rivers, of [[Legio X Fretensis|''legio'' X ''Fretensis'']] in the [[Jordan River]] and the [[Sea of Galilee]], and of several legionary squadrons in the Danube frontier<ref name=Borders>[http://www1.rgzm.de/navis/Themes/Flotte/FleetsAndBorder.htm The Fleets and Roman Border Policy]</ref> ==== Dominate period ==== As the Empire faced increasing threats, a number of smaller squadrons were created during the 3rd century from the larger provincial fleets. Most of these were principally fluvial in nature, and set up to counter raids. Among these were: * The ''Classis Venetum'', based at [[Aquileia]] and operating in the Adriatic Sea. * The ''Classis Scythiae'', established from the ''Classis Moesica'' and operating in the Danube estuary ([[Scythia Minor]]) and the Black Sea. * The ''Classis Anderetianorum'', based at Parisii ([[Paris]]) and operating in the [[Seine]] and [[Oise River|Oise]] rivers. * The ''Classis Ararica'', based at Caballodunum ([[Châlon-sur-Saône]]) and operating in the [[Saône]] River. * The ''Classis fluminis Rhodani'', based at [[Arelate]] and operating in the [[Rhône River]]. * The ''Classis Sambrica'', based at Locus Quartensis (unknown location) and operating in the [[Somme River]] and the Channel. * The ''Classis Carpathia'', detached from the ''Classsis Syriaca'' in ca. 400 and based at the Aegean island of [[Karpathos]]. * The ''Classis Histrica'', the "Danube Fleet", active in the Upper Danube. === Ports === Major Roman ports were: * [[Misenum]] * Classis, near [[Ravenna]] * [[Alexandria]] * [[Leptis Magna]] * [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]] * [[Port of Mainz]] (Mogontiacum, river navy on the Rhine) ==See also== *[[Nemi ships]] *[[Roman Republic]] *[[Roman Empire]] *[[Roman military]] *[[Naval warfare]] *[[Caligula's Giant Ship]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * {{cite book | first = Lionel | last = Casson | title = Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0801851300}} * {{cite book | first = Peter | last = Connolly | title = Greece and Rome at War | publisher = Greenhill | year = 1998 | isbn =}} * {{cite book | last=Saddington | first=D.B.| title=A Companion to the Roman Army | chapter=''Classes''. The Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets | editor=Gardiner, Robert | year=2007 | publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] Ltd. | isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8}} * {{cite book | first = Robert (Ed.) | last = Gardiner | title = AGE OF THE GALLEY: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre-Classical Times | publisher = Conway Maritime Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0851779553}} * {{cite book | first = Adrian | last = Goldsworthy | title = The Complete Roman Army | publisher = Thames & Hudson Ltd. | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-500-05124-0}} *{{cite book |title=In the name of Rome: The men who won the Roman Empire |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |isbn=978-0-7538-1789-6 |year=2007 |publisher=Phoenix|chapter=A Roman Alexander: Pompey the Great}} * {{cite book | last=Gruen | first=Erich S. | title=The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome: Volume II | year=1984 | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | isbn=0-520-04569-6}} * {{de icon}} {{cite book | first = Georg Alexander | last = Rost | title = Vom Seewesen und Seehandel in der Antike | publisher = John Benjamins Publishing Company| year = 1968 | isbn = 9060323610}} * {{cite book | first = John | last = Warry | title = Warfare in the Classical World | publisher = Salamander Books Ltd. | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8061-2794-5}} * {{de icon}} {{cite book | first = Gabriele | last = Wesch-Klein | title = Soziale Aspekte des römischen Heerwesens in der Kaiserzeit | publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag | year = 1998 | isbn = 3515073000}} == External links == * {{it icon}} [http://www.roma-victrix.com/classis/classis.htm List of Roman fleets] * {{it icon}} [http://digilander.libero.it/agenziagiornalisti/ The Imperial fleet of Misenum] * [http://www.classis-britannica.co.uk/sml/index.htm The Classis Britannica] * [http://www.roman-empire.net/army/leg-fleet.html The Roman Fleet], ''Roman-Empire.net'' * ''[http://www.romaeterna.org/galleria/index.html Galleria Navale]'' on [http://www.romaeterna.org/navigare.html Navigare Necesse Est] * ''[http://www2.rgzm.de/navis/Musea/Ostia/Fiumicino_English.htm Port of Claudius]'', the museum of Roman merchant ships found in Fiumicino (Rome) * ''[http://nemiship.multiservers.com/ Diana Nemorensis]'', Caligula's ships in the lake of Nemi. * ''[http://www1.rgzm.de/navis/Themes/Flotte/FleetsAndBorder.htm The Fleets and Roman Border Policy]'' {{Portal|Military of ancient Rome|image=Scutum_1.jpg}} {{Ancient Rome topics}} [[Category:Military of ancient Rome| ]] [[Category:Navy of ancient Rome| ]] [[de:Römische Marine]] [[fr:marine romaine]] [[es:Armada romana]] [[it:Marina militare romana]] [[he:הצי הרומי]] [[la:Classis]] [[nl:Romeinse vloot]] [[ja:ローマ海軍]] [[pt:Marinha romana]] [[sl:Rimska mornarica]]