Romanticism
26094
226181824
2008-07-17T05:25:56Z
125.60.241.238
{{dablink|"Romantics" redirects here. For the band, see [[The Romantics]].}}
[[Image:Caspar David Friedrich 032.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Caspar David Friedrich]], ''[[Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]],'' 38.58 × 29.13 inches, 1818, Oil on canvas]]
'''Romanticism''' is a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in [[Western Europe]], and gained strength during the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083836 ''Romanticism''. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref> It was partly a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature
The movement stressed strong emotion as a source of [[aesthetic]] experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation, horror, and the awe experienced in confronting the [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublimity]] in untamed nature and its qualities that are "[[picturesque]]", both new aesthetic categories. It elevated [[folk art]] and custom, as well as arguing for a "natural" [[epistemology]] of human activities as conditioned by nature in the form of language, custom and usage.
Our modern sense of a romantic character is sometimes based on [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]]ic or Romantic ideals. Romanticism reached beyond the [[rational]] and [[Classic]]ist ideal models to elevate [[medievalism]] and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl and [[Industrial Revolution|industrialism]], and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar and distant in modes more authentic than ''[[chinoiserie]]'', harnessing the power of the imagination to envision and to escape.
The ideologies and events of the [[French Revolution]], rooted in Romanticism{{fact|date=February 2008}}, affected the direction it was to take, and the confines of the Industrial Revolution also had their influence on Romanticism, which was in part an escape from modern realities; indeed, in the second half of the nineteenth century, "[[Realism]]" was offered as a polarized opposite to Romanticism. Romanticism elevated the achievements of what it perceived as misunderstood heroic individuals and artists that altered society. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a ''[[Zeitgeist]]'', in the representation of its ideas.
==Characteristics==
In a general sense, the term "Romanticism" has been used to refer to certain [[artists]], [[poets]], [[writers]], [[musicians]], as well as [[political]], [[philosophical]] and social thinkers of the late eighteenth and early to mid nineteenth centuries. It has equally been used to refer to various artistic, intellectual, and social trends of that era. Despite this general usage of the term, a precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism have been the subject of debate in the fields of [[intellectual history]] and [[literary history]] throughout the twentieth century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. [[Arthur Lovejoy]] attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of this problem in his seminal article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his ''Essays in the [[History of ideas|History of Ideas]]'' (1948); some scholars see romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some see in it the inaugural moment of [[modernity]], some see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to the Enlightenment— a [[Counter-Enlightenment]]— and still others place it firmly in the direct aftermath of the French Revolution. An earlier definition comes from [[Charles Baudelaire]]: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."<ref>[http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Salon_de_1846_%28Curiosit%C3%A9s_esth%C3%A9tiques%29#II._.E2.80.94_Qu.E2.80.99est-ce_que_le_romantisme.3F Baudelaire's speech at the "Salon des curiosités Estethiques]</ref>
Many intellectual historians have seen Romanticism as a key movement in the [[Counter-Enlightenment]], a reaction against the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. Whereas the thinkers of the Enlightenment emphasized the primacy of [[deductive reasoning|deductive reason]], Romanticism emphasized [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuition]], [[imagination]], and [[feeling]], to a point that has led to some Romantic thinkers being accused of [[irrationalism]].
===Etymology===
Romanticism is closely tied to the idea of the "Romantic." Note the capital 'R' differs from "romantic" meaning "someone involved in romance," although the words have the same root. The word [[Romance (genre)|romance]] comes from the Old French ''romanz'', which is a genre of prose or poetic heroic narrative originating in medieval literature. Just as we speak of [[Romance languages]], ''romanz'' was written in the vernacular and not in [[Latin]].
==Romanticism and music==<!--Do not change this subtitle without repairing the link pointing here from Dante Symphony ("See also" section).-->
{{Main|Romantic music}}
[[Image:Beethoven.jpg|left|thumb|120px|<br>''[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'']]
In general, the term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to mean the period roughly from the 1820s until around 1900. The contemporary application of 'romantic' to music did not coincide with modern categories, however: in 1810 [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]] called [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] the three "Romantic Composers", and [[Ludwig Spohr]] used the term "good Romantic style" to apply to parts of Beethoven's [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]. <!-- non-specific assertions -->Technically, Mozart is considered classical and by most standards Beethoven is the start of the musical Romantic period. By the early twentieth century, the sense that there had been a decisive break with the musical past led to the establishment of the nineteenth century as "[[Romantic music|The Romantic Era]]," and it is referred to as such in the standard encyclopedias of music.
The traditional modern discussion of the music of Romanticism includes elements, such as the growing use of [[folk music]], which are also directly related to the broader current of [[Romantic nationalism]] in the arts<ref>For a detailed discussion of its musical manifestations, see [[musical nationalism]].</ref> as well as aspects already present in eighteenth-century music, such as the ''[[cantabile]]'' accompanied melody<ref>Inherited from the ''galante'' pre-Classical style.</ref> to which Romantic composers beginning with [[Franz Schubert]] applied restless [[key modulation]]s.
[[Image:Mendelssohn Bartholdy.jpg|right|thumb|120px|''[[Felix Mendelssohn]]'']]
The heightened contrasts and emotions of ''[[Sturm und Drang]] (German for "Storm and Stress")'' seem a precursor of the [[Gothic novel]] in literature, or the sanguinary elements of some of the operas of the period of the [[French Revolution]]. The libretti of [[Lorenzo da Ponte]] for [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s eloquent music, convey a new sense of individuality and freedom. The romantic generation viewed Beethoven as their ideal of a heroic artist--a man who first dedicated a symphony to Consul Bonaparte as a champion of freedom and then challenged Emperor [[Napoleon]] by striking him out from the dedication of the [[Symphony no. 3 (Beethoven)|Eroica Symphony]]. In Beethoven's ''[[Fidelio]]'' he creates the apotheosis of the 'rescue operas' which were another feature of French musical culture during the revolutionary period, in order to hymn the freedom which underlay the thinking of all radical artists in the years of hope after the [[Congress of Vienna]].
[[Image:Chopin-scheffer.jpg|left|thumb|120px|''[[Frédéric Chopin]]'']]
In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career, depending on sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of [[Paganini]] and [[Liszt]].
Beethoven's use of tonal architecture in such a way as to allow significant expansion of musical forms and structures was immediately recognized as bringing a new dimension to music. His later piano music and string quartets, especially, showed the way to a completely unexplored musical universe. E.T.A. Hoffmann was able to write of the supremacy of instrumental music over vocal music in expressiveness, a concept which would previously have been regarded as absurd. Hoffmann himself, as a practitioner both of music and literature, encouraged the notion of music as 'programmatic' or narrative, an idea which new audiences found attractive. <!--Mendelssohn's "Fingal's Cave"?:however irritating it was to some composers (e.g. [[Felix Mendelssohn]]).-->Early nineteenth century developments in instrumental technology—iron frames for pianos, wound metal strings for string instruments—enabled louder dynamics, more varied tone colours, and the potential for sensational virtuosity. Such developments swelled the length of pieces, introduced programmatic titles, and created new genres such as the free-standing [[concert overture]] or [[tone poem]], the piano [[Fantasia (music)|fantasia]], [[nocturne]] and [[rhapsody (music)|rhapsody]], and the virtuosic [[concerto]], which became central to musical romanticism.
[[Image:Richardwagner1.jpg|right|thumb|120px|''[[Richard Wagner]]'']]
In opera, a new Romantic atmosphere combining supernatural terror and melodramatic plot in a folkloric context was most successfully achieved by [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]]'s ''[[Der Freischütz]]'' (1817, revised 1821). Enriched timbre and color marked the early orchestration of [[Hector Berlioz]] in France, and the [[grand opera]]s of [[Giacomo Meyerbeer|Meyerbeer]]. Amongst the radical fringe of what became mockingly characterised (adopting Wagner's own words) as 'artists of the future', Liszt and Wagner each embodied the Romantic cult of the free, inspired, charismatic, perhaps ruthlessly unconventional individual artistic personality.
It is the period of 1815 to 1848 which must be regarded as the true age of Romanticism in music - the age of the last compositions of Beethoven (d. 1827) and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] (d. 1828), of the works of [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]] (d. 1856) and [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] (d.1849), of the early struggles of Berlioz and [[Richard Wagner]], of the great virtuosi such as [[Niccolò Paganini|Paganini]] (d. 1840), and the young [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]] and [[Thalberg]]. Now that we are able to listen to the work of Mendelssohn (d. 1847) stripped of the [[Biedermeier]] reputation unfairly attached to it, he can also be placed in this more appropriate context. After this period, with Chopin and Paganini dead, Liszt retired from the concert platform at a minor German court, Wagner effectively in exile until he obtained royal patronage in Bavaria, and Berlioz still struggling with the bourgeois liberalism which all but smothered radical artistic endeavour in Europe, Romanticism in music was surely past its prime—giving way, rather, to the period of [[Romantic music|musical romantics]].
==Visual art and literature==
{{seealso|Romantic poetry}}
[[Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 023.jpg|thumb|left|230px|''[[The Third of May 1808]]'' by [[Francisco Goya]]]]
In visual art and literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "[[sensibility]]" with its emphasis on women and children, the heroic isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for a new, wilder, untrammeled and "pure" nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as [[Edgar Allan Poe]] and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], based their writings on the [[supernatural]]/[[occult]] and human [[psychology]].
The Scottish poet [[James Macpherson]] influenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of his [[Ossian]] cycle of poems published in [[1762 in literature|1762]], inspiring both Goethe and the young [[Walter Scott]].
An early [[Germany|German]] influence came from [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] whose [[1774 in literature|1774]] novel ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' had young men throughout [[Europe]] emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of [[nationalism]]. Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Friedrich Schelling]], making [[Jena]] (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, [[Hegel]], [[Schiller]] and the brothers [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Schlegel]]) a center for early German romanticism ("Jenaer Romantik"). Important writers were [[Ludwig Tieck]], [[Novalis]] (''[[Heinrich von Ofterdingen]]'', 1799) and [[Friedrich Hoelderlin]].
[[Heidelberg]] later became a center of German romanticism, where writers and poets such as [[Clemens Brentano]], [[Achim von Arnim]], and [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]] met regularly in literary circles.
Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, and ancient myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example, [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]'s ''[[Der Sandmann]]'' (''The Sandman''), 1817, and [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]]'s ''Das Marmorbild'' (''The Marble Statue''), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has [[gothic novel|gothic]] elements.
[[Image:Turner, J. M. W. - The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken.jpg|left|220px|thumb|''The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken'', [[J.M.W. Turner]]]]
Romanticism in British literature developed in a different form slightly later, mostly associated with the poets [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], whose co-authored book ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'' (1798) sought to reject [[Augustan poetry]] in favour of more direct speech derived from folk traditions. Both poets were also involved in [[utopia]]n social thought in the wake of the [[French Revolution]]. The poet and painter [[William Blake]] is the most extreme example of the Romantic sensibility in Britain, epitomised by his claim “I must create a system or be enslaved by another man's.” Blake's artistic work is also strongly influenced by Medieval illuminated books. The painters [[J. M. W. Turner]] and [[John Constable]] are also generally associated with Romanticism. [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[Mary Shelley]] and [[John Keats]] constitute another phase of Romanticism in Britain.
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|220px|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
In predominantly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] countries Romanticism was less pronounced than in Germany and Britain, and tended to develop later, after the rise of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]. [[François-René de Chateaubriand]] is often called the "Father of French Romanticism". In France, the movement is associated with the nineteenth century, particularly in the paintings of [[Théodore Géricault]] and [[Eugène Delacroix]], the plays, poems and novels of [[Victor Hugo]] (such as ''[[Les Misérables]]'' and ''[[Ninety-Three]]''), and the novels of [[Stendhal]]. The composer [[Hector Berlioz]] is also important.
In Russia, the principal exponent of Romanticism is [[Alexander Pushkin]]. [[Mikhail Lermontov]] attempted to analyse and bring to light the deepest reasons for the Romantic idea of metaphysical discontent with society and self, and was much influenced by Lord Byron. The poet [[Fyodor Tyutchev]] was also an important figure of the movement in Russia, and was heavily influenced by the German Romantics.
<!--the following belongs with Romantic nationalism below-->Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in [[Poland]], which had recently lost its independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Rebellion under the reactionary Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of [[Romantic nationalism]]. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was [[Adam Mickiewicz]], who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all the people.
[[Image:JWW TheLadyOfShallot 1888.jpg|thumb|left|300px|In ''[[The Lady of Shalott (painting)|The Lady of Shalott]]'' (1888) [[John William Waterhouse]]'s realistic technique depicts a neo-medieval subject drawn from [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian]] [[Romance (genre)|Romance]]]]
In the United States, the romantic gothic made an early appearance with [[Washington Irving]]'s ''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow|Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]'' 1820) and ''[[Rip Van Winkle]]'' ([[1819 in literature|1819]]), followed from [[1823 in literature|1823]] onwards by the ''[[Leatherstocking Tales|Leatherstocking]]'' tales of [[James Fenimore Cooper]], with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "[[noble savage]]s", similar to the philosophical theory of [[Rousseau]], exemplified by [[Uncas]], from ''[[The Last of the Mohicans]]''. There are picturesque "local color" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully in [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s atmosphere and melodrama. Later [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalist]] writers such as [[Henry David Thoreau]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] still show elements of its influence, as does the romantic realism of [[Walt Whitman]]. But by the 1880s, psychological and [[social realism]] was competing with romanticism in the novel. The poetry which Americans wrote and read was all romantic until the 1920s: Poe and Hawthorne, as well as [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]. The poetry of [[Emily Dickinson]] – nearly unread in her own time – and [[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. As in England, Germany, and France, literary Romanticism had its counterpart in American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of untamed America found in the paintings of the [[Hudson River School]]. Painters like [[Thomas Cole]], [[Albert Bierstadt]] and [[Frederic Edwin Church]] and others often combined a sense of the sublime with underlying religious and philosophical themes. Thomas Cole's paintings feature strong narratives as in ''[[The Voyage of Life]]'' series painted in the early 1840s that depict man trying to survive amidst an awesome and immense nature, from the cradle to the grave.
==Nationalism==
{{main|Romantic nationalism}}<!--fully developed ideas at the linked entry should be concisely expressed here-->
[[Image:Wappers belgian revolution.jpg|300px|left|thumb|''Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830'' by [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers]]: A romantic vision]]
One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and [[folklore]], and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements which would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning.
Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by [[Rousseau]], and by the ideas of [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]], who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.
[[Image:Gallen Kallela The Forging of the Sampo.jpg|right|thumb|''The Forging of the Sampo'' by [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]], an artist deriving inspiration from the compilation the ''[[Kalevala]]''.]]
The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the [[French Revolution]] with the rise of [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] became [[First French Empire|Napoleon's Empire]], Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In [[Prussia]], the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in [[Napoleonic Wars|the struggle against Napoleon]] was argued by, among others, [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], a disciple of [[Kant]]. The word ''[[Volkstum]]'', or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806:
:''Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality—then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.''
This view of nationalism inspired the collection of [[folklore]] by such people as the [[Brothers Grimm]], the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the ''[[Kalevala]]'', compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or ''[[Ossian]]'', where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by [[Charles Perrault]], which they thought proved they were not truly German tales; ''[[Sleeping Beauty]]'' survived in their collection because the tale of [[Brynhildr]] convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German.
The brief revolutionary career of [[Robert Emmet]] in 1803 in [[Ireland]] could have ended in obscurity, but romantic writers such as [[Thomas Moore]] ensured that he would be remembered long after his death. His good character combined with failure provided an ideal example of the romantic hero.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
===Related terms===
*[[Surrealism]]
*[[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]
*[[Bohemianism]]
*[[Humboldtian science|Humboldtian]]
*[[Nationalism]]
*[[Gothicism]]
*[[Expressionism]]
*[[Sentimentalism]]
===Opposing terms===
*[[Classicism]]
*[[Academy|The Academy]]
*[[Utilitarianism]]
*[[realism (arts)|Realism]]
*[[Rationalism]]
*[[Age of Enlightenment|The Enlightenment]]
*[[Moral objectivism|Objectivism]]
*[[Positivism]]
{{col-4}}
===Related subjects===
*[[Romantic hero]]
*[[Romantic realism]]
*[[Romanticism in science]]
*[[Neo-romanticism]]
*[[Post-romanticism]]
*[[List of romantics]]
*[[Folklore]]
*[[Middle Ages in history]]
{{col-4}}
===Related movements===
*[[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
*[[Sturm und Drang]]
*[[Hudson River School]]
*[[Düsseldorf School]]
*[[Hellenism (neoclassicism)]]
{{col-4}}
===Romantic scholars===
*[[Donald Ault]]
*[[Harold Bloom]]
*[[James Chandler]]
*[[NASSR]]
*[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
*[[Jerome McGann]]
*[[Rene Wellek]]
*[[William Wordsworth]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
{{col-end}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
{{commonscat|Romanticism}}
*Abrams, Meyer H., ''The Mirror and the Lamp : Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition'', (Oxford University Press) 1971.
*[[Isaiah Berlin|Berlin, Isaiah]], ''The Roots of Romanticism'', (recorded 1965), [[Chatto & Windus]], 1999.
*Brion, Marcel, ''Art of the Romantic Era: Romanticism, Classicism, Realism'', 1966. (Originally published in French)
*Friedlaender, Walter, ''David to Delacroix'', (Originally published in German; reprinted 1980) 1952.
*Honour, Hugh, ''Romanticism'', (Westview Press) 1979.
*Lim, Cwisfa, ''Romanticism - The dawn of a new era'', 2002. (reprinted 2006)
*Masson, Scott, 'Romanticism', Ch.7 in ''The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and Theology'', (Oxford University Press) 2007.
*Novotny, Fritz, ''Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780-1880'', 1971. (2nd edition 1980)
*Rosenblum, Robert, ''Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition: Friedrich to Rothko'', (Harper & Row) 1975.
*Tekiner, Deniz, ''Modern Art and the Romantic Vision'', (University Press of America) 2000.
==External links==
*[http://www.rc.umd.edu ''Romantic Circles''] Electronic editions, histories, and scholarly articles related to the Romantic era
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_romantics/ The Romantic Poets]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-26 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''], Romanticism
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-27 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''], Romanticism in Political Thought
*[http://www.all-art.org/photography/HH-%20Talbot%20William.htm Romanticism in the "History of Art"]
*[http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/romanticism/arthistory_romanticism.html Romanticism in the Art History Archive]
{{Westernart}}
{{Romanticism}}
[[Category:Romanticism|*]]
[[Category:Romantic art|Romantic art]]
[[Category:Romantic paintings]]
[[Category:Romantic artists]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:History of Europe| ]]
[[Category:Concepts (nationalism studies)]]
{{Link FA|mk}}
{{Link FA|sv}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[af:Romantiek]]
[[ar:رومانسية]]
[[ba:Романтизм]]
[[bs:Romantizam]]
[[bg:Романтизъм]]
[[ca:Romanticisme]]
[[cs:Romantismus]]
[[da:Romantikken]]
[[de:Romantik]]
[[et:Romantism]]
[[el:Ρομαντισμός]]
[[es:Romanticismo]]
[[eo:Romantikismo]]
[[eu:Erromantizismoa]]
[[fa:رمانتیسیسم]]
[[fr:Romantisme]]
[[gl:Romanticismo]]
[[ko:낭만주의]]
[[hr:Romantizam]]
[[id:Romantisisme]]
[[is:Rómantíkin]]
[[it:Romanticismo]]
[[he:רומנטיקה]]
[[ka:რომანტიზმი]]
[[ku:Romantîzm]]
[[lv:Romantisms]]
[[lt:Romantizmas]]
[[hu:Romantika]]
[[mk:Романтизам]]
[[ml:കാല്പനികത]]
[[mn:Романтизм]]
[[nl:Romantiek (stroming)]]
[[ja:ロマン主義]]
[[no:Romantikken]]
[[nn:Romantikken]]
[[pl:Romantyzm]]
[[pt:Romantismo]]
[[ro:Romantism]]
[[ru:Романтизм (направление в искусстве)]]
[[scn:Rumanticismu]]
[[simple:Romanticism]]
[[sk:Romantizmus]]
[[sl:Romantika]]
[[sr:Романтизам]]
[[sh:Romantizam]]
[[fi:Romantiikka]]
[[sv:Romantiken]]
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa lãng mạn]]
[[tr:Romantizm akımı]]
[[uk:Романтизм]]
[[vec:Romanticismo]]
[[wa:Romantisse]]
[[vls:Romantiek]]
[[zh:浪漫主义]]