Saffron
53332
224338587
2008-07-08T12:18:42Z
Loggie
235191
[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 224289676 by [[Special:Contributions/123.201.165.213|123.201.165.213]] ([[User talk:123.201.165.213|talk]])
{{Mergefrom-multiple | History of saffron | Trade and use of saffron | date=June 2008}}
{{otheruses}}{{Taxobox
| name = Saffron crocus
| image = Saffran crocus sativus moist.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A saffron crocus flower with red stigma.
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Iridaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Crocus]]''
| species = '''''C. sativus'''''
| binomial = ''Crocus sativus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Saffron''' ({{pronEng|ˈsæfrən/, /ˈsæfrɒn}}) is a [[spice]] derived from the [[flower]] of the '''saffron crocus''' (''Crocus sativus''), a species of [[crocus]] in the family [[Iridaceae]]. The flower has three [[Carpel|stigma]]s, which are the [[anatomical terms of location|distal]] ends of the plant's [[carpel]]s. Together with its style, the stalk connecting the stigmas to the rest of the plant, these components are often [[food preservation|dried]] and used in [[cooking]] as a [[seasoning]] and [[food coloring|colouring agent]]. Saffron, which has for decades been the world's most expensive spice by weight,<ref name="Rau_53">{{Harvnb|Rau|1969|p=53}}.</ref><ref name="Hill_272">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=272}}.</ref> is native to [[Southwest Asia]].<ref name="Hill_272">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=272}}.</ref><ref name="Grigg_287">{{Harvnb|Grigg|1974|p=287}}.</ref> It was first [[agriculture|cultivated]] in the vicinity of [[Greece]].<ref name="McGee_422">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=422}}.</ref>
Saffron is characterised by a bitter [[basic taste|taste]] and an [[iodoform]]- or [[hay]]-like fragrance; these are caused by the [[chemical]]s [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].<ref name="McGee_423">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=423}}.</ref><ref name="Katzer_2001">{{Harvnb|Katzer|2001}}.</ref> It also contains a [[carotenoid]] dye, [[crocin]], that gives food a rich golden-yellow hue. These traits make saffron a much-sought ingredient in many foods worldwide. Saffron also has [[medicine|medicinal]] applications.
The word ''saffron'' originated from the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''{{lang|fr|safran}}'', which derives from the [[Latin]] word ''{{lang|la|safranum}}''. ''{{lang|la|Safranum}}'' is also related to the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''{{lang|it|zafferano}}'' and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''{{lang|es|azafrán}}''.<ref name="Harper_2001">{{Harvnb|Harper|2001}}.</ref> ''Safranum'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''{{ArabDIN|aṣfar}}'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|أَصْفَر}}), which means "[[yellow]]," via the Persian [[paronym]]ous ''{{ArabDIN|zaʻfarān}}'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|زَعْفَرَان}}).<ref name="Katzer_2001">{{Harvnb|Katzer|2001}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kumar V |title=The Secret Benefits of Spices and Condiments |publisher=Sterling |year=2006 |pages=p. 103 |isbn=1-8455-7585-7 |accessdate=2007-12-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AaTpWEIlgNwC }}</ref>
== Biology ==
{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0em 1em 1em 0em; width: 125px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- bgcolor=#90ee90
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''Saffron crocus morphology'''
|- style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Koeh-194.jpg|center|200px|''Crocus sativus'' (saffron crocus) botanical illustration from ''Kohler's Medicinal Plants'']]
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#f3df5a;" | || → [[Stamen]]s (male organs).
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#f7c9af;" | || → Corolla (whorl of [[petal]]s).
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#bd9655;" | || → [[Corm]] (propagation organ).
|}
The domesticated saffron crocus ''C. sativus'' is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild, and is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] mutant of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}.</ref> According to botanical research, ''C. cartwrightianus'' originated in [[Crete]], not—as was once generally believed—in [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Katzer_2001">{{Harvnb|Katzer|2001}}.</ref> The saffron crocus resulted when ''C. cartwrightianus'' was subjected to extensive [[artificial selection]] by growers who desired elongated stigmas. Being sterile, the saffron crocus's purple flowers fail to produce viable seeds—thus, reproduction is dependent on human assistance: the [[corm]]s (underground bulb-like starch-storing organs) must be manually dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for only one season, reproducing via division into up to ten "cormlets" that eventually give rise to new plants.<ref name="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}.</ref> The corms are small brown globules up to {{convert|4.5|cm}} in diameter and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers.
After a period of [[estivation|aestivation]] in summer, five to eleven narrow and nearly vertical green leaves—growing up to {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} in length—emerge from the ground. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, does it develop its brilliantly hued flowers, ranging from a light pastel shade of [[lilac (color)|lilac]] to a darker and more striated [[mauve]].<ref name="Willard_3">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=3}}.</ref> Upon flowering, it averages less than {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="DPIWE_2005">{{Harvnb|DPIWE|2005}}.</ref> Inside each flower is a three-pronged style; in turn, each prong terminates with a crimson stigma 25–30 [[metre|mm]] in length.<ref name="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}.</ref>
== Cultivation ==
[[Image:Crocus sativus2.jpg|thumb|Two saffron crocus flowers in [[Osaka Prefecture]], [[Japan]].]]
The saffron crocus thrives in climates similar to that of the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland| maquis]] or the [[North America]]n [[chaparral]], where hot, dry summer breezes blow across arid and semi-arid lands. Nevertheless, the plant can tolerate cold winters, surviving frosts as cold as {{convert|-10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.<ref name="Willard_2-3">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp= 2–3}}.</ref><ref name ="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p= 1}}.</ref> However, if not grown in wet environments like Kashmir (where rainfall averages 1000–1500 mm annually), [[irrigation]] is needed—this is true in the saffron-growing regions of Greece (500 mm of rainfall annually) and Spain (400 mm). Rainfall timing is also key: generous spring rains followed by relatively dry summers are optimal. In addition, rainfall occurring immediately prior to flowering also boosts saffron yields; nevertheless, rainy or cold weather occurring ''during'' flowering promotes disease, thereby reducing yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions also harm yields,<ref name= "Deo_2">{{Harvnb |Deo|2003|p=2}}.</ref> as do the digging actions of rabbits, rats, and birds. Parasites such as [[roundworm|nematodes]], leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot also pose significant threats.<ref name="Deo_3">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}.</ref>
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0em 1em 1em 0em; width: 213px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#90ee90
| colspan="2" | '''Saffron crocus flower yields<sup>[*]</sup> of smaller producers'''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#eeffee
| Country || Yield ([[kilogram|kg]]/[[hectare|ha]])
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Spain]]||6–29
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Italy]]||10–16
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Greece]]||4–7
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[India]]||2–7
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Morocco]]||2.0–2.5
|- align="center" bgcolor=#eeffee
| colspan="2" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#eeffee
| colspan="2" | [*]—Yields specify flower weight, not final dry saffron weight.
|}
Saffron plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight, and fare poorly in shady conditions. Thus, planting is best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i.e. south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere), maximizing the crocuses' sun exposure. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], planting is mostly done in June, with corms planted some 7–15 cm deep. Planting depth and corm spacing—along with climate—are both critical factors impacting plant yields. Thus, mother corms planted more deeply yield higher-quality saffron, although they produce fewer flower buds and daughter corms. With such knowledge, Italian growers have found that planting corms {{cm to in|15|spell=commonwealth}} deep and in rows spaced 2–3 cm apart optimizes threads yields, whereas planting depths of 8–10 cm optimizes flower and corm production. Meanwhile, Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers have devised different depths and spacings to suit their own climates.<ref name = "Deo_2">{{Harvnb |Deo|2003| p = 2}}.</ref>
Saffron crocuses grow best in [[friable]], loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Raised beds are traditionally used to promote good drainage. Historically, soil organic content was boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes of manure per [[hectare]]. Afterwards—and with no further manure application—corms were planted.<ref name="Deo_3">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}.</ref> After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do the plants begin to flower. Harvesting of flowers is by necessity a speedy affair: after their flowering at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.<ref name = "Willard_3-4">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|pp=3–4}}.</ref> Furthermore, saffron crocuses bloom within a narrow window spanning one or two weeks.<ref name="Willard_4">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=4}}.</ref> Approximately 150 flowers yield 1 [[gram|g]] of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g of dried saffron (72 g freshly harvested), 1 kg of flowers are needed (1 lb for 0.2 oz of dried saffron). On average, one freshly picked flower yields 0.03 g of fresh saffron, or 0.007 g of dried saffron.<ref name="Deo_3">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}.</ref>
== Chemistry ==
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em; width: 213px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''[[Crocin]] formation'''
|- align="center" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|right|225px|α–crocin formation mechanism]]<br/>[[Esterification|Esterification reaction]] between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]].
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:7px; height:10px; background:#A6CAF0;" | || — [[Anomer|β]]-[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose.
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:7px; height:10px; background:#000000;" | || — Crocetin.
|}
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0em 1em 1em 0em; width: 200px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''Picrocrocin and safranal'''
|- align="center" style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#111111;"
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:Picrocrocin safranal highlighted.png|right|200px|Picrocrocin, with the safranal moiety shaded with saffron colour.]]<br/>Chemical structure of [[picrocrocin]].<ref name="Deo_4">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=4}}.</ref>
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:25px; height:10px; background:#F5D76C;" | || — [[Safranal]] [[moiety]].
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:25px; height:10px; background:#AEAEFF;" | || — [[Anomer|β]]-[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative.
|}
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref> many of which are carotenoids, including [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], and various α- and β-[[carotene]]s. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]] ([[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]]: 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid). This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref> Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref> Meanwhile, crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[hydrophile|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses (which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]]), a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based (non-fatty) foods such as rice dishes.<ref name="McGee_422">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=422}}.</ref>
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0em 1em 1em 0em; width: 213px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''Chemical composition of saffron'''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| align="center" | Component || Mass %
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[carbohydrate]]s|| align="center" | 12.0–15.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[water (molecule)|water]] || align="center" | 9.0–14.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[peptide|polypeptides]] || align="center" | 11.0–13.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[cellulose]] || align="center" | 4.0–7.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[lipid]]s || align="center" | 3.0–8.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[mineral]]s || align="center" | 1.0–1.5
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|miscellaneous<br/>non-[[nitrogen]]ous|| align="center" | 40.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Dharmananda|2005}}''
|}
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em; width: 175px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" |'''Proximate analysis of saffron'''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC align="center"
| align="center" | Component || width="50" | Mass %
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|Water-soluble components|| align="center" | 53.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → [[Natural gum|Gums]]|| align="center" | 10.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → Pentosans|| align="center" | 8.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → [[Pectin]]s|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → [[Starch]]|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → [[Crocin|α–Crocin]]|| align="center" | 2.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → Other [[carotenoid]]s|| align="center" | 1.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Lipid]]s|| align="center" | 12.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → Non-volatile oils|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → Volatile oils|| align="center" | 1.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Protein]]|| align="center" | 12.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|Inorganic matter ("ash")|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
| → [[hydrochloric acid|HCl]]-soluble ash|| align="center" | 0.5
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Water]]|| align="center" | 10.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Natural fiber|Fiber]] (crude)|| align="center" | 5.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=46}}''
|}
The bitter [[glucoside]] picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>26</sub>O<sub>7</sub>; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1- carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Significantly, picrocrocin is a truncated version (produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage) of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal. The reddish-coloured<ref name="Leffingwell_1">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=1}}.</ref> zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the [[retina]] of the human [[eye]].
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.<ref name="Deo_4">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=4}}.</ref> Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.<ref name="McGee_423">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=423}}.</ref><ref name="Dharmananda">{{Harvnb|Dharmananda|2005}}.</ref> Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.<ref name="Leffingwell_1">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=1}}.</ref> A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".<ref name="Leffingwell_2001_3">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=3}}.</ref> Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal.<ref name="Leffingwell_2001_3">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=3}}.</ref> Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of [[light]] and [[redox|oxidizing]] agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
''Crocus sativus'' has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active ingredients are [[crocin]] and [[safranal]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043148643
|title=Antidepressant effect of ''Crocus sativus'' L. stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice.
|publisher=www.cababstractsplus.org
|accessdate=2008-03-02
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
== History ==
[[Image:Saffron gatherers detail Thera Santorini.gif|thumb|left|A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of many dealing with saffron that were found at the bronze age settlement of Akrotiri, [[Santorini]].]]
{{main|History of saffron}}
The history of saffron cultivation reaches back more than 3,000 years.<ref name="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}.</ref> The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was ''Crocus cartwrightianus''. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas. Thus, a sterile mutant form of ''C. cartwrightianus'', ''C. sativus'', emerged in late [[Bronze Age]] [[Crete]].<ref name="Goyns_1">{{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=1}}.</ref> Experts believe saffron was first documented in a 7th century [[Before Christ|BC]] [[Assyria]]n botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]]. Since then, documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.<ref name="Honan_2004">{{Harvnb|Honan|2004}}.</ref> Saffron has been used as a spice and medicine in the Mediterranean region since then, with usage and cultivation slowly spreading to other parts of Eurasia as well as [[North Africa]] and [[North America]]. In the last several decades, saffron cultivation has spread to [[Oceania]].
=== Mediterranean ===
[[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC, showing saffron's use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name="Ferrence">{{Harvnb|Ferrence|2004|p=1}}.</ref><ref name= "Honan_2004">{{Harvnb |Honan|2004}}.</ref> Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]]. There, adventurers hoped to procure what they believed was the world's most valuable saffron.<ref name= "Willard_2-3">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=2–3}}.</ref> Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus.<ref name= "Willard_2">{{Harvnb | Willard |2001|p=2}}.</ref> Ancient Mediterranean peoples—including perfumers in [[Egypt]], physicians in [[Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],<ref name="Willard_58">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 58}}.</ref> and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans—used saffron in their perfumes, ointments,<ref name = "Willard_41">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=41}}.</ref> potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and medical treatments.<ref name="Willard_41">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=41}}.</ref>
[[Image:Man gathering saffron Knossos Crete crocus sativus fresco.jpg|thumb|right|This ancient [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] fresco from [[Knossos]], [[Crete]] shows a monkey (stooped blue figure) gathering the saffron harvest.]]
In late [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] Egypt, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.<ref name="Willard_55">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p = 55}}.</ref> Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.<ref name="Willard_34-35">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=34–35}}.</ref> Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]] cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]].<ref name= "Willard_59">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p=59}}.</ref> [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].<ref>Celsus, de Medicina, ca. 30 AD, transl. Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1935 [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/home.html]</ref> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th century AD [[Moors]] or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.<ref name= "Willard_63">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p= 63}}.</ref>
=== Asia ===
[[Image:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|left|The 17.8 [[Metre|m]] [[monolith]] of [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Tirthankara]] [[Bhagavan]] [[Gomateshwara]] [[Bahubali]], which was carved between 978–993 AD and is located in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[India]], is anointed with saffron every 12 years by thousands of devotees as part of the [[Mahamastakabhisheka]] festival.]]
Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric beasts in what is today [[Iraq]].<ref name="Willard_2">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=2}}.</ref><ref name = "Humphries_20">{{Harvnb |Humphries|1998|p = 20}}.</ref> Later, the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.<ref name="Willard_12">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=12}}.</ref> Saffron was thus an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Saffron was also honored in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Song of Solomon]].<ref name = "Humphries_19">{{Harvnb |Humphries|1998|p=19}}.</ref> Ancient [[Persians]] cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and [[Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,<ref name = "Willard_2">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p= 2}}.</ref> ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.<ref name="Willard_17-18">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=17–18}}.</ref> Thus, saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of [[melancholy]]. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name ="Willard_41">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 41}}.</ref> During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops mimicked the practice and brought saffron-bathing back to Greece.<ref name="Willard_54-55">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=54–55}}.</ref>
Theories explaining saffron's arrival in [[South Asia]] conflict. Traditional [[Kashmir]]i and [[China|Chinese]] accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.<ref name = "Lak_1998b">{{Harvnb |Lak| 1998b}}.</ref><ref name="Fotedar_128">{{Harvnb|Fotedar|1998–1999|p= 128}}.</ref> Meanwhile, historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,<ref name = "McGee_422">{{Harvnb |McGee|2004|p= 422}}.</ref> attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks<ref name="Dalby_2003_256">{{Harvnb|Dalby|2003|p= 256}}.</ref> or to a Persian invasion and colonization of [[Kashmir]]. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy.<ref name ="Willard_41">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 41}}.</ref> From there, saffron use in foods and dyes spread throughout South Asia. For example, [[Buddhist]] monks in [[India]] adopted saffron-coloured robes after the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Siddhartha Gautama]]'s death.<ref name="Tarvand_2005">{{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005}}.</ref> However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]]. <ref>Finlay, Victoria. "Color; A Natural History of the Palette", page 224. Random House 2002.</ref>
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia.<ref name = "Fletcher_2005_11">{{harvnb |Fletcher|2005| p = 11}}.</ref> On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''Shennong Bencaojing'' (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as ''Pen Ts'ao'' or ''Pun Tsao'') pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC<!--From Hayes 2001 (needs to be further verified): around 2735 BC-->. <!--From Hayes 2001: Written by-->Traditionally attributed to the legendary ''Yan'' ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) [[Shennong]], it documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.<ref name = "Hayes_6">{{Harvnb |Hayes|2001| p = 6}}.</ref><ref name="SNL_2005">{{Harvnb|Shen-Nong Limited| 2005}}.</ref><ref name="Tarvand_2005">{{Harvnb|Tarvand| 2005}}.</ref> Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise [[wine]]."{{inote|{{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=2002 |title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices
|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-23674-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=7IHcZ21dyjwC |accessdate=2006-01-10 |pages= p. 95}}}}
=== Europe ===
[[Image:Thomas Becket Murder.JPG|thumb|right|Medieval European [[illuminated manuscript]]s, such as this 13th century depiction of [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Becket]]'s assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of [[yellow]] and [[orange (color)|orange]].]]
In [[Europe]], saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron was reintroduced when Moorish civilization spread to [[Al-Andalus|Spain]], France, and Italy.<ref name="Willard_70">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=70}}.</ref> During the 14th century [[Black Death]], demand for saffron-based medicine skyrocketed, and much saffron had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands<ref name="Willard_99">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=99}}.</ref> such as [[Rhodes]]. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".<ref name="Willard_99">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=99}}.</ref> The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in [[Basel]], which grew prosperous.<ref name="Willard_101">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=101}}.</ref> Cultivation and trade then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where epidemic levels of saffron adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code, under which saffron adulterers were fined, imprisoned, and executed.<ref name="Willard_103-104">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=103–104}}.</ref> Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially [[Norfolk]] and [[Suffolk]]. The Essex town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center. However, an influx of more exotic spices such as [[chocolate]], [[coffee]], [[tea]], and [[vanilla]] from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.<ref name="Willard_117">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=117}}.</ref><ref name="Willard_132-133">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=132–133}}.</ref> Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation endure.<ref name="Willard_133">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=133}}.</ref>
Europeans brought saffron to the [[Americas]] when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe.<ref name="Willard_143">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=143}}.</ref> By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] were cultivating saffron throughout eastern [[Pennsylvania]]. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the [[Philadelphia]] commodities exchange was set equal to that of [[gold]].<ref name="Willard_138">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=138}}.</ref> The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the [[War of 1812]], when many saffron-transporting merchant vessels were destroyed.<ref name="Willard_138-139">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=138–139}}.</ref> Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.<ref name="Willard_142-146">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=142–146}}.</ref> American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="Willard_143">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=143}}.</ref>
== Trade and use ==
[[Image:ValencianPaella.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the [[cuisine of Spain|Spanish]] ''[[paella|paella valenciana]]'', and is responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring.]]
:{{main|Trade and use of saffron}}
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with [[grass]]y or [[hay]]-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in [[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian]] ([[Persian cuisine|Persian]]), [[Arab cuisine|Arab]], Central [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], [[European cuisine|European]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]],[[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], [[Cuisine of Morocco|Moroccan]] and [[Cornwall|Cornish]] cuisines. Confectionaries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa''). Medicinally, saffron has a long history as part of traditional healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having [[anticarcinogen]]ic (cancer-suppressing),<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref> anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and [[antioxidant]]-like properties.<ref name="Assimopoulou_2005">{{Harvnb|Assimopoulou|2005|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Chang">{{Harvnb|Chang|Kuo|Wang|1964|p=1}}.</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in [[China]] and [[India]], and in perfumery.
{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em; width: 300px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- bgcolor=#ff8888
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''World saffron cultivation patterns'''
|- style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Saffron crocus sativus modern world production.png|center|300px|A map showing the primary saffron-producing nations.]]<br/><center>A map showing the primary saffron-producing nations.</center>
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#800000;" | || — Major growing regions.
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#ff0000;" | || — Major producing nations.
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ff5555;" | || — Minor growing regions.
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ffaeae;" | || — Minor producing nations.
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#8080ff;" | || — Major trading centres (current).
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#97cbff;" | || — Major trading centres (historical).
|}
Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300 tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide.<ref name="Katzer_2001">{{Harvnb|Katzer|2001}}.</ref> [[Iran]] ranks first in the world production of saffron, with more than 81 percent of the world yield.<ref>www.FAO.org</ref> Iran's annual saffron production is expected to hit 300 tons by the end of the nation's Fourth Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan in 2009. Other minor producers of saffron are [[Spain]], [[India]], [[Greece]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Morocco]], and [[Italy]]. A pound of dry saffron (0.45 kg) requires 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of a football field's area of cultivation.<ref name="Hill_273">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=273}}.</ref><ref name="Rau_35">{{Harvnb|Rau|1969|p=35}}.</ref> Some forty hours of frenetic day-and-night labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref name="Lak_1998">{{Harvnb|Lak|1998}}.</ref> Upon extraction, stigmas are dried quickly and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.<ref name="Goyns_8">{{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=8}}.</ref> Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500/pound to US$5,000/pound (US$1100–US$11,000 per kilogram)—equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilo. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2200/£1100/€1550 per kilogram).<ref name="Hill_272">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=272}}.</ref> A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, recent harvest date, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
== Cultivars ==
[[Image:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran.]]
Several saffron [[cultivar]]s are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are more potent, while the most intense varieties tend to be [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonian Greek]] ([[Krokos]] [[Kozani]]s), [[Iran]]ian, and [[India]]n in origin. Westerners may face significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some [[organically grown]]. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities.<ref name="Willard_143">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=143}}.</ref><ref name="Willard_201">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=201}}.</ref>
[[Image:Red-crocus-thread-greek-v2.jpg|thumb|right|Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about {{mm to in|20}}.]]
Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (''zafferano dell'Aquila'')—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition-era]] Spain. But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, [[Sardinia]]. There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.
== Grades ==
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0em 1em 1em 0em; width: 208px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#CDC0B0
! colspan="2" | Minimum saffron colour<br/> grading standards ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632)
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| ISO Grade<br/>(category) || Crocin-specific<br/>[[absorbance]] (<math>A_\lambda</math>) score<br/>(at λ=440 [[nanometer|nm]])
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| I || > 190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| II || 150–190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| III || 110–150
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| IV || 80–110
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}
Saffron types are graded by quality according to laboratory measurements of such characteristics as crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Other metrics include floral waste content (i.e. the saffron spice sample's non-stigma floral content) and measurements of other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash"). A uniform set of international standards in saffron grading was established by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], which is an international federation of national standards bodies. Namely, ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron. It establishes four empirical grades of colour intensity: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Saffron samples are then assigned to one of these grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, which is revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic [[absorbance]]. Absorbance is defined as <math>A_\lambda = -\log(I/I_0)</math>, with <math>A_\lambda</math> as absorbance ([[Beer-Lambert law]]). It is a measure of a given substance's transparency (<math>I/I_0</math>, the ratio of light intensity passing through sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em; width: 160px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#CDC0B0
! colspan="2" | Spanish federal saffron<br/>grading standards
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| Grade || [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] score
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Coupe'' || > 190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''La Mancha'' || 180–190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Río'' || 150–180
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Standard'' || 145–150
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Sierra'' || < 110
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}
For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific [[photon]] [[wavelength]] of 440 [[nanometer|nm]] in a given dry sample of spice.<ref name="Tarvand_2005b"> {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}.</ref> Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores.<ref name="Tarvand_2005b"> {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}.</ref> However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters.<ref name="Hill_274">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=274}}.</ref>
Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.<ref name="Willard_102-104">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=102–104}}.</ref> Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beet]], pomegranate fibers, red-dyed [[silk]] fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades.<ref name="Tarvand_2005">{{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005}}.</ref> Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.<ref name="ABC">{{Harvnb|Australian Broadcasting Corporation|2003}}.</ref><ref name="Hussain">{{Harvnb|Hussain|2005}}.</ref>
== Notes ==
[[Image:Crocus sativus1.jpg|thumb|right|Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in [[Osaka Prefecture]] (大阪府), [[Kansai]], [[Honshū]], [[Japan]].]]
[[Image:Crocus sativus sahuran.jpg|thumb|right|A saffron crocus flower.]]
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Australian Broadcasting Corporation
| Surname1 = Australian Broadcasting Corporation
| Year = 2003
| Title = Kashmiri saffron producers see red over Iranian imports
| Journal = [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
| URL = http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200311/s982047.htm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Abdullaev
| Given1 = FI
| Year = 2002
| Title = Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of saffron (''Crocus sativus L.'')
| Journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine
| Volume = 227
| Issue = 1
| URL = http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20
| Access-date =[[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}. PMID 11788779
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Assimopoulou
| Given1 = AN
| Surname2 = Papageorgiou
| Given2 = VP
| Surname3 = Sinakos
| Given3 = Z
| Year = 2005
| Title = Radical scavenging activity of ''Crocus sativus L.'' extract and its bioactive constituents
| Journal = Phytotherapy Research
| Volume = 19
| Issue = 11
}}. PMID 16317646
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Chang
| Given1 = PY
| Surname2 = Kuo
| Given2 = W, Liang, CT
| Surname3 = Wang
| Given3 = CK
| Year = 1964
| Title = The pharmacological action of 藏红花 (''zà hóng huā''—''Crocus sativus L.''): effect on the uterus and/or estrous cycle
| Journal = Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao
| Volume = 11
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Courtney
| Given1 = P
| Year = 2002
| Title = Tasmania's Saffron Gold
| Journal = Landline (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)
| URL = http://www.abc.net.au/landline/stories/s556192.htm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Dalby
| Given1 = A
| Year = 2003
| Title = Food in the Ancient World from A to Z
| Publisher = Routledge (UK)
| ID = ISBN 0-415-23259-7
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Darling Biomedical Library
| Surname1 = Darling Biomedical Library
| Year = 2002
| Title = Saffron
| Journal = Darling Biomedical Library (UCLA)
| URL = http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=22
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Davies
| Given1 = NW
| Surname2 = Gregory
| Given2 = MJ
| Surname3 = Menary
| Given3 = RC
| Year = 2005
| Title = Effect of drying temperature and air flow on the production and retention of secondary metabolites in saffron
| Journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
| Volume = 53
| Issue = 15
}}. PMID 16028982
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Deo
| Given1 = B
| Year = 2003
| Title = Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice
| Journal = Crop & Food Research (New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research)
| Issue = 20
| URL = http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/020Saffron.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Dharmananda
| Given1 = S
| Year = 2005
| Title = Saffron: An Anti-Depressant Herb
| Journal = Institute for Traditional Medicine
| URL = http://www.itmonline.org/arts/saffron.htm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = DPIWE (Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment)
| Surname1 = DPIWE
| Year = 2005
| Title = Emerging and Other Fruit and Floriculture: Saffron
| Journal = Food & Agriculture
| URL = http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/EGIL-5K63X8?open#Saffron
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Ferrence
| Given1 = SC
| Year = 2004
| Title = Therapy with saffron and the Goddess at Thera
| Journal = Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
| Volume = 47
| Issue = 2
}}. PMID 15259204
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Fletcher
| Given1 = N
| Year = 2005
| Title = Charlemagne's Tablecloth: A Piquant History of Feasting
| Publisher = St. Martin's Press
| ID = ISBN 0-312-34068-0
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Fotedar
| Given1 = S
| Year = 1998–1999
| Title = Cultural Heritage of India—Kashmiri Pandit Contribution
| Journal = Vitasta (Kashmir Sabha)
| Volume = XXXII
| Issue = 1
| URL = http://www.ikashmir.org/pdf/Vitasta1998-1999.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Goyns
| Given1 = MH
| Year = 1999
| Title = Saffron
| Publisher = Taylor & Francis
| ID = ISBN 90-5702-394-6
| URL = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=l-QJaUp31T4C
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Grigg
| Given1 = DB
| Year = 1974
| Title = The Agricultural Systems of the World
| Publisher = Cambridge University Press
| ID = ISBN 0-521-09843-2
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Harper
| Given1 = D
| Year = 2001
| Title = Saffron
| Journal = Online Etymology Dictionary
| URL = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron&searchmode=none
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Hasegawa
| Given1 = JH
| Surname2 = Kurumboor
| Given2 = SK
| Surname3 = Nair
| Given3 = SC
| Year = 1995
| Title = Saffron chemoprevention in biology and medicine: a review
| Journal = Cancer Biotherapy
| Volume = 10
| Issue = 4
}}. PMID 8590890
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Hayes
| Given1 = AW
| Year = 2001
| Title = Principles and Methods of Toxicology
| Publisher = Taylor & Francis
| ID = ISBN 1-56032-814-2
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Hill
| Given1 = T
| Year = 2004
| Title = The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen
| Publisher = Wiley
| ID = ISBN 0-471-21423-X
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Honan
| Given1 = WH
| Year = 2004
| Title = Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine
| Journal = The New York Times
| URL = http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600&en=c3177ebac2572d43&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Humphries
| Given1 = J
| Year = 1998
| Title = The Essential Saffron Companion
| Publisher = Ten Speed Press
| ID = ISBN 1-58008-024-3
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Hussain
| Given1 = A
| Year = 2005
| Title = Saffron Industry in Deep Distress
| Journal = BBC News
| URL = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4216493.stm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Jessie
| Given1 = SW
| Surname2 = Krishnakantha
| Given2 = TP
| Year = 2005
| Title = Inhibition of human platelet aggregation and membrane lipid peroxidation by food spice, saffron
| Journal = Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry
| Volume = 278
| Issue = 1–2
}}. PMID 16180089
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Katzer
| Given1 = G
| Year = 2001
| Title = Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
| Journal = Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages
| URL = http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Croc_sat.html
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Lak
| Given1 = D
| Year = 1998
| Title = Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron
| Journal = BBC News
| URL = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Lak
| Given1 = D
| Year = 1998b
| Title = Gathering Kashmir's Saffron
| Journal = BBC News
| URL = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Leffingwell
| Given1 = JC
| Year = 2002
| Title = Saffron
| Journal = Leffingwell Reports
| Volume = 2
| Issue = 5
| URL = http://www.leffingwell.com/download/saffron.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = McGann
| Given1 = K
| Year = 2003
| Title = What the Irish Wore: A Few Arguments on the Subject of Saffron
| Journal = Reconstructing History
| URL = http://www.reconstructinghistory.com/irish/saffron.html
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = McGee
| Given1 = H
| Year = 2004
| Title = On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
| Publisher = Scribner
| ID = ISBN 0-684-80001-2
| URL = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=iX05JaZXRz0C
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Nair
| Given1 = SC
| Surname2 = Pannikar
| Given2 = B
| Surname3 = Panikkar
| Given3 = KR
| Year = 1991
| Title = Antitumour activity of saffron (''Crocus sativus'').
| Journal = Cancer Letters
| Volume = 57
| Issue = 2
}}. PMID 2025883
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Park
| Given1 = JB
| Year = 2005
| Title = Saffron
| Journal = USDA Phytochemical Database
| URL = http://www.pl.barc.usda.gov/usda_supplement/supplement_detail_b.cfm?chemical_id=140
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Pearce
| Given1 = F
| Year = 2005
| Title = Returning war-torn farmland to productivity
| Journal = New Scientist
| URL = http://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg18524831.000.html
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Rau
| Given1 = SR
| Year = 1969
| Title = The Cooking of India
| Publisher = Time Life Education
| ID = ISBN 0-8094-0069-3
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Shen-Nong Limited
| Surname1 = Shen-Nong Limited
| Year = 2005
| Title = Qin Dynasty 221–207 B.C.
| Journal = Shen-Nong
| URL = http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/shen-nong/history/qinhan/qinhan.htm
| Access-date = [[April 1]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Tarvand Saffron
| Surname1 = Tarvand
| Year = 2005
| Title = What is Saffron?
| Journal = Tarvand Saffron Company
| URL = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/saffron.htm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Tarvand Saffron
| Surname1 = Tarvand
| Year = 2005b
| Title = Grading and Classification
| Journal = Tarvand Saffron Company
| URL = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/classification.htm
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Last1 = Willard
| Given1 = P
| Year = 2001
| Title = Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice
| Publisher = Beacon Press
| ID = ISBN 0-8070-5008-3
| URL = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=WsUaFT7l3QsC
| Access-date = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{ cite web
|author = Donovan
|url = http://www.lyricsdepot.com/donovan/mellow-yellow.html
|title = Donovan - Mellow Yellow Lyrics
|accessdate = 2007-09-28
|year = 1967
|work = Lyrics Depot
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070713093411/http://www.lyricsdepot.com/donovan/mellow-yellow.html
|archivedate = 2007-07-13
}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Commons-inline|Crocus sativus}}
*[http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318 ''Crocus sativus'' List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)]
{{Dyeing}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Arabic loanwords]]
[[Category:Iridaceae]]
[[Category:Chemopreventive agents]]
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Saffron| ]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Minoan civilization]]
{{Link FA|af}}
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|tr}}
[[af:Saffraan]]
[[ar:زعفران]]
[[bg:Шафран]]
[[ca:Safrà]]
[[cs:Šafrán setý]]
[[da:Safran]]
[[de:Safran]]
[[et:Safran]]
[[el:Κρόκος]]
[[es:Crocus sativus]]
[[eo:Safrano]]
[[fa:زعفران]]
[[fr:Safran (épice)]]
[[id:Kuma-kuma]]
[[it:Crocus sativus]]
[[he:זעפרן]]
[[la:Safranum]]
[[ms:Koma-koma]]
[[nl:Saffraan]]
[[ja:サフラン]]
[[no:Safran]]
[[pl:Szafran]]
[[pt:Açafrão]]
[[ru:Шафран]]
[[sl:Pravi žafran]]
[[sr:Шафран]]
[[fi:Sahrami]]
[[sv:Saffran]]
[[th:หญ้าฝรั่น]]
[[tr:Safran]]
[[ur:کیسر]]
[[zh:番紅花]]