Rope
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2008-06-27T08:39:25Z
Opryshok
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: ''This article is about non-metallic ropes. For other uses, see [[Rope (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Rope.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coils of rope used for long-line fishing]]
A '''rope''' is a length of [[fiber]]s, twisted or [[braid|braided]] together to improve strength for pulling and [[connecting]]. It has [[tensile strength]] but is too flexible to provide [[compressive strength]] (i.e., it can be used for pulling, not pushing). Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, or twine. Common materials for rope include natural fibers such as [[Manila hemp]], [[hemp]], [[linen]], [[cotton]], [[coir]], [[jute]], and [[sisal]].
[[Synthetic fiber]]s in use for rope-making include [[polypropylene]], [[nylon]], [[polyester]]s (e.g. [[polyethylene terephthalate|PET]], [[Vectran]]), [[polyethylene]] (e.g. [[Dyneema|Spectra]]) and [[Aramid]]s (e.g. [[Twaron]], [[Technora]] and [[Kevlar]]). Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or use co-polymer fibres. Ropes can also be made out of [[metal]] fibers. Ropes have been constructed of other fibrous materials such as [[silk]], [[wool]], and [[hair]], but such ropes are not generally available. [[Rayon]] is a regenerated fiber used to make decorative rope.
Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as [[construction]], [[seafaring]], exploration, sports and communications and has been since [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times. In order to fasten rope, a large number of [[knot]]s have been invented for various uses. [[Pulley]]s are used to redirect the pulling force to another direction, and may be used to create [[mechanical advantage]], allowing multiple strands of rope to share a load and multiply the force applied to the end. [[Winch]]es and [[capstan (nautical)|capstan]]s are machines designed to pull ropes.
==History==
[[Image:Ancient_Egypt_rope_manufacture.jpg|thumb|200px|Ancient Egyptians were the first to document tools for ropemaking]]
[[Image:German Ropemaker, around 1460-1480.png|thumb|200px|A [[Germany|German]] ropemaker, around 1470 AD]]
[[Image:Turku Medieval Markets, twisting rope.jpg|right|thumb|Public demonstration of historical ropemaking technique]]
The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times and has always been essential to mankind's technological progress. It is likely that the earliest "ropes" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fiber, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. [[Fossil|Fossilised]] fragments of "probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter" were found in [[Lascaux]] cave, dating to approximately 17,000 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref name="histsci14">J.C. Turner and P. van de Griend (ed.), ''The History and Science of Knots'' (Singapore: World Scientific, 1996), 14.</ref>
The [[ancient Egypt]]ians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 B.C. and was generally made of water reed fibers. Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibers of [[date palm]]s, [[flax]], [[grass]], [[papyrus]], [[leather]], or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed the [[Egyptians]] to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 B.C., rope made of hemp fibers was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years.
In the Middle Ages (from the thirteenth century to the eighteenth century), from the British Isles to Italy, ropes were constructed in so-called ''rope walks'', very long [[building]]s where strands the full length of the rope were spread out and then ''laid up'' or twisted together to form the rope. The cable length was thus set by the length of the available rope walk. This is related to the unit of [[length]] termed ''[[cable length]]''. This allowed for long ropes of up to 300 yards long or longer to be made. Short ropes are useless on tall ships which require ropes to be long, relatively uniform in diameter, and strong. Short ropes would require [[Rope splicing|splicing]] to make them long. The strongest form of splicing is the short [[Rope splicing|splice]], which doubles the diameter of the rope at the area of the splice. This would cause problems in the rigging hardware such as buckles and pulleys.
[[Leonardo da Vinci]] drew sketches of a concept for a ropemaking machine, but just like many other of his [[invention]]s, they never got built. Nevertheless, remarkable feats of construction were accomplished without advanced technology: In 1586, [[Domenico Fontana]] erected the 327 ton [[obelisk]] on Rome's [[Saint Peter's Square]] with a concerted effort of 900 men, 75 horses, and countless pulleys and meters of rope. By the late 1700s several working machines had been built and patented.
Rope continued to be made from natural fibers until the 1950s when [[synthetic fiber]]s such as nylon became popular.
==Styles of rope construction==
===Laid or twisted rope===
Laid rope, also called ''twisted rope'', is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern [[Western culture|western]] history. Most twisted rope consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a right handed twist. Typically, a three strand laid rope is called a plain or hawser-laid rope. A four strand rope is usually called ''shroud-laid'', and a rope twisted out of 3 or more ropes is called ''cable-laid''.
[[Image:Metters rope serpentine vtm.jpg|thumb|Rope making using the twisted rope method on a 1928 Metters Rope Making Machine]]
Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, [[fiber]]s are gathered and spun to form [[yarn]]s. A number of these yarns are then twisted together to form strands. The strands are then twisted together to form the rope. The twist of the yarn is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the rope. This counter-twisting helps keep the rope together. On the other hand, rope constructed in this manner untwists under tension, which is the cause of spinning, [[kink]]ing, hockling and stretching. Any rope of this type must be [[Whipped rope|bound]] at its end by some means to prevent untwisting. Twisted ropes have a preferred direction for [[coil]]ing. Normal right laid rope should be coiled ''with the sun'', or clockwise, to prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. One of the drawbacks of this construction is that every fiber is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the rope can degrade to numerous inch-long fiber fragments, which is not easily detected visually.
=== Braided rope ===
[[Image:SuperMacro Rope.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Thick decorative rope.]]
[[braid|Braided]] ropes are generally made from [[nylon]], [[polyester]] or [[polypropylene]]. Nylon is chosen for its elastic stretch properties and good resistance to [[ultraviolet]] light. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load, is more abrasion resistant, has better UV resistance, and has less change in length when wet. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on water).
'''Single braid''' consists of even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into a circular pattern with half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock with either [[twill]] or [[plain weave]]. The central void may large or small; in the former case the term '''hollow braid''' is sometimes preferred.
'''Double braid''', also called '''braid on braid''', consists of an inner braid filling the central void in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid fiber is chosen for strength while the outer braid fiber is chosen for abrasion resistance.
In '''solid braid''' the strands all travel the same direction, clockwise or anticlockwise, and alternate between forming the outside of the rope and the interior of the rope. This construction is popular for general purpose utility rope but rare in specialized high performance line.
[[Kernmantle rope]] has a core (kern) of long twisted fibers in the center, with a braided outer sheath or mantle of [[weaving|woven]] fibers. The kern provides most of the strength (about 70%), while the mantle protects the kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots in, and so on). In dynamic climbing line, the core fibers are usually twisted, and chopped into shorter lengths which makes the rope more stretchy. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core fibers and tighter braid, which causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch.
Braided ropes (and objects like garden [[hose (tubing)|hose]]s, [[optical fiber|fiber optic]] or [[coaxial cable|coaxial]] cables, etc.) that have no ''lay'', or inherent twist, will uncoil better if coiled into ''[[figure 8|figure-8]]'' coils, where the twist reverses regularly and essentially cancels out.
=== Other types ===
'''Plaited rope''' is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called ''square braid''. It is not as round as twisted rope and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the material, very flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibers as well, with the same drawbacks as described above. '''Brait rope''' is a combination of braided and plaited, a non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes. Due to its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by [[arborist]]s. It is also the most popular rope for anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered by Yale Cordage.
==Handling rope ==
[[Image:Cordages-mutin.jpg|thumb|Cordage aboard the French training ship ''Mutin'']]
Rope made from [[hemp]], cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or unraveling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine, tape, or heat shrink tubing. The ends of plastic fiber ropes are often melted and fused solid.
If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks.
==Line==
A piece of rope that has a specific purpose is called a line, especially in nautical usage. Examples include clothesline, chalk line, anchor line, stern line, fishing line etc.
==See also==
* [[Jump rope]] or ''rope skipping''
* [[Knot]]
* [[Rope bondage]]
* [[Ropework]]
* [[Rope splicing]]
* [[Tight-rope walking]]
* [[Whipped rope]]
* [[List of spans]]
* [[Twaron]]
* [[Single Rope Technique]]
* [[Flogging]]
==References==
<references/>
==Sources==
*Lane, Frederic Chapin, 1932. ''The Rope Factory and Hemp Trade of Venice in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries'', Journal of Economic and Business History, Vol. 4 No. 4 Suppl. (August 1932).
*Plymouth Cordage Company, 1931. ''The Story of Rope; The History and the Modern Development of Rope-Making'', Plymouth Cordage Company, North Plymouth, Mass.
*Sanctuary, Anthony, 1996.'' Rope, Twine and Net Making'', Shire Publications Ltd., Cromwell House, Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire.
*Teeter, Emily, 1987. ''Techniques and Terminology of Rope-Making in Ancient Egypt'', Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 73 (1987).
*Tyson, William, no date. ''Rope, a History of the Hard Fibre Cordage Industry in the United Kingdom'', Wheatland Journals, Ltd., London
*Smith, Bruce&Padgett, Allen, 1996. ''On Rope. North American Vertical Rope Techniques'', National Speleological Society, Huntsville, Alabama.
*Gaitzsch, W. ''Antike Korb- und Seilerwaren'', Schriften des Limesmuseums Aalen Nr. 38, 1986
*Gubser, T. ''Die bäuerliche Seilerei'', G. Krebs AG, Basel, 1965
*Militzer-Schwenger, L.: ''Handwerkliche Seilherstellung'', Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, 1992
*Nilson, A. ''Studier i svenskt repslageri'', Stockholm, 1961
*Pierer, H.A. ''Universal-Lexikon'', Altenburg, 1845
*Schubert, Pit. ''Sicherheit und Risiko in Fels und Eis'', Munich, 1998
*Strunk, P.; Abels, J. ''Das große Abenteuer 2.Teil'', Verlag Karl Wenzel, Marburg, 1986
*Hearle, John W. S. & O'Hear & McKenna, N. H. A. ''Handbook of Fibre Rope Technology'', CRC Press, 2004
==External links ==
{{commons|Rope}}
*[http://www.ropeloft.co.uk yachting and other synthetic ropes]
*[http://www.spadout.com/wiki/index.php/Climbing_Rope Climbing Ropes]
*[http://www.uponaline.com Learn to walk on rope - Uponaline.com]
*[http://www.myrope.com/boats/ Different Types of Ropes for Boats]
*[http://dmoz.org/Business/Industrial_Goods_and_Services/Industrial_Supply/Rope_and_Rigging/ Open Directory - resource for links related to rope and rigging]
*[http://www.StoryOfRope.org Ropewalk: A Cordage Engineer's Journey Through History]
{{Textile arts}}
[[Category:Climbing equipment]]
[[Category:Primitive technology]]
[[Category:Ropework]]
[[Category:Survival skills]]
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