Rongorongo 151438 223029206 2008-07-02T07:05:32Z Kwamikagami 93143 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 223028764 by [[Special:Contributions/Jonathan Cardy|Jonathan Cardy]] ([[User talk:Jonathan Cardy|talk]])--that makes a mess :''For the ancestress of some [[Māori]] tribes, see [[Rongorongo (wife of Turi)]]. For the settlement, see [[Beru Island]].'' {{Infobox WS | name = Rongorongo | type = Undeciphered | time = Time of creation unknown, most tablets lost or destroyed in the 1860s | languages = Assumed to be [[Rapa Nui language|Rapanui]] | sample = Rongorongo Qr3-7 color.jpg | iso15924 = Roro }} '''Rongorongo''' ({{pronEng|ˈrɒŋɡoʊˈrɒŋɡoʊ}} in English, {{linkIPA|ˈɾoŋoˈɾoŋo}} in [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]]) is a system of [[glyph]]s discovered in the 19th century on [[Easter Island]] that appears to be [[writing system|writing]] or [[proto-writing]]. It has not been deciphered despite numerous attempts. Although some [[calendar|calendrical]] and what might prove to be [[genealogy|genealogical]] information has been identified, not even these glyphs can be read. If rongorongo does prove to be writing, it would be one of only three or four known independent [[History of writing#Invention of writing|inventions of writing]] in human history. Two dozen wooden objects bearing rongorongo inscriptions, some heavily weathered, burned, or otherwise damaged, were collected in the late 19th century and are now scattered in museums and private collections. None remain on Easter Island.<ref>Though wooden replicas can be seen in the [[Father Sebastian Englert Anthropological Museum]] in [[Hanga Roa]], the main village of Easter Island.</ref> The objects are mostly tablets made from irregular pieces of wood, sometimes driftwood, but include a chieftain's staff, a [[Tangata manu|bird-man]] statuette, and two ''[[reimiro]]'' ornaments. There are also a few [[petroglyph]]s which may include short rongorongo inscriptions. Oral history suggests that only a small elite was ever literate and that the tablets were sacred. Authentic rongorongo texts are written in alternating directions, a system called reverse [[boustrophedon]]. In the case of the tablets these lines are often inscribed in shallow [[fluting (architecture)|fluting]] carved into the wood. The glyphs have a characteristic outline appearance and include human, animal, plant, [[cultural artifact|artifact]] and geometric forms. Some of the human and animal figures, such as [[Image:RR 200.png|15px]] and [[Image:RR 280.png|15px]], have protuberances on each side of the head, possibly representing ears or eyes, that are also characteristic of rongorongo. Individual texts are known by a single uppercase letter, for example Tablet '''C''', or by a name such as the ''Mamari'' Tablet. These names are sometimes descriptive or indicate where the object is kept, as in the Oar, the Snuffbox, the Small Santiago Tablet, and the Santiago Staff. ==Etymology and variant names== ''Rongorongo'' is the modern name for the inscriptions. In the [[Rapa Nui language|Rapanui language]] it means "to recite, to declaim, to chant out" (Englert 1993).<ref name="def">[[Sebastian Englert|Englert]] defines ''rogorogo'' as "recitar, declamar, leer cantando" (to recite, declaim, read chanting), and ''tagata rogorogo'' (rongorongo man) as "hombre que sabía leer los textos de los ''kohau rogorogo,'' o sea, de las tabletas con signos para la recitación" (a man who could read the texts of the ''kohau rongorongo,'' that is, of the tablets bearing signs for recitation). It is the [[reduplication]] of ''rongo'' "recado, orden o mandato, mensaje, noticia" (a message, order, notice); ''tagata rogo'' is a "mensajero" (a messenger).<br> ''Kohau'' are defined as "líneas tiradas a hilo ''(hau)'' sobre tabletas o palos para la inscripción de signos" (lines drawn with a string ''(hau)'' on tablets or sticks for inscribing signs).<br> The Rapanui word ''rongo'' {{IPA|/ɾoŋo/}} has [[cognate]]s in most other [[Austronesian languages]], from [[Malay language|Malay]] ''dengar'' {{IPA|/dəŋar/}} to [[Fijian language|Fijian]] ''rogoca'' {{IPA|/roŋoða/}} and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''lono'' {{IPA|/lono/}}, where these words have such meanings as "to listen", "to hear", ''etc.''</ref> The original name—or perhaps description—of the script is said to have been ''kohau motu mo rongorongo'', "lines incised for chanting out" (Englert 1993), shortened to ''kohau rongorongo'' or "lines for chanting out". There are also said to have been more specific names for the texts based on their topic. For example, the ''kohau ta‘u'' ("lines of years") were annals, the ''kohau îka'' ("lines of fishes") were lists of persons killed in war ''(îka'' "fish" was homophonous with or used figuratively for "war casualty"), and the ''kohau ranga'' "lines of fugitives" were lists of war refugees.<ref name="def"/> Some authors have understood the ''ta‘u'' in ''kohau ta‘u'' to refer to a separate form of writing distinct from ''rongorongo.'' Barthel (June 1958:66) recorded that, "The Islanders had another writing (the so-called 'ta‘u script') which recorded their annals and other secular matters, but this has disappeared." However, Fischer (1997:667) writes that "the ''ta‘u'' was originally a type of ''rongorongo'' inscription. In the 1880s, a group of elders invented a derivative "script" [also] called ''ta‘u'' with which to decorate carvings in order to increase their trading value. It is a primitive imitation of ''rongorongo.'' An alleged third script, the ''mama'' or ''va‘eva‘e'' described in some mid-twentieth-century publications, was "an early twentieth-century geometric [decorative] invention" (Fischer 1997:ix). ==Form and construction== [[Image:Rongorongo G-r Small Santiago (raw).jpg|thumb|right|The Small Santiago Tablet (tablet '''G''') clearly shows the fluting along which the glyphs were carved.]] The rongorongo glyphs are contours of living organisms and geometric designs about one centimeter high and standardized in form. The wooden tablets are irregular in shape and, in many instances, [[fluting (architecture)|fluted]] (tablets '''B''', '''E''', '''G''', '''H''', '''O''', '''Q''', and '''T'''), with the glyphs carved in shallow channels running the length of the tablets as can be seen in the image of tablet '''G''' at right. It is thought that irregular and often blemished pieces of wood were used in their entirety rather than squared off due to the scarcity of wood on the island (Fischer 1997:382). ===Writing media=== [[Image:Rongorongo K-v London (edge).jpg|thumb|right|To conserve space, the text wraps around the edge of tablet '''K'''.]] Except for a few possible glyphs cut in stone (see [[#Petroglyphs|petroglyphs]]), all surviving texts are inscribed in wood. According to tradition, the tablets were made of [[toromiro]] wood. However, Orliac (2005) examined seven objects (tablets '''B''', '''C''', '''G''', '''H''', '''K''', '''Q''', and ''reimiro'' '''L''') with [[Comparison microscope|stereo optical]] and [[scanning electron microscope]]s and determined that all were instead made from [[Thespesia populnea|Pacific rosewood ''(Thespesia populnea)'']]; the same identification had been made for tablet '''M''' in 1934. This 15-meter tree, known as "Pacific rosewood" for its color and called ''mako‘i'' in Rapanui, is used for sacred groves and carvings throughout eastern Polynesia and was evidently brought to Easter Island by the first settlers (Skjølsvold 1994, as cited in Orliac 2005). However, not all the wood was native: Orliac (2007) established that tablets '''N''', '''P''', and '''S''' were made of [[Podocarpus latifolius|South African Yellowwood ''(Podocarpus latifolius)'']] and therefore that the wood had arrived with Western contact. Fischer had previously described '''P''' as "a damaged and reshapen European or American oar", as were '''A''' (which is [[Fraxinus excelsior|European ash, ''Fraxinus excelsior]])'' and '''V'''; that wood from the wreck of a Western boat was said to have been used for many tablets; and that both '''P''' and '''S''' had been used as planking for a Rapanui driftwood canoe (Fischer 1997:483). Several texts, including '''O''', are carved on gnarled [[driftwood]] (Fischer 1997:497). The fact that the islanders were reduced to inscribing driftwood, and were regardless extremely economical in their use of wood, may have had consequences for the structure of the script, such as the abundance of ligatures and potentially a [[Telegraphese|telegraphic style]] of writing that would complicate textual analysis (Fischer 1997:382–383; see also [[decipherment of rongorongo]]). [[Image:Musa sumatrana (Red Banana Tree).jpg|thumb|left|Rongorongo tablets may have been influenced by writing on banana leaves like this one.]] Oral tradition holds that, because of the great value of wood, only expert scribes used it, while pupils wrote on banana leaves. German ethnologist [[Thomas Barthel]] believed that carving on wood was a secondary development in the evolution of the script based on an earlier stage of incising banana leaves or the sheaths of the banana trunk with a bone stylus, and that the medium of leaves was retained not only for lessons but to plan and compose the texts of the wooden tablets (Barthel 1971:1168). He found experimentally that the glyphs were quite visible on banana leaves due to the sap that emerged from the cuts and dried on the surface. However, when the leaves themselves dried they became brittle and would not have survived for long (Fischer 1997:386). Barthel speculated that the banana leaf might even have served as a prototype for the tablets, with the fluted surface of the tablets an emulation of the veined structure of a leaf: {{clear}} {{quotation|Practical experiments with the material available on [Easter Island] have proved that the above-mentioned parts of the banana tree are not only an ideal writing material, but that in particular a direct correspondence exists between the height of the lines of writing and the distance between the veins on the leaves and stems of the banana tree. The classical inscriptions can be arranged in two groups according to the height of the lines (10–12&nbsp;mm ''vs.'' 15&nbsp;mm); this corresponds to the natural disposition of the veins on the banana stem (on average 10&nbsp;mm in the lower part of a medium-sized tree) or on the banana leaf ([…] maximum&nbsp;15mm).|Barthel 1971:1169}} [[Image:Rongo-rongo script.jpg|thumb|left|A closeup of the verso of the Small Santiago Tablet, showing parts of lines 3 (bottom) to 7 (top). The glyphs of lines 3, 5, and 7 are right-side up, while those of lines 4 and 6 are up-side down.]] ===Direction of writing=== Rongorongo glyphs were written in [[boustrophedon|reverse boustrophedon]], left to right and bottom to top. That is, the reader begins at the bottom left-hand corner of a tablet, reads a line from left to right, then rotates the tablet 180 degrees to continue on the next line. When reading one line, the lines above and below it would appear upside down, as can be seen in the image at left. However, the writing continues onto the second side of a tablet at the point where it finishes off the first, so if the first side has an odd number of lines, as is the case with tablets '''K''', '''N''', '''P''', and '''Q''', the second will start at the ''upper'' left-hand corner, and the direction of writing shifts to top to bottom. Larger tablets and staves may have been read without turning, if the reader were able to read upside-down (Fischer 1997:353). ===Writing instruments=== [[Image:Rongorongo Gv4 (section).jpg|thumb|right|Most of '''Gv4''' was carved with a shark tooth. However, the two parts of the glyph second from right are connected by a faint bent hair-line that may have been inscribed with obsidian. (The chevrons are also linked by such a line, too faint to be seen here, which connects them to the hand of the human figure.)]] According to oral tradition, scribes used [[obsidian#Historical use|obsidian]] flakes or small [[shark tooth#Shark-tooth tools|shark teeth]], presumably the [[hilt|hafted]] tools still in use in Polynesia, to flute and polish the tablets and then to incise the glyphs (Métraux 1940:404). The glyphs are most commonly composed of deep smooth cuts, though superficial hair-line cuts are also found. In the closeup image at right, a glyph is composed of two parts connected by a hair-line cut; this is a typical convention for this shape. Several researchers, including Barthel, believe that these superficial cuts were made by obsidian, and that the texts were first sketched with obsidian and then deepened and finished with a worn shark tooth. The remaining hair-line cuts were then either errors, design conventions (as at right), or decorative embellishments.<ref> Barthel tested this experimentally, and Dederen (1993) reproduced several tablets in this fashion. Fischer (1997:389–390) comments, <blockquote>On the Large St. Petersburg ([P]r3) […] the original tracing with an obsidian flake describes a bird's bill identical to a foregoing one; but when incising, the scribe reduced this bill to a much more bulbous shape […] since he now was working with the different medium of a shark's tooth. There are many such scribal quirks on the "Large St. Petersburg" [tablet '''P''']. The rongorongo script is a "contour script" (Barthel 1955:360) […] with various internal or external lines, circles, dashes or dots added […] Often such features exist only in the hair-line pre-etching effected by obsidian flakes and not incised with a shark's tooth. This is particularly evident on the "Small Vienna" [tablet '''N'''].</blockquote> </ref> Vertical strings of chevrons or lozenges, for example, are typically connected with hair-line cuts, as can be seen repeatedly in the closeup of one end of tablet '''B''' below. However, Barthel was also told that the last literate Rapanui king, Nga‘ara, sketched out the glyphs in soot with a fish bone and then engraved them with a shark tooth (Barthel 1959:164). [[Rongorongo text N|Tablet '''N''']], on the other hand, shows no sign of shark teeth. Haberlandt (1886:102) noticed that, as evidenced by the shallowness and width of the grooves, the glyphs of this text appear to have been incised with a sharpened bone. '''N''' also "displays secondary working with obsidian flakes to elaborate details within the finished contour lines. No other ''rongo-rongo'' inscription reveals such graphic extravagance" (Fischer 1997:501). Other tablets appear to have been cut with a steel blade, often rather crudely. Although steel knives were available after the arrival of the Spanish, this does cast suspicion on the authenticity of these tablets.<ref name="steel">For example, Métraux (1938) said of [[Rongorongo text V|tablet '''V''']], "its authenticity is doubtful. The signs appear to have been incised with a steel implement, and do not show the regularity and beauty of outline which characterise the original tablets". Imitation tablets were made for the tourist trade as early as the 1880s.</ref> ===Glyphs=== [[Image:Rongorongo B-v Aruku-Kurenga (end).jpg|thumb|right|A photographic negative of one end of tablet '''B'''. The numbers are line numbers; ''Fin de 13'' means "end of [line] 13". (Click on image once to see it approximately life size.)]] The glyphs are stylized human, animal, vegetable and geometric shapes, and often form [[Typographical ligature|compounds]]. Nearly all those with heads are orientated head up and are either seen face on or in profile to the right, in the direction of writing. It is not known what significance turning a glyph head down or to the left may have had. Heads often have characteristic projections on the sides which may be eyes (as on the [[sea turtle]] glyph below, and more clearly on sea-turtle petroglyphs) but which often resemble ears (as on the anthropomorphic petroglyph in the next section). Birds are common; many resemble the [[frigatebird]] (see image directly below) which was associated with the supreme god [[Make-make]] (Guy 2006).<ref>However, a glyph resembling a chicken or rooster is not found, despite chickens being the mainstay of the economy and some of the tablets supposedly commemorating "how many men [a chief] had killed, how many chickens he had stolen" (Routledge 1919:251).</ref> Other glyphs look like fish or arthropods. A few, but only a few, are similar to petroglyphs found throughout the island. [[Image:Rongorongo-sample-en.png]] :''Some of the more iconic rongorongo glyphs. The seated man is thought to be a compound.'' :''(Readings from Barthel (1958). The captions in the right-most column are merely descriptive.)'' ==Origin== The oral tradition holds that either [[Hotu Matu'a|Hotu Matu‘a]] or [[Kings of Easter Island#Tu’u ko Iho|Tu‘u ko Iho]], the legendary founder(s) of Rapa Nui, brought 67&nbsp;tablets from their homeland (Fischer 1997:367). The same founder is also credited with bringing indigenous plants such as the [[toromiro]]. There is no homeland likely to have had a tradition of writing in Polynesia or even in South America. Thus rongorongo appears to have been an internal development. Given that few if any of the Rapanui people remaining on the island in the 1870s could read the glyphs, it is likely that only a small minority were ever literate. Indeed, early visitors were told that literacy was a privilege of the ruling families and priests who were all kidnapped in the Peruvian slaving raids or died soon afterwards in the resulting epidemics (Cooke 1899:712, Englert 1970:149–153). ===Dating the tablets=== Little direct dating has been done. [[Rongorongo text Q|Tablet '''Q''']] (Small Saint Petersburg) is the sole item that has been [[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] but the results only constrain the date to sometime after 1680 (Orliac 2005).<ref>"The conventional radiocarbon age obtained […] is 80 ±40 BP and the 2-sigma calibration age (95% probability) is Cal AD 1680 to Cal AD 1740 (Cal BP 270 to 200) and Cal AD 1800 to 1930 (Cal BP 150 to 20) and AD 1950 to 1960 (Cal BP 0 to 0); in fact, this rongorongo was collected in 1871 [so the later date cannot be correct]."</ref> Direct dating is not the only evidence. Texts '''A''', '''P''', and '''V''' can be dated to the 18th or 19th century by virtue of being inscribed on European oars. Orliac (2005) calculated that the wood for [[Rongorongo text C|tablet '''C''']] ''(Mamari)'' was cut from the trunk of a tree some {{convert|15|m|ft|-1|sp=us}} tall. ''Mamari'' is 19.6&nbsp;cm (7½") wide and includes [[sapwood]] along its edges; a trunk of that diameter corresponds to Pacific rosewood's maximum height of 15&nbsp;m. Easter Island has long been deforested of trees that size. Analysis of charcoal indicates that the forest disappeared in the first half of the 17th century. [[Jakob Roggeveen|Roggeveen]], who discovered Easter Island in 1722, described the island as "destitute of large trees" and in 1770 [[Felipe González de Ahedo|González de Ahedo]] wrote, "Not a single tree is to be found capable of furnishing a plank so much as six inches ''[15&nbsp;cm]'' in width." Forster, with [[James Cook|Cook's]] expedition of 1774, reported that "there was not a tree upon the island which exceeded the height of 10&nbsp;feet [3&nbsp;m]" (Flenley and Bahn 1992:172). All of these methods date the wood, not the inscription. However, Pacific rosewood is not durable, and is unlikely to survive long in Easter Island's climate (Orliac 2005). On the other hand, glyph '''067''' ([[Image:Rongorongo 067.svg|25px]]) is thought to represent the extinct [[Paschalococos|Easter Island palm]], which disappeared from the island's [[Palynology|pollen record]] ''circa'' 1650 and thus suggests that the script is at least that old (Orliac 2005). ===1770 Spanish expedition=== <!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Roro-1770-signatures.gif|thumb|right|The signatures on the 1770 Spanish treaty.<ref>These are traced from a copy, as the original was lost, and so may not retain their original orientations.</ref> The bottommost resembles a petroglyph, but none show the complexity of rongorongo.]] --> Several scholars, for example Flenley and Bahn (1992:203–204), have suggested that rongorongo may have had been a recent invention, inspired by the 1770 Spanish visit to the island and the signing of a treaty of annexation under [[Felipe González de Ahedo|González de Haedo]]. As circumstantial evidence, they note that no explorer reported the script prior to [[Eugène Eyraud]] in 1864, and that the marks with which the chiefs signed the Spanish treaty do not resemble rongorongo. The hypothesis of these researchers is not that rongorongo was itself a copy of the Latin alphabet, or of any other form of writing, but that the ''concept'' of writing had been conveyed in a process anthropologists term [[trans-cultural diffusion]], which then inspired the islanders to invent their own system of writing. If this is the case, then rongorongo emerged, flourished, fell into oblivion, and was all but forgotten within a span of less than a hundred years. However, known cases of the diffusion of writing, such as [[Sequoyah]]'s invention of the [[Cherokee syllabary]] after seeing the power of English-language newspapers, or [[Uyaquk]]'s invention of the [[Yugtun script]] inspired by readings from Christian scripture, involved greater contact than the signing of a single treaty. The fact that the script was not observed by early explorers, who spent little time on the island, may simply reflect that it was taboo at the time; such taboos and the ''tangata rongorongo'' may have lost power by the time the Rapanui society collapsed following European slaving raids and epidemics (Bahn 1996), so that the tablets had become more widely distributed by Eyraud's day. ===Petroglyphs=== [[Image:Anaokeke.jpg|thumb|right|Petroglyphs in the cave Ana o Keke resemble the feather-like rongorongo glyph '''3''' (left) and a compound glyph '''211:42''' (center). A line of divots passes through them, followed by a V shape that may be glyph '''27'''.]] Easter Island has the richest assortment of [[petroglyph]]s in Polynesia (Lee 1992). Nearly every suitable surface has been carved, including the stone walls of some houses and a few of the famous ''[[moai|mo‘ai]]'' statues and their fallen [[pukao|topknots]]. Around one thousand sites with over four thousand glyphs have been cataloged, some in [[bas-relief|bas-]] or [[sunken-relief]], and some painted red and white. Designs include a concentration of [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeric]] bird-man figures at [[Orongo]], a ceremonial center of the ''[[tangata manu]]'' or the "bird-man" cult; faces of the creation deity [[Make-make]]; marine animals like turtles, tuna, swordfish, sharks, whales, dolphins, crabs, and octopus (some with human faces); roosters; canoes, and over five hundred ''komari'' (vulvas). Petroglyphs are often accompanied by carved divots ("cupules") in the rock. Changing traditions are preserved in bas-relief birdmen, which were carved over simpler outline forms and in turn carved over with ''komari.'' Although the petroglyphs cannot be directly dated, some are partially obscured by pre-colonial stone buildings, suggesting they are relatively old. Several of the anthropomorphic and animal-form petroglyphs have parallels in rongorongo, for instance the double-headed frigatebird [[Image:RR 680.gif|30px]] (glyph '''680''') on the ''mo‘ai'' topknot above, which also appears on a dozen tablets.<ref name=petroglyph>See [http://www.flickr.com/photos/moon_rabbit/2005439344/ image]. Other examples of petroglyphs which resemble rongorongo glyphs can be seen [http://www.saga-photography.de/cei1033-4.php here] and [http://www.flickr.com/photos/8177037@N06/2138358013/sizes/m/ here].</ref> McLaughlin (2004) illustrates the most prominent correspondences with the petroglyph corpus of Lee (1992).<ref name=petroglyph/> However, these are mostly isolated glyphs; few text-like sequences or ligatures have been found among the petroglyphs. This has led to the suggestion that rongorongo must be a recent creation, perhaps inspired by petroglyph designs or retaining individual petroglyphs as [[logogram]]s (Macri 1995), but not old enough to have been incorporated into the petroglyphic tradition. The most complex candidate for petroglyphic rongorongo is what appears to be a short sequence of glyphs, one of which is a ligature, carved on the wall of a cave (see image at right). ==Historical record== ===Discovery=== [[Eugène Eyraud]], a lay friar of the [[Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary|Congrégation de Picpus]], landed on Easter Island on [[January 2]], [[1864]], on the 24th day of his departure from Valparaiso. He was to remain on Easter Island for nine months, evangelizing its inhabitants. He wrote an account of his stay (Eyraud 1886) in which he reports his discovery of the tablets: {{quotation|In every hut one finds wooden tablets or sticks covered in several sorts of hieroglyphic characters: They are depictions of animals unknown on the island, which the natives draw with sharp stones. Each figure has its own name; but the scant attention they pay to these tablets leads me to think that these characters, remnants of some primitive writing, are now for them a habitual practice which they keep without seeking its meaning.<ref>''Dans toutes les cases on trouve des tablettes de bois ou des bâtons couverts de plusieurs espèces de caractères hiéroglyphiques: ce sont des figures d'animaux inconnues dans l'île, que les indigènes tracent au moyen de pierres tranchantes. Chaque figure a son nom; mais le peu de cas qu'ils font de ces tablettes m'incline à penser que ces caractères, restes d'une écriture primitive, sont pour eux maintenant un usage qu'ils conservent sans en chercher le sens.''</ref>|Eyraud 1886:71}} There is no other mention of the tablets in his report, and the discovery went unnoticed. Eyraud left Easter Island on [[October 11]], in extremely poor health. Made a fully fledged priest in 1865, he returned to Easter Island in 1866 where he died of tuberculosis in August 1868, aged&nbsp;48. ===Destruction=== In 1868 the Bishop of Tahiti, [[Florentin-Étienne Jaussen|Florentin-Étienne "Tepano" Jaussen]], received a gift from the recent Catholic converts of Easter Island. It was a long cord of human hair, a fishing line perhaps, wound around a small wooden board covered in hieroglyphic writing. Stunned at the discovery, he wrote to Father [[Hippolyte Roussel]] on Easter Island to collect all the tablets and to find natives capable of translating them. But Roussel could only recover a few, and the islanders could not agree on how to read them (Fischer 1997:21–24). Yet Eyraud had seen hundreds of tablets only two years earlier. What happened to the missing tablets is a matter of conjecture. Eyraud had noted how little interest their owners had in them. [[Stéphen Chauvet]] reports that, {{quotation|The Bishop questioned the Rapanui wise man, Ouroupano Hinapote, the son of the wise man Tekaki [who said that] he, himself, had begun the requisite studies and knew how to carve the characters with a small shark's tooth. He said that there was nobody left on the island who knew how to read the characters since the Peruvians had brought about the deaths of all the wise men and, thus, the pieces of wood were no longer of any interest to the natives who burned them as firewood or wound their fishing lines around them!<br /><br />[[Alphonse Pinart|A. Pinart]] also saw some in 1877. [He] was not able to acquire these tablets because the natives were using them as reels for their fishing lines!|Chauvet 1935:381–382}} Orliac (2003/2004:48–53) has observed that the deep black indention, about 10&nbsp;cm long, on lines 5 and 6 of the recto of [[Rongorongo text H|tablet '''H''']] is a groove made by the rubbing of a fire stick, showing that tablet '''H''' had been used for fire-making. Tablets '''S''' and '''P''' had been cut into lashed planking for a canoe, which fits the story of a man named Niari who made a canoe out of abandoned tablets (Routledge 1919:207). As European-introduced diseases and raids by Peruvian slavers, including a final devastating raid in 1862 and a subsequent smallpox epidemic, had reduced the Rapa Nui population to under two hundred by the 1870s, it is possible that literacy had been wiped out by the time Eyraud discovered the tablets in 1866.<ref>Métraux (1940:3) reports that, "The present population of 456 natives is entirely derived from the 111 natives left after the abandonment of the island by the French missionaries in 1872." However, Routlegde (1919:208) gives a figure of 171 left after an evacuation led by Father Roussel in 1871, mostly old men, and Cooke (1899:712) states that the evacuation of some 300 islanders was in 1878, that "When H. M. S. ''Sappho'' touched at the island in 1882 it was reported that but 150 of the inhabitants were left", and goes on to give a summary of a complete census he received from Salmon in 1886 which listed 155 natives and 11 foreigners. </ref> Thus in 1868 Jaussen could recover only a few tablets, with three more acquired by Captain Gana of the Chilean corvette ''[[:es:Corbeta O'Higgins|O'Higgins]]'' in 1870. In the 1950s Barthel found the decayed remains of half a dozen tablets in caves, in the context of burials. However, no glyphs could be salvaged (Barthel 1959:162–163).<ref>Fischer (1997:526) translates Barthel, concerning four of these tablets: ''To judge by the form, size, and type of keeping one can say with a high degree of certainty that this involved tablets that were presented at two interments.''</ref> Of the 26 commonly accepted texts that survive, only half are in good condition and authentic beyond doubt (Fischer 1997:Appendices). ===Anthropological accounts=== British archaeologist and anthropologist [[Katherine Routledge]] undertook a 1914–1915 scientific expedition to Rapa Nui with her husband to catalog the art, customs, and writing of the island. She was able to interview two elderly informants, Kapiera and a leper named Tomenika, who allegedly had some knowledge of rongorongo. The sessions were not very fruitful, as the two often contradicted each other. From them Routledge concluded that rongorongo was an idiosyncratic mnemonic device that did not directly represent language, in other words, [[proto-writing]], and that the meanings of the glyphs were reformulated by each scribe, so that the ''kohau rongorongo'' could not be read by someone not trained in that specific text. The texts themselves she believed to be litanies for priest-scribes, kept apart in special houses and strictly ''[[taboo|tapu]],'' that recorded the island's history and mythology (Routledge 1919:253–254).<ref>However, Pozdniakov and Pozdniakov (2007) believe that the limited and repetitive nature of the texts precludes them recording anything as diverse as history or mythology.</ref> By the time of later ethnographic accounts, such as Métraux (1940), much of what Routledge recorded in her notes had been forgotten, and the oral history showed a strong influence from popular published accounts. ==Corpus== The 26 rongorongo texts with letter codes are inscribed on wooden objects, each with between 2 and 2320 simple glyphs and components of compound glyphs, for over 15,000<!--Pozdniakov says 14,345 for his sample, which does not include texts D, F, J, L, M, O, or T-Z, which have 1050 more (not counting Z).--> in all. The objects are mostly oblong wooden tablets, with the exceptions of '''I''', a possibly sacred chieftain's staff known as the ''Santiago Staff''; '''J''' and '''L''', inscribed on ''[[reimiro]]'' pectoral ornaments worn by the elite; '''X''', inscribed on various parts of a ''[[tangata manu]]'' ("birdman") statuette; and '''Y''', a European [[Decorative boxes#snuff box|snuff box]] assembled from sections cut from a rongorongo tablet. The tablets, like the pectorals, statuettes, and staves, were works of art and valued possessions, and were apparently given individual proper names in the same manner as jade ornaments in New Zealand (Buck 1938:245). Two of the tablets, '''C''' and '''S''', have a documented pre-missionary provenance, though others may be as old or older. There are in addition a few isolated glyphs or short sequences which might prove to be rongorongo (Fischer 1997). ===Classic texts=== Barthel referred to each of 24 texts he accepted as genuine with a letter of the alphabet; two texts have been added to the corpus since then. The two faces of the tablets are distinguished by suffixing '''r''' ([[Recto and verso|recto]]) or '''v''' ([[Recto and verso|verso]]) when the reading sequence can be ascertained, to which the line being discussed is appended. Thus '''Pr2''' is item '''P''' (the Great Saint Petersburg Tablet), recto, second line. When the reading sequence cannot be ascertained, '''a''' and '''b''' are used for the faces. Thus '''Ab1''' is item '''A''' ''(Tahua),'' side '''b''', first line. The six sides of the Snuff Box are lettered as sides '''a''' to '''f'''. {| class=wikitable ! Barthel<br>code !! Fischer<br>code !! Nickname / Description !! Location !! Notes |- ! A | align=center | RR1 || ''[[Rongorongo text A|Tahua]]'' (the Oar) || rowspan=3| [[Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary|Rome]] || 1825 glyphs inscribed on a European or American oar. [[Fraxinus excelsior|Ash]] wood. |- ! B | align=center| RR4 || ''[[Rongorongo text B|Aruku kurenga]]'' || 1135 glyphs on a fluted [[Portia tree|rosewood]] tablet. |- ! C | align=center| RR2 || ''[[Rongorongo text C|Mamari]]'' || 1000 glyphs on an unfluted rosewood tablet. Contains calendrical information; more pictographic than other texts. |- ! D | align=center| RR3 || ''[[Rongorongo text D|Echancrée]]'' || [[Musée de Tahiti et des Îles|Pape‘ete]] || 270 glyphs on an unfluted notched tablet. The tablet first given to Jaussen, as a spool for a cord of hair. The two sides are written in different hands. [[Podocarpus latifolius|Yellowwood]]? |- ! E | align=center| RR6 || ''[[Rongorongo text E|Keiti]]'' || ([[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven|Leuven]]) || 822 glyphs on a fluted tablet. Destroyed by fire in WWI. Casts survive in Washington and Paris. |- ! F | align=center| RR7 || [[Rongorongo text F|Chauvet fragment]] || New York<ref>In the collection of the [http://www.mertonsimpsongallery.com/index3.htm Merton D. Simpson Gallery].</ref> || A fragment with 51 (known) crudely executed glyphs. Palm wood? |- ! G | align=center| RR8 || [[Rongorongo text G|Small Santiago]] || rowspan=3| [[National Museum of Natural History in Chile|Santiago]] || 720 glyphs on a fluted rosewood tablet. The verso may include a genealogy and does not resemble the patterns of other texts. |- ! H | align=center| RR9 || [[Rongorongo text H|Large Santiago]] || 1580 glyphs on a fluted rosewood tablet. Nearly duplicates '''P''' and '''Q'''. |- ! I | align=center| RR10 || [[Rongorongo text I|Santiago staff]] || 2920 glyphs inscribed on a chief's staff. The longest text, and the only one which appears to have punctuation, it only resembles the patterns of '''Gv''' and '''Ta''' among the other texts. |- ! J | align=center| RR20 || [[Rongorongo text J|Large ''reimiro'']] || rowspan=3| [[British Museum|London]] || A breast ornament decorated with 2 glyphs. May be old. |- ! K | align=center| RR19 || [[Rongorongo text K|London]] || 163 crudely executed glyphs paraphrasing '''Gr'''. A small rosewood tablet. |- ! L | align=center| RR21 || [[Rongorongo text L|Small ''reimiro'']] || A breast ornament decorated with a line of 44 glyphs. May be old. Rosewood. |- ! M | align=center| RR24 || [[Rongorongo text M|Large Vienna]] || rowspan=2| [[Vienna Museum of Ethnology|Vienna]] || A rosewood tablet in poor condition. Side '''b''' is destroyed; 54 glyphs are visible on side '''a'''. An early cast preserves more of the text. |- ! N | align=center| RR23 || [[Rongorongo text N|Small Vienna]] || 172 intricately carved glyphs, loosely paraphrasing '''Ev'''. Yellowwood. |- ! O | align=center| RR22 || [[Rongorongo text O|Berlin]] || [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin|Berlin]] || Fluted driftwood with 90 legible glyphs on side '''a'''. In poor condition, none of the glyphs on side '''b''' can be identified. |- ! P | align=center| RR18 || [[Rongorongo text P|Large St&nbsp;Petersburg]] || rowspan=2| [[Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography|St.&nbsp;Petersburg]] || 1163 glyphs inscribed on a European or American oar. Yellowwood. Had been used for planking. Nearly duplicates '''H''' and '''Q'''. |- ! Q | align=center| RR17 || [[Rongorongo text Q|Small St&nbsp;Petersburg]] || 718 glyphs on a fluted rosewood trunk. Nearly duplicates '''H''' and '''P'''. A closeup of '''Qr3–7''' is shown in the [[#top|infobox]]. |- ! R | align=center| RR15 || [[Rongorongo text R|Small Washington]] || rowspan=2| [[National Museum of Natural History|Washington]] || 357 glyphs, nearly all in phrases repeated on other texts. |- ! S | align=center| RR16 || [[Rongorongo text S|Large Washington]] || 600 legible glyphs. Yellowwood. Used for planking. |- ! T | align=center| RR11 || [[Rongorongo text T|Fluted Honolulu]] || rowspan=4| [[Bernice P. Bishop Museum|Honolulu]] || 120 legible glyphs on a fluted tablet. In poor condition, side '''b''' is illegible. |- ! U | align=center| RR12 || [[Rongorongo text U|Honolulu beam]] || 27 legible glyphs on a European or American beam. In poor condition. The two sides are written in different hands. |- ! V | align=center| RR13 || [[Rongorongo text V|Honolulu oar]] || 22 legible glyphs inscribed on a European or American oar. In poor condition. One line of text, plus a separate pair of glyphs, on side '''a'''; traces of text on side '''b'''. |- ! W | align=center| RR14 || [[Rongorongo text W|Honolulu fragment]] || A fragment with 8 glyphs on the one side that has been described. |- ! X | align=center| RR25 || ''[[Rongorongo text X|Tangata manu]]''<br>(New&nbsp;York birdman) || [[American Museum of Natural History|New York]] || A birdman statuette with 37 glyphs in seven scattered texts of superficially inscribed glyphs. |- ! Y | align=center| RR5 || [[Rongorongo text Y|Paris snuffbox]] || [[Musée de l'Homme|Paris]] || Cut and pieced together from 3 planed pieces of a tablet; 85 crude glyphs on outside of box only. Driftwood? |- ! Z | align=center| T4 || [[Rongorongo text Z|''Poike'' palimpsest]] || [[National Museum of Natural History in Chile|Santiago]] || Driftwood? Apparently a palimpsest; Fischer does not consider the legible layer of text to be genuine. |} Crude glyphs have been found on a few stone objects and some additional wooden items, but most of these are thought to be fakes created for the early tourism market. Several of the 26 wooden texts are suspect due to uncertain provenance ('''X''', '''Y''', and '''Z'''), poor quality craftsmanship ('''F''', '''K''', '''V''', '''W''', '''Y''', and '''Z'''), or to having been carved with a steel blade ('''K''', '''V''', and '''Y'''),<ref name="steel"/> and thus, although they may prove to be genuine, should not be trusted in initial attempts at decipherment. '''Z''' resembles many early forgeries in not being boustrophedon, but it may be a [[palimpsest]] on an authentic but now illegible text (Fischer 1997:534). ===Additional texts=== In addition to the petroglyphs mentioned above, there are a few other very short uncatalogued texts that may be rongorongo. Fischer (1997:543) reports that "many statuettes reveal ''rongorongo'' or ''rongorongo''-like glyphs on their crown." He gives the example of a compound glyph, [[Image:Rongorongo mo'ai pakapaka.png|20px]], on the crown of a ''mo‘ai pakapaka'' statuette.<ref>Or perhaps ''mo‘ai pa‘apa‘a.'' Catalog # 402-1, labeled ''моаи папа,'' in the St Petersburg museum.</ref> (Although this compound of glyph '''002''' [[Image:RR 02.png|7px]] inside '''070''' [[Image:RR 70.png|15px]] is not otherwise attested, it is formally analogous to other compounds of glyph '''070'''.) Many human skulls are inscribed with the single glyph '''700''' [[Image:RR 700.png|8px]], which may stand for ''îka'' "war casualty". There are other designs, including some tattoos recorded by early visitors, which are possibly single rongorongo glyphs, but since they are isolated and pictographic, it is difficult to know whether or not they are actually writing. ===Glyphs=== The only published reference to the glyphs which is even close to comprehensive remains Barthel (1958). Barthel assigned a three-digit numeric code to each glyph or group of similar-looking glyphs that he believed to be [[Allography|allograph]]s (variants). In the case of allography, the simple numeric code was assigned to what Barthel believed to be the basic form ''(Grundtypus),'' while variants were specified by alphabetic affixes. He assigned 600 numeric codes. The hundreds place is a numeral from 0 to 7, and categorizes the head, or overall form if there is no head: 0 and 1 for geometric shapes and inanimate objects; 2 for figures with "ears"; 3 and 4 for figures with open mouths (they are differentiated by their legs/tails); 5 for figures with miscellaneous heads; 6 for figures with beaks; and 7 for fish, arthropods, etc. The tens and units numerals were used similarly, so that for example glyphs 206, 306, 406, 506, and 606 all have a downward pointing wing or arm on the left and a raised four-fingered hand on the right: ::[[Image:Barthel code.png|420px]] ::'''Coding''': The first digit distinguishes head and basic body shape, and the six in the unit's place indicates a specific raised hand. There is some arbitrariness to which glyphs are grouped together, and there are inconsistencies in the assignments of numerical codes and the use of affixes which make the system rather complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rongorongo.org/corpus/codes.html |title=RONGORONGO: Transliteration Codes|publisher=www.rongorongo.org|accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref> However, despite its shortcomings, Barthel's is the only effective system ever proposed to categorize rongorongo glyphs (Pozdniakov 1996:294). Barthel (1971) claimed to have parsed the inventory of glyphs to 120, of which the other 480 are allographs or [[Typographical ligature|ligatures]].<ref name=syllable>55 glyphs would be required for a pure syllabary, assuming that long vowels were ignored or treated as vowel sequences. (Macri 1995; see also [[Rapanui language]])</ref> The evidence was never published, but similar figures have been obtained by other scholars, such as Pozdniakov and Pozdniakov (2007). ===Published corpus=== [[Image:Roro-I01frottis.gif|thumb|right|Rubbing of first line of the Santiago Staff, used by Barthel ([[CEIPP]] archives)]] For almost a century only a few of the texts were published. The director of the [[:es:Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Chile|Chilean National Museum of Natural History]] in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], Rudolf Philippi, published the Santiago Staff (Philippi 1875) and Carroll (1892) published part of the Oar. Most texts remained beyond the reach of would-be decipherers until 1958, when Thomas Barthel published line drawings of almost all the known corpus in his ''Grundlagen zur Entzifferung der Osterinselschrift'' ("Bases for the Decipherment of the Easter Island script") which remains the fundamental reference to rongorongo. He transcribed texts '''A''' through '''X''', over 99% of the corpus; the [[CEIPP]] estimates that it is 97% accurate. Barthel's line drawings were not produced free-hand but copied from [[rubbing]]s, whence their faithfulness to the originals. (Guy 2000) Fischer (1997) published new line drawings. These include lines scored with obsidian but not finished with a shark tooth which had not been recorded by Barthel because the rubbings he used did not show them, for example, on tablet '''N'''. (However, in line '''Gv4''' shown in the section on [[#Writing instruments|writing instruments]] above, the light lines were recorded by both Fischer and Barthel.) There are other omissions, such as a sequence of glyphs at the transition from line '''Ca6''' to '''Ca7''' which are missing from Barthel, presumably because the carving went over the side of the tablet and was missed by Barthel's rubbing. (This is right in the middle of Barthel's calendar.) However, other discrepancies are straightforward contradictions. For instance, the initial glyph of '''I12''' (line 12 of the Santiago Staff) in Fischer (1997:451) does not correspond with that of Barthel (1958: Appendix) or Philippi (1875), and Barthel's rubbing, below, is incompatible with Fischer's drawing. Barthel's annotation, ''Original doch <u>53</u>.76!'' ("original indeed <u>53</u>.76!"), suggests that he specifically verified Philippi's reading: ::[[Image:Santiago-Staff-Compare-I12.jpg|left|300px]] {{clear}} In addition, the next glyph (glyph '''20''', a "spindle with three knobs") is missing its right-side "sprout" (glyph '''10''') in Philippi's drawing. This may be the result of an error in the inking, since there is a blank space in its place. The corpus is thus tainted with quite some uncertainty. It has never been properly checked for want of high-quality photographs (Guy 1998a). ==Decipherment== {{main|Decipherment of rongorongo}} As with most undeciphered scripts, there are many fanciful interpretations and claimed translations of rongorongo. However, apart from a portion of one tablet which has been shown to have to do with a [[lunar calendar]], none of the texts are understood. There are three serious obstacles to decipherment, assuming rongorongo is truly writing: the small number of remaining texts, the lack of context such as illustrations in which to interpret them, and the poor attestation of the Old Rapanui language since modern Rapanui is heavily mixed with [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] and is therefore unlikely to closely reflect the language of the tablets (Englert 1970:80). The prevailing opinion is that rongorongo is not true writing but [[proto-writing]], or even a more limited [[mnemonic]] device for genealogy, choreography, navigation, astronomy, or agriculture. For example, the ''Atlas of Languages'' states, "It was probably used as a memory aid or for decorative purposes, not for recording the Rapanui language of the islanders" (Comrie ''et al.'' 1996:100). If this is the case, then there is little hope of ever deciphering it.<ref>Other examples of protowriting, such as the [[Dongba script]] of China, have proved impossible to read without help. However, the original conclusion that rongorongo did not encode language may have been based on spurious statistics. See [[decipherment of rongorongo]] for details.</ref> For those who believe it to be writing, there is debate as to whether rongorongo is essentially [[logographic]] or [[syllabary|syllabic]], though it appears to be compatible with neither a pure logography nor a pure syllabary (Pozdniakov and Pozdniakov, 2007). <center> {| class=wikitable width=500px |- align=center | [[Image:RR 01.png|8px]] || [[Image:RR 02.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 03.png|8px]] || [[Image:RR 04.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 05.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 06.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 07.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 08.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 09.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 10.png|9px]] || [[Image:RR 14.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 15.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 16.png|8px]] |- align=center ! '''01''' || '''02''' || '''03''' || '''04''' || '''05''' || '''06''' || '''07''' || '''08''' || '''09''' || '''10''' || '''14''' || '''15''' || '''16''' |- align=center | [[Image:RR 22.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 25.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 27.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 28.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 34.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 38.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 41.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 44.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 46.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 47.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 50.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 52.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 53.png|12px]] |- align=center ! '''22''' || '''25''' || '''27''' || '''28''' || '''34''' || '''38''' || '''41''' || '''44''' || '''46''' || '''47''' || '''50''' || '''52''' || '''53''' |- align=center | [[Image:RR 59.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 60.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 61.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 62.png|10px]] || [[Image:RR 63.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 66.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 67.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 69.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 70.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 71.png|15px]] || [[Image:RR 74.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 76.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 901.png|15px]] |- align=center ! '''59''' || '''60''' || '''61''' || '''62''' || '''63''' || '''66''' || '''67''' || '''69''' || '''70''' || '''71''' || '''74''' || '''76''' || '''901''' |- align=center | [[Image:RR 91.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 95.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 99.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 200.png|20px]] || [[Image:RR 240.png|28px]] || [[Image:RR 280.png|22px]] || [[Image:RR 380.png|18px]] || [[Image:RR 400.png|22px]] || [[Image:RR 530.png|25px]] || [[Image:RR 660.png|28px]] || [[Image:RR 700.png|12px]] || [[Image:RR 720.png|25px]] || [[Image:RR 730.png|20px]] |- align=center ! '''91''' || '''95''' || '''99''' || '''200''' || '''240''' || '''280''' || '''380''' || '''400''' || '''530''' || '''660''' || '''700''' || '''720''' || '''730''' |- bgcolor=white | colspan=13| This basic inventory of rongorongo, proposed by Pozdniakov and Pozdniakov (2007), accounts for 99.7% of the intact texts, except for the idiosyncratic Staff. |} </center> ==Notes== {{Reflist}} == References == {{ref indent}} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Bahn, Paul}} | year = 1996 | title = Cracking the Easter Island code | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15020344.300-cracking-the-easter-island-code.html | journal = [[New Scientist]] | volume = 150 | issue = 2034 | pages = 36–39 }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Barthel, Thomas S.}} | authorlink = Thomas Barthel | year = 1958 | title = Grundlagen zur Entzifferung der Osterinselschrift (Bases for the Decipherment of the Easter Island Script) | location = Hamburg | publisher = [[Walter de Gruyter|Cram, de Gruyter]] }} : {{ cite journal | author = ———— | year = 1958 | month = June | title = The 'Talking Boards' of Easter Island | journal = [[Scientific American]] | volume = 198 | pages = 61–68 }} : {{ cite journal | author = ———— | year = 1959 | title = Neues zur Osterinselschrift (News on the Easter Island Script) | journal = Zeitschrift für Ethnologie | volume = 84 | pages = 161–172 }} : {{ cite book | author = ———— | year = 1971 | title = Pre-contact Writing in Oceania | series = [http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/BibWeb/LiDat.acgi?ID=39343 Current Trends in Linguistics] | volume = 8 | pages = 1165–1186 | location = Den Haag, Paris | publisher = [[Walter de Gruyter|Mouton]] }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Buck, Peter H.}} | year = 1938 | title = Vikings of the Pacific | location = Chicago | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Carroll, Alan}} | year = 1892 | title = The Easter Island inscriptions, and the translation and interpretation of them | journal = [[Journal of the Polynesian Society]] | volume = 1 | pages = 103–106, 233–252 }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Chauvet, Stéphen-Charles}} | authorlink = Stéphen Chauvet | year = 2004 | origyear = 1935 | title = L'île de Pâques et ses mystères (Easter Island and its Mysteries) | others = on-line translation by Ann Altman | url = http://www.chauvet-translation.com/index.htm | location = Paris | publisher = Éditions Tel }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Comrie, Bernard}} | coauthors = {{aut|Stephen Matthews}}; {{aut|Maria Polinsky}} | year = 1996 | title = The Atlas of Languages | location = London | publisher = Quarto }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Cooke, George H}} | year = 1899 | chapter = ''Te Pito te Henua,'' known as ''Rapa Nui,'' commonly called Easter Island | title = Report of the United States National Museum for 1897 | pages = 689–723 | location = Washington | publisher = [[Government Printing Office]] }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Dederen, François}} | coauthors = {{aut|Steven Roger Fischer}} | year = 1993 | chapter = Traditional Production of the Rapanui Tablets | editor = Fischer | title = Easter Island Studies: Contributions to the History of Rapanui in Memory of William T. Mulloy | series = Oxbow Monograph | volume = 32 | location = Oxford | publisher = [http://www.oxbowbooks.com/ Oxbow Books] }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Englert, Sebastian}} | authorlink = Sebastian Englert | year = 1970 | title = Island at the Center of the World | others = edited and translated by William Mulloy | location = New York | publisher = [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] }} : {{ cite book | author = ———— | year = 1993 | title = La tierra de Hotu Matu‘a — Historia y Etnología de la Isla de Pascua, Gramática y Diccionario del antiguo idioma de la isla (The Land of Hotu Matu‘a: History and Ethnology of Easter Island, Grammar and Dictionary of the Old Language of the Island) | edition = 6th edition | location = Santiago de Chile | publisher = [http://www.universitaria.cl/index.pl Editorial Universitaria] }} : {{ cite book | author = ———— | year = 2002 | origyear = 1980 | title = Legends of Easter Island | others = translation by Ben LeFort and Pilar Pacheco of ''Leyendas de Isla de Pascua (textos bilingües)'' [Santiago de Chile: Ediciones de la Universidad de Chile] | publisher = [[Father Sebastian Englert Anthropological Museum]] | location = Easter Island }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Eyraud, Eugène}} | authorlink = Eugène Eyraud | year = 1886 | title = Annales de la Propagation de la Foi (Annals of the Propagation of the Faith) | pages = 36: 52–71, 124–138. Lyon }} <!--Not ref'd in the tex: {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Fischer, Steven Roger}} | year = 1995 | title = Preliminary Evidence for Cosmogonic Texts in Rapanui's Rongorongo Inscriptions | journal = [[Journal of the Polynesian Society]] | volume = 104 | pages = 303–321 }}--> : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Fischer, Steven Roger}} | year = 1997 | title = RongoRongo, the Easter Island Script: History, Traditions, Texts | location = Oxford and New York | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Flenley, John R.}} | coauthors = {{aut|Paul G. Bahn}} | year = 1992 | title = Easter Island, Earth Island | location = London | publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Guy, Jacques B.M.}} | year = 1998a | title = Un prétendu déchiffrement des tablettes de l'île de Pâques (A purported decipherment of the Easter Island tablets) | journal = [[:fr:Société des océanistes|Journal de la Société des océanistes]] | volume = 106 | pages = 57–63 }} : {{cite web | url = http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rongo2.html | title = Rongorongo: The Easter Island Tablets | accessdate = 2008-04-11 | author = ———— | date = 1998b }} : {{cite web | url = http://www.rongorongo.org/corpus/drawings.html <!--| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070106192759/http://www.rongorongo.org/corpus/drawings.html | archivedate = 2007-01-06 -->| accessdate = 2008-04-20 | title = The Rongorongo of Easter Island: The Hand-Drawn Reproductions | author = ———— | date = 2000 }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Haberlandt, Michael}} | authorlink = :de:Michael Haberlandt | year = 1886 | title = Ueber Schrifttafeln von der Osterinsel (On the written tablets of Easter Island) | journal = [http://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/ag/Mag_allg.htm Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien] | volume = 16 | pages = 97–102 }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Lee, Georgia}} | year = 1992 | title = The Rock Art of Easter Island: Symbols of Power, Prayers to the Gods | location = Los Angeles | publisher = [http://www.ioa.ucla.edu UCLA Institute of Archaeology Publications] }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Macri, Martha J.}} | origyear = 1995 | year = 1996 | chapter = RongoRongo of Easter Island | editor = [[Peter T. Daniels|Daniels]] and [[William Bright|Bright]] | title = [[The World's Writing Systems]] | location = New York, Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 183–188 }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Métraux, Alfred}} | authorlink = Alfred Métraux | year = 1938 | title = Two Easter Island Tablets in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum | journal = [[Man (journal)|Man]] | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–4 | location = London | publisher = [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Anthropological Institute]] | doi = 10.2307/2789179 }} : {{ cite journal | author = ———— | year = 1940 | title = Ethnology of Easter Island | journal = Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin | volume = 160 | location = Honolulu | publisher = [[Bernice P. Bishop Museum]] Press }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|McLaughlin, Shawn}} | year = 2004 | title = Rongorongo and the Rock Art of Easter Island | journal = [http://www.islandheritage.org/rnj.html Rapa Nui Journal] | volume = 18 | pages = 87–94 }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Orliac, Catherine}} | year = 2003/2004 | title = Manifestation de l'expression symbolique en Océanie&nbsp;: l'exemple des bois d'œuvre de l'Ile de Pâques (Manifestation of symbolic expression in Oceania: The example of the woodworking of Easter Island) | series = Cultes, rites et religions | volume = V | pages = (6): 48–53 }} : {{ cite journal | author = ———— | year = 2005 | title = The Rongorongo Tablets from Easter Island: Botanical Identification and <sup>14</sup>C Dating | url = http://legendarysurfers.com/blog/2006/05/rongorongo-tablets.html | journal = [http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/publications/oceania/arch_oceania1.htm Archaeology in Oceania] | volume = 40 | issue = 3 | pages = 115–119 }} : {{ cite journal | author = ———— | year = 2007 | title = Botanical Identification of the Wood of the Large ''Kohau Rongorongo'' Tablet of St Petersburg | journal = [http://www.islandheritage.org/rnj.html Rapa Nui Journal] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–10 }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Philippi, Rudolfo A.}} | year = 1875 | title = Iconografia de la escritura jeroglífica de los indigenas de la isla de Pascua (Iconography of the hieroglyphic writing of the natives of Easter Island) | journal = [http://www2.anales.uchile.cl/CDA/inicio/ Anales de la Universidad de Chile] | volume = 47 | pages = 670–683 }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Pozdniakov, Konstantin}} | year = 1996 | title = Les Bases du Déchiffrement de l'Écriture de l'Ile de Pâques (The Bases of Deciphering the Writing of Easter Island) | url = http://pozdniakov.free.fr/14%20paques%201996.pdf | journal = [[:fr:Société des océanistes|Journal de la Société des océanistes]] | volume = 103 | issue = 2 | pages = 289–303 }} : {{ cite journal | author = {{aut|Pozdniakov, Konstantin}} | coauthors = {{aut|Igor Pozdniakov}} | year = 2007 | title = Rapanui Writing and the Rapanui Language: Preliminary Results of a Statistical Analysis | url = http://pozdniakov.free.fr/16%20Easter%20Island%20english.pdf | journal = [http://www.ehrc.ox.ac.uk/forum.htm Forum for Anthropology and Culture] | volume = 3 | pages = 3–36 }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Routledge, Katherine}} | authorlink = Katherine Routledge | year = 1919 | title = The Mystery of Easter Island: The story of an expedition | url = http://www.archive.org/details/TheMysteryOfEasterIsland | location = London and [[Aylesbury]] | publisher = Hazell, Watson and Viney }} : {{ cite book | author = {{aut|Skjølsvold, Arne}} | year = 1994 | chapter = Archaeological Investigations at Anakena, Easter Island | editor = Arne Skjølsvold | title = Archaeological Investigations at Anakena, Easter Island | series = The Kon Tiki Museum Occasional Papers | volume = 3 | location = Oslo | publisher = [http://www.kon-tiki.no/Ny/Dok_eng/e_start.html Kon-Tiki Museum] | pages = 5–120 }} {{ref indent-end}} ==External links== * [http://www.rongorongo.org/index.html The Rongorongo of Easter Island] – the most complete and balanced description of rongorongo on the internet. * [http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso10646/pdf/rongorongo.pdf Draft Unicode proposal for rongorongo] * ''[http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/easter/rock-art1.php The Rock Art of Rapa Nui]'' by Georgia Lee {{Rongorongo}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Rongorongo| ]] *[[es:Rongo rongo]]<!--This is by far the most complete foreign-language Wikipedia rongorongo article as of June 2008, and includes many researchers too fringe to include here.--> [[da:Rongorongo]] [[de:Rongorongo]] [[eo:Rongorongo]] [[fr:Rongo-Rongo]] [[it:Rongorongo]] [[he:רונגו-רונגו]] [[hu:Rongo-rongo]] [[nl:Rongorongo]] [[no:Rongo-rongo]] [[nn:Rongo-rongo]] [[pl:Rongorongo]] [[pt:Rongorongo]] [[ru:Ронго-ронго]] [[simple:Rongorongo]] [[fi:Rongorongo]] [[th:อักษรรองโก รองโก]] [[chr:ᎶᏃᎶᏃ]]